UNDERSTANDING MANDALA The Translation of Spiritual Ideologies into Physical Realities

Moondeep Pradhananga December 10, 2011

Abstract The act of Being has always been an issue of serious philosophical discourse and it has been reflected in diverse forms through various spiritual ideologies. The paper focusses on how the Hindu and Buddhist ideologies have culminated in Kathmandu defining our understanding of Being and Reality. The paper will look into how Mandala graphically communicates these ideologies and how it has been part of the living and the built environment in Kathmandu for thousands of years. The paper specifically looks into how Mandala relates the various planes of existence from the individual body to the city structure as a whole to the overall system of cosmos and what it intends to achieve by doing so.

Table of Contents 1) Background 2) Introduction 3) Mandala, Exploring Self 4) Mandala and The Spiritual Sanctuaries 5) Vaastupurush Mandala, An Ancient Art of Building 6) Tantric Mandala, Safeguarding Social Realms 7) Conclusion

Background Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal; roughly about two hundred square mile valley in mid-eastern region of Nepal. It has a temperate climate with a current population of about three million. The native community of Kathmandu valley is called Newar which is a mixture of Hindu and Buddhist community. The culture evident in the valley is therefore an amalgamation of both Hindu and Buddhist origin. The oral history of the Newars in the valley dates back to as early as 3oo B.C. when Kirat dynasty ruled the valley, while the recorded history dates back to 500 A.D1. The valley consisted of three major towns, now three municipalities, which are Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. All these three cities are included in the UNESCO world heritage sites. The valley has a

strong cultural history and vernacular architecture based on strong geometry.

Figure 1 Kathmandu Valley Map

David N. Gellner, Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest: Newar Buddhism and its hierarchy of ritual, (Cambridge University Press, 1992) Pg. 5

Introduction Newars are the native of the Kathmandu which are originally Hindus, but are also extensively influenced by Buddhist doctrines. There are three cities within the Kathmandu Valley of which Patan is predominantly Buddhist whereas Kathmandu and Bhaktapur are mostly Hindus2. Newars believe the entire universe as a huge organism made up of earth, havens and Hells created by Brahma, the god of creation. Living beings are trapped in the cyclical nature of birth and death travelling through various life-forms3. The main objective of religious life of Newar is overcoming the cyclical pattern and achieving Moksha or Liberation and to reunite with Brahma4. Mandala is a sacred allegorical diagram that represent the nature and order of the universe; an all encompassing map of the cosmos which is designed to attain Moksha5. While, Thomas Hopkins describes Mandala more than an allegorical map, and describes it as microcosm of reality.

Whether composed of pictographic or geometric elements, they are simultaneously cosmograms, religiograms, sociograms and psychograms revealing the normally hidden system of correlations between the planes of existence: the cosmos, deities, the human, social world, and the body and psyche of individual6.

2 3

David N. Gellner, Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest: Newar Buddhism and its hierarchy of ritual, (Cambridge University Press, 1992) Pg. 5 Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 9-12 4 John Gray, Domestic Mandala: Architecture of Lifeworlds in Nepal, (Ashgate, 2006), Pg.3 5 Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of Mandala: With Special Reference to The Modern Psychology of Unconscious, (Dover Publication, 2001), Pg.23 6 Thomas J. Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, (Wadsworth, 1971), Pg.25

Mandala is a philosophical art that carries the mythological doctrines of human life like what is the truth of universe, how should we live our lives and the intricate relation between spirituality and religion. It comprises of codified art with complex geometry, pictorial representation of various life forms and divinities using which they tell a story or prescript some meaning. It is a creative art of communication that has been part of the eastern civilization for thousands of years which is believed to establish a unity between a person and his or her spirituality, by depicting his or her relation to the cosmos7.

Traditional architecture and settlement pattern of Kathmandu valley have been heavily influenced by Mandala to translate abstract cosmological ideas into tangible forms. The Mandala envisages the city itself as a microcosm of universal realities and by dwelling, moving around such mandalaic city, it is believed to awaken ones spirituality.

