Solutions to Exercises from

Introduction to Perturbation Methods

by
Mark H. Holmes
Department of Mathematical Sciences
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, NY 12180

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Asymptotic Approximations ................................................3
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

Order Symbols.......................................................................................................................3
Asymptotic Approximations .................................................................................................3
Asymptotic Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations........................................3
Introduction to the Asymptotic Solution of Differential Equations ......................................4

Chapter 2: Matched Asymptotic Expansions..................................................................6

2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Introductory Example............................................................................................................6
Examples With Multiple Boundary Layers...........................................................................7
Interior Layers .......................................................................................................................8
Corner Layers ........................................................................................................................10
Partial Differential Equations................................................................................................10
Difference Equations .............................................................................................................11

Chapter 3: Multiple Scales..............................................................................................12

3.2
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Introductory Example............................................................................................................12
Slowly Varying Coefficients .................................................................................................12
Forced Motion Near Resonance ............................................................................................13
Introduction to Partial Differential Equations .......................................................................13
Linear Wave Propagation......................................................................................................13
Nonlinear Waves ...................................................................................................................14
Difference Equations .............................................................................................................14

Chapter 4: The WKB and Related Methods ...................................................................16

4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.8

Introductory Example............................................................................................................16
Turning Points .......................................................................................................................17
Wave Propagation and Energy Methods ...............................................................................17
Wave Propagation and Slender Body Approximations.........................................................17
Ray Methods..........................................................................................................................18
Discrete WKB Method..........................................................................................................18

Chapter 5: The Method of Homogenization ...................................................................20

5.2 Introductory Example............................................................................................................20
5.4 Porous Flow...........................................................................................................................20

Chapter 6: Introduction to Bifurcation and Stability ......................................................21

6.2 Introductory Example............................................................................................................21
6.5 Relaxation Dynamics..............................................................................................................21
6.6 An Example Involving A Nonlinear Partial Differential Equation .......................................22
6.7 Bifurcation of Periodic Solutions ..........................................................................................22
6.8 Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations .........................................................................23

Chapter 1
Introduction to Asymptotic Approximations
1.3 Order Symbols
1. a) ii) 2 , v) < 1
2. c) f = g = 1/ and 0 = 0
1.4 Asymptotic Approximations
1. d) 6 >> 4 >> 3 >> 2 >> 5 >> 1 , e) 3 >> 2 >> 1 >> 4 , g) not possible
2. b) 23/2(1 + 32/8) , c) sinh(1) + xcosh(1)/2 2x2e1/8 , d) ex(1 x2/2) , g) 1 +
n(n + 1)/2 ]
3. b) f = 1 and = 1 ; must have f = o(1) ; Yes, because given any > 0
we can get f < . But = O(1) K and so given any > 0 we
can get f <
5. b) f = 1 + 2 , g = 1 + 2 , = 1 and = 1 with 0 = 0
c
9. [[S]] ~ 12v (2 1)3 + O(4)
1.5 Asymptotic Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations
1. (c) 2 + , 1 + 2 , (e) 1/3 + /81 , (3/)1/2 1/6 , (f) + 5 , 1(1 2/2),
(g) (e1/2 1) 1/2 (2 (1 e1/2)1/2)/8 , (h) 1 31/2/2 , 1 + /2 ,

(i) setting f = x exp(sin(x+s))ds then f(0) < 0 < f(2) and f > 0 for
0

0 < < 1/3 only one solution ; x ~ 2 , (m) x ~ (ln)1/2( 1 + /(2ln2) ) ,

(n) x ~ (1 + + ( 1)2 + ... ) ,
(o) p(r) ~ p0 + p1r + ... x ~ p 01/3 p12/(5p05/3) ,

(p) xl ~ (1 + e + ...) and xr ~ ( 1 1.5 2 + ... ) where > 1 satisfies

exp() = ~ z 0 + ln(z0) + ln(z0)/z0 where z0 = ln(1) ]

2. a) x ~ k + x1 where x1 = (1)k210k19 /[(k 1)!(20 k)!]

b) < 2.2x1011
3. a) x ~ cos(1) + 2sin(1)cos(1) + ...