The Mandala is the model which underlies the organization of space, ritually and socially in Newar cities and former kingdoms.as a means of spatial organization, it can be reduced into three principles: boundness, hierarchy and the importance of the centre. By adapting the Mandala model to illustrate the structure of caste organization, one sees

Robert A.F. Thurman, Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment (Asia Society, New York, 1997), Pg. 127-129

that, structurally speaking castes of all kinds whether Brahmans or barbers or untouchables by caste, are in analogous relation with respect to those who retain them.8

Mandala is based on the principle of hierarchy of power and it has been reflected in the city planning of Kathmandu by the arrangement of the whole city based on the caste system. As David Gellner stated in his book Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest, Mandala transcends its vitality within various planes of existence from within our psyche, our dwelling, city structure to the entire cosmos. Such elaborate connection is established through the realization of all the constituents of the universe in the micro level.

David N. Gellner, From Sacred Centres to Communist Strongholds? On the Cities of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Urban Anthropology and the Supranational and Regional Networks of the Town ( Prague Occasional Papers in Ethnology 2, 1993) Pg. 219

Mandala, Exploring Self The concept of self identity in Hindu and Buddhist philosophies establishes one as a spiritual being. Kathmandu which is the melting pot of Hindu and Buddhist philosophies has a unique way of living and the idea of identity in the valley is starkly unique. It is greatly associated with spirituality: where physicality is only a veil; the reality is much deeper and intense. This part of the paper will explore how Buddhist mythologies has defined individuality and how the meaning of being is perceived in the valley. Mandala is a Yantra or a Mechanical Tool of exploring self to conceive the true reality of our existence. Buddhist and Hindu mythologies use Yoga or Insightful Meditation as a medium of self-exploration and the Mandalas teaches us how to perform these meditations. The mandalas are enchanting and mystifying art and only by careful description and understanding of it that one can divulge its true meaning. The Mandala intends to take us through a journey within our self, to reveal the complex mind-body relation. When one is successful in completing such journey, it is believed that one attains an immense wealth. The wealth is not a physical gain, but a salvation from the worldly illusion; a state of enlightenment, liberating us from the worldly continuity9. According to Buddhist mythologies, during the state of enlightenment one embodies three state of mind-body complex which are as follows10:

Matthieu Ricard, Introduction to the Purpose and Symbolism of The Mandala in Tibetan Buddhism, Mandala, The Architecture of Enlightenment, (Asia Society Galleries, NY, 1998), Pg.157 10 Paul Griffiths, the embodiment or assemblage of what there really is, On Being Buddha: The Classical Doctrine of Buddhahood (Albany: State University of

i. Nirmanakaya or Manifestation Body: It is the physical body with which one finds presence in the material world. ii. Sambhogakaya or Communal Enjoyment body: It is the state where one communicates with others and transforms into a communal being. iii. Dharmakaya or Reality Body: It is a metaphysical state where one reaches the state of awakening. Mandala provides strictures to practice the meditative yoga that allows one to reach the state of enlightenment. This yogic procedure aims for one to identify different components within our body through self-engagement and mental concentrations. Mandala like Chakrasmavara Tantra is used in this regard which is structured on the basis of different deities and their relation with our body parts. It has a deity couple Sri Heruka and Vajravarahi in the centre. It is

Figure 2 Chakrassmavara Mandala

then surrounded by four Essence Yoginis which is in turn surrounded by eight deity couples for the Mind, Body and Speech wheel each. On the final periphery, they are surrounded by eight fierce goddesses Asta Matrika who guard the directions and

New York Press, 1994), 149.

quarters. All these gods and goddess are also mapped in the body of meditator during Yoga and during Yoga his or her body transforms into a Mandala which is also known as Body Mandala11. Newars envisage their body as a divine accumulation of all the divinities which represent the different components of the universe. It is clearly represented in the way they live their lives and how they celebrate their festival. In one of the festival, called Maha Puja or Worshipping Self a Mandala is prepared to represent oneself. The Mandala along with ones body is worshipped by everyone to acknowledge the cosmological order possessed by every human body.

David Gray, Mandala of the Self: Embodiment, Practice, and Identity Construction in the Chakrasamvara Tradition, (Journal of religious History, 2006), 301303

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Mandala and the Spiritual Sanctuaries The Kathmandu Valley exhibits two distinct forms of temple architecture are Stupa (Buddhist Origin) and the Tiered Temples (Hindu Origin). Shikhara is also other important form of temple architecture which is used by both Hindu and Buddhist religion. Tiered temples and stupas are the three dimensional Mandala which looks forward to propagate the same religious ideologies as would their two-dimensional form intend to. Architectural treatises like the Manasara Shilpashastra and Vastu Sastra were followed in Nepal with works like Jirnodhara or Preservation and Samaranganasutradhara or Design and Construction.12 The tiered temple with the square base is generated from the Vaastupurush Mandala like the Kasthamandap in the Kathmandu. The Kasthamandap literally means Wooden Mandala and its square open colonnaded pattern also closely resembles with the form of Vaastupurush Mandala. The Kasthamandap functions also as rest house for travelers and has the deity of Gorakshanath in the centre which is

Figure 3 Kasthamandap

12

Ronald M. Bernier, The Nepalese Pagoda, Origin and Style, (S.Chand & Company, 1979), Pg. 117

identical with the idea of power concentration in the centre13. On the other hand, Swaymbhunath which is one of the stupa in the valley is a three dimensional Mandala representing the Guhyasamaja Tantra which has Tibetan Origin. It is a hemispherical mound of earth with a square hermika on top pinnacled by Torana which exhibits a fortress like crenellation14. Like the Mandala depicted in the Thanka, an ancient Tibetan art form, it encapsulates the whole structure of the universe within it, and hence recreate the microcosm. The circular plan most probably must be derived from the Dharmachakra or The Buddhist Wheel of Law15.

Figure 4 Swaymbhunath

13 14

Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 147 Ronald M. Bernier, The Nepalese pagoda, Origin and Style, (S. Chand & Company, 1979), Pg.122 15 Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 176

Vaastupurush Mandala, an Ancient art of Building

In Hindu mythology, the art of building a house is a spiritual act and it connects the house dweller to the divine cosmos. In Nepal, the study of art of building is called Vaastushastra and the scholar of such knowledge is called Vaastuvidh16. The prime objective of Vaastushastra is to make the dwelling a microcosm, creating a miniature of the universe by establishing the various positions for divinities within the dwelling that define the constituents of the universe.

Vaastuvidh or the Architect followed the Vaastupurush Mandala to design and construct any built structure in the Kathmandu Valley during the medieval period17. The Vaastupurush Mandala comprises of a Purush or a
Figure 5 Vaastupurush Mandala

Man enclosed within a square with square grids oriented by the cardinal direction. The head of the person is located in the north-east whereas the whole body is placed diagonally in the square with the feet of the person being on the south-west. The grid within the square defines the places for various gods which strictly corresponds with the specific body parts and function within a dwelling. Depending upon the type of building, the Mandala can be anything from a single square with four gods in four cardinal sides to a
16 17

Joseph L. Aranha, A Comparision of Traditional Settlements in Nepal and Bali, (Traditional Dwelling and Settlement Review, 1991), Pg. 36 Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 130

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composition of numerous squares in the progression 4,9,16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, so on. With each increase in number of modules more deities are introduced. For a residential house a Mandala of 81 grids is usually used18. Unlike the Vitruvian man which guided only the anthropometrics, the Vaastupurush guides the overall layout of a dwelling. The individual sites and buildings for human dwellings are brought into existence by the ordering of space in relation to the cardinal directions19.

In the 81 square modules the central nine squares is resided by Brahma, the god of creation. While there are 32 square in the periphery of the Mandala and 12 square in the middle zone. On the periphery of the Mandala, the four deities in the corner and the middle of the sides each are considered to be the Guardian Deities. In the Vaastupurush Mandala, the North, East and West are considered auspicious directions while South is considered inauspicious. Based on this Mandala, functional entities within a house are laid out such as20:

S.N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18 19

Direction North North-East East South-East South South-West West North-East Centre

Presiding Deity Kubera Isan Indra Agni Yama Narriti Varuna Vayu Brahma

Realm Wealth Purity, Knowledge and Wisdom Direction where sun rises Fire Dead: Direction of Ancestors Misery: Corner of Ancestors Water Wind Stillness

Function Vault Room Prayer Room Children Bed-Room Kitchen Master Bed Room Staircase or Heavy Load Bathroom/Washrooms Open Ventilation Open Room/No Functional Use

Vibhuti Chakrabarti, Indian Architectural Theory: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya (Richmond, Curzon Press, 1998), Pg. 63-74 John Gray, Domestic Mandala: Architecture of Lifeworlds in Nepal, (Ashgate, 2006), Pg.26 20 Sashikala Ananth, The Penguin Guide to Vaastu: the Classical Indian Science of Architecture and Design,(Penguin, 1998), Pg. 81

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Mandala, Protecting Social Realms

The Pre existence of villages before Malla dynasty (11th Century) came to rule seems very clear in Kathmandu. The inscriptions and manuscripts mention three localities: Koligram, Dakshinakoligramdranga and Vaidyagram which date from the Lichhavi period (5th8th Century A.D.). It gives some indication regarding the establishment of settlement well during 5th centuries before Tantrism (An ancient Hindu religious ideology) was introduced by the Malla kings in the Valley21. It is around 11th centuries that it is believed the Malla kings conglomerated the inhabitants guided by the cosmological map preached by Tantrism and established the historic towns we see today. In this map, palace occupied a central position linked by secret passages to the temples of the goddess (Matrika) and Bhairava placed along the periphery of the eight directions of space. Such idea of the city corresponds to a geometric plans indicated in the sacred diagrams of the Mandala. The argument is also strengthened by the depiction of the valley in the form of Mandala, and the existence of Mandalaic representations in various forms like paintings, stone scriptures within the city22.

The Newar historic towns were greatly influenced by the ideologies of Mandala and the hierarchy of power exhibited in it. Such hierarchy was manifested in organizing the dwellings in the strictly hierarchical caste system within the protected boundaries of the city. The royal palace marked the ideal centre, the pivot of an order that reflected the centre of the cosmos. People of higher caste

21 22

Gerard Toffin, Mythical and Symbolic Origins of the City: the case of the Kathmandu Valley, (SAGE, 1990), Pg. 108 B. Klover, A Ritual Map from Nepal, (Folio rara, Steiner Verlag, 1976), Pg. 68-80

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like Brahmins or priests lived closest to the palace, and then followed by the administrative officials like Pradhan or Ministers, Rajbhandari or Storekeeper, and so on. The Untouchables were located on the periphery of the city near the cremation grounds23.

Figure 6The Urban Fabric of Bhaktapur. Clusters of courtyard houses form dense populated quarters of farmers and potters on the periphery, 'While the quarters of Brahmin and former Courtiers around the palace are less crowded.

23

Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 163

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Legends call the foundation of Bhaktapur as unification of the numerous existant villages by means of a ritual involving a ceremonial circumambulation, a consecration of Matrika shrines, and the establishment of a palace as the seat of kingship24. It is also belived that the dwellings beyond the boundaries of Eight Matrikas are not protected by the mystical powers of Mandala and are deprived of any spiritual liberation Moksha. So, it can be observed that the settlement beyond the boundary defined the eight AstaMatrikas are more organic and scattered and do not pertain to the mandalaic features of the central area. However, since the Mandala was only introduced in the 11th century by the Malla kings, the new parts of the towns and the central palace court have strong geometric pattern whereas not so much in the pre-eleventh century part of the town. Beyond the city walls lay the realm of the dead, the samsana , the various cremation grounds and ghats. Superimposed on such human ordering were various other ordering related to the divinities. These were in the nature of mystic diagrams, mandalas in which particular sets of deities were linked in concentric rings of protection inside and outside the city. Mary Shpherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton UNiv. Press, 1982) Pg. 94

24

Daniel Wright, History of Nepal, (Cambridge, 1977), Pg.163

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The historic town of Bhaktapur constitutes of 24 toles (wards). The number 24 has a special significance as it is a factor of eight which is the number of Matrikas that surround the city as guided by the eight directions of the Vaastupurush Mandala. Hence it defines the space and direction in the town. On the other hand the number 24 is also factor of twelve which symbolizes the number of months in a year and the cyclical nature of time. Hence the town tries to symbolically encapsulate the essential attributes of cosmos, the space and time to create the microcosm in the Mandalaic city25.

Figure 7 Asta Matrika. A drawing by a Bhaktapur Brahman of Bhaktapur as a Yantra with the nine Mandalaic Goddesses represented at the eight compass points and at the center. The actual spatial location of the nine goddesses is given in Figure 3.

25

Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 166

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Figure 8The spatial positions of the pithas of the nine Mandalic Goddesses. These are the actual spatial locations of the idealized points of the symbolic yantra and mandala[*] in map 1. The numbers designate the deities in the sequence in which they are worshiped when treated as a united collection of deities: (1) Brahmani, (2) Mahesvari, (3) Kumari, (4)Vaisnavi[*] , (5) Varahi, (6) Indrani[*] , (7) Mahakaili, (8) Mahalaksmi[*] , and (9) Tripurasundari. The dense band of dots in this map and the following maps indicating the extent of the city represents the edge of the presently built-up area of the city, the "physical city," and does not necessarily correspond to the city's symbolic boundaries. Map courtesy of Niels Gutschow.

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Patan is considered to be one of the oldest settlements in the valley founded by King Biardeva in 7th century A.D. as an extension to already existing town of Matilinagara. The city was laid following strict principles of shastras and after constructing dwellings for nine thousand families it was marked by constructing four mounds on its periphery. These mounds are the stupas which are Buddhist temples. As, Patan is predominantly a Buddhist settlement it is believed that these stupas would protect its inhabitants from the demons as the Asta Matrika would do for the Hindu town of Bhaktapur26. Figure 9 Relations of Four Stupa and Surrounding Topography
(Source: Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo, Four Stupa and Swastika, Pg. 165)

26

Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo, Stupa and Swastika, (Kyoto Univ. Press, 2007), Pg.34

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The four stupas are arranged to form a diamond shaped parallelogram which have minor deviations that can be explained by the topographical features around the stupa. Each side of this parallelogram points towards the important hilly range surrounding the valley which are Mahadevdada (East), Phulchowki (South), Champadevi (West) and Nagarjuna (North-west). The diagonal joining north-south stupa is directed towards Shivapuri on North. The four arms pointing towards four summits in a clockwise manner resembling the shape of Swastika which also corresponds with mythology that Patan is a city originally planned in the shape of the Dharmachakra, the Buddhist Wheel of Law. It is through these four stupas that the city is linked to the topography and culture of the valley. The major street in the city is along the diagonal joining north and south stupa and the other more important is the one along the diagonal joining east and west stupa. Hence, the stupa which originates from funeral Tumuli and Swastika which is a sacred symbol of Indus civilization are the two important symbols guiding the structure of Patan City27.

27

Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo, Stupa and Swastika , (Kyoto Univ. Press, 2007), Pg.157-191

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Conclusion Mandalas, mystical to look at hanging in the form of painting in old streets or lying invisible in the city realm; they are there, always there waiting to be discovered each time differently. Colorful to look at with geometries that inspire imagination of cosmic order; even an ignorant glance would feel they are here to tell a story. Demons and divinities carefully arranged; characters that play the myth leaves anyone at awe willing to look beyond the graphical fantasy. Yes, indeed Mandala is a serious art implications of which transcend many boundaries. The paper has only focused on Kathmandu where Hinduism and Buddhism are prevalent, but it is a language universally spoken and adopted by different ideologies. In any case, it finds its significance through various scales of realization from self to society, from daily livelihood to the art and meaning of living. It seeks to take us through a journey of selfexploration, of finding reality that abounds ones existence. The realization of ones mind body realm, their dwelling, sacred places and the social realm in cosmic proportions adds whole new meaning and admiration to our existence. Mandala is a philosophy that seeks to unravel the mystery of life which finds its significance even in todays day and age. The hierarchy of power that keeps the modern day society together is fundamental to Mandala. The king as the center and those to be ruled, arranged around on the caste hierarchy, physically defined the medieval city structure. With the recent advents in politics, Nepal no longer run by palatial throne; is now a republic. However, the hierarchy of power that Mandala found essential for the continuity of the universe is still existant and it continues to be part of living in Kathmandu in physical, social and cultural level as it has been, for past thousands of years.

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Bibliography

1. David N. Gellner, Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest: Newar Buddhism and its hierarchy of ritual, (Cambridge University Press, 1992) Pg. 5 2. David N. Gellner, Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest: Newar Buddhism and its hierarchy of ritual, (Cambridge University Press, 1992) Pg. 5 3. Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 9-12 4. John Gray, Domestic Mandala: Architecture of Lifeworlds in Nepal, (Ashgate, 2006), Pg.3 5. Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of Mandala: With Special Reference to The Modern Psychology of Unconscious, (Dover Publication, 2001), Pg.23 6. Thomas J. Hopkins, The Hindu Religious Tradition, (Wadsworth, 1971), Pg.25 7. Robert A.F. Thurman, Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment (Asia Society, New York, 1997), Pg. 127-129 8. David N. Gellner, From Sacred Centres to Communist Strongholds? On the Cities of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Urban Anthropology and the Supranational and Regional Networks of the Town ( Prague Occasional Papers in Ethnology 2, 1993) Pg. 219 9. Matthieu Ricard, Introduction to the Purpose and Symbolism of The Mandala in Tibetan Buddhism, Mandala, The Architecture of Enlightenment, (Asia Society Galleries, NY, 1998), Pg.157 10. Paul Griffiths, the embodiment or assemblage of what there really is, On Being Buddha: The Classical Doctrine of Buddhahood (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 149. 11. David Gray, Mandala of the Self: Embodiment, Practice, and Identity Construction in the Chakrasamvara Tradition, (Journal of religious History, 2006), 301-303 12. Ronald M. Bernier, The Nepalese Pagoda, Origin and Style, (S.Chand & Company, 1979), Pg. 117
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13. Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 147 14. Ronald M. Bernier, The Nepalese pagoda, Origin and Style, (S. Chand & Company, 1979), Pg.122 15. Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 176 16. Joseph L. Aranha, A Comparision of Traditional Settlements in Nepal and Bali, (Traditional Dwelling and Settlement Review, 1991), Pg. 36 17. Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, (Princeton University Press, 1982), Pg 130 18. Vibhuti Chakrabarti, Indian Architectural Theory: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya (Richmond, Curzon Press, 1998), Pg. 63-74 19. John Gray, Domestic Mandala: Architecture of Lifeworlds in Nepal, (Ashgate, 2006), Pg.26 20. Sashikala Ananth, The Penguin Guide to Vaastu: the Classical Indian Science of Architecture and Design,(Penguin, 1998), Pg. 81 21. Gerard Toffin, Mythical and Symbolic Origins of the City: the case of the Kathmandu Valley, (SAGE, 1990), Pg. 108 22. B. Klover, A Ritual Map from Nepal, (Folio rara, Steiner Verlag, 1976), Pg. 68-80 23. Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 163 24. Daniel Wright, History of Nepal, (Cambridge, 1977), Pg.163 25. Niels Gutschow, Bhaktapur: Sacred Patterns of A Living Urban Tradition, (National Gallery Art, D.C., 1993), Pg. 166 26. Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo, Stupa and Swastika, (Kyoto Univ. Press, 2007), Pg.34 27. Mohan Pant and Shuji Funo, Stupa and Swastika , (Kyoto Univ. Press, 2007), Pg.157-191

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