October 24, 2000

b) P ~ 2(1 + 1002)
6. b) E ~ M + sin(M) + 12 2sin(2M) + 18 3(3sin(3M) sin(M))
7. a) k(s) ~ /

y0
8. xs ~ ln(3/y0) 2y1/y0 where y0 = y(0) 1.3 and y1 = 12 ln(y0/3)ln(
)
2y
0

9. a) ~ 0 + 1 where 0 is an eigenvalue for A and 1 = (x0

b) ~ 1 + 1 where Dx = 1x

TDx

0)/(x0x0)

10. A1 A 1BA1

11. a) A + (K1BTP ABA) where K = ATA and P = I AA

1.6 Introduction to the Asymptotic Solution of Differential Equations
2. a) h ~ 2 + 4
3. b) y ~ y0 + y1 where y0 = / + (1 + )(1 e )/2 and

y 1 = f(s)ds e f(r)er dr
0
0

d
c) Method 1: if y0(0) = 0 with 0 > 0 and > 0 then i) y0(2) > 0 , ii) d
0 < 0 if 0
> 1 , and iii) = 1 1.5 < 0 < 1.6 . Thus, 1 < 0 < 2 > 0 ; Method 2: << 1

~ 2 2/3 decrease

4. ~ n(1 n) where n =

0 (x)sin2(nx)dx

5. a) y ~ Acos(nx) and ~ n +

2(2

4)

nA2
16 2

for n = 1, 2, 3, ...

1
8. a) ~ a0 + a2 1 where 0 = K(0,0) , 1 = 2 [Kx(0,0) + Ks(0,0)] , and
y ~ y0(x) + ay1(x) where y0(x) = K(x,0)/K(0,0) , y1 = [Ks(x,0) 21y0(x)]/(20)
c) as in (a) and ~ 1 + aKx(0,0)( 1/2)/K(0,0)

9. c) E1 =

V102dx

and

E2 =

2
2
2

0 (V1 E1)0 ds dx

d) 0 = A0exp( 12 E0x2) , A0 = (/)1/4

October 24, 2000

12. tc0 + f(c0) = g(t) where c0(0) = 0 and = 1/

13. a) ii) Ln* = z + (fz2 f xx f yy ) + O(2) evaluated at z = 0
14. b) ~ 2n[( 1)(1 s2)/2]n where r = 1 + s

October 24, 2000

Chapter 2
Matched Asymptotic Expansions
2.2 Introductory Example
1. a) y ~ ax + (1 a)(1 ex/)

2. a) BL at x=0; y ~ (3 + x)1/2 e2x/ 3 where

x = x/
1

x
b) BL at x=0; y ~ g(x) g(0)e where g(x) = 1 f(s)ds and x = x/
x

c) BL at x=0; y ~ (1 + 2x + 2ex)/3 where x = x/

d) BL at x = 0; y ~ sech(1)[ sinh(1) ex + (1 + e)ex] where

x = x/

e) y ~ 3x + 4(5 3e4x)/(5 + 3e4x) where

x = x/1/2

g) y ~ (1 + 7x2)1/3 2 1/23/[sinh(z) + 21/2] where z = 31/2x/ + arcsinh(23/2)

1

8. a) y ~ F(x,1) F(x,r)g(r)dr + ep(0)x/[ F(0,1) + F(0,r)g(r)dr ] where g(r) =

x

f(r)/p(r) and F(x,r) = exp( q(s)/p(s)ds)

x

9. a) y ~ 1 + ae x 1(1 + a)

es

3/2

ds where x = x/2/3 a, = 2e1 , and

x
=

2
3

( 23

_
_
11. a) y ~ f(x) f(0)exp(x2/2) where x = x/1/2
_
_
b) y ~ f(x) f(0)exp(q(0)x2/2) where x = x/1/2
1

12. a) y ~ ( 1)1[f(t) f(0)et ] + g()et + [g0 ( 1)1f(0)][e (1)t et ]

where t = t/

13.

tc0 + f(c0) = g(t) where c0(0) = 1 h(x)dV and = 1/

1/2

15. a) y ~ x + 12z/(1 + z)2 where z = e2

x/

October 24, 2000

2.3 Examples With Multiple Boundary Layers

1. a) BL at x=0,1; y ~ 1 x exp(x/ 1/2) exp((x 1)/1/2)
_
1/2
x
f(0)e /E(0)

~
_
1/2
+ f(1)ex/E(1)
where x = x/1/2
_
_
c) BL at x=1; y ~ (2 e2x)/(2 + e2x) + (1 A)e x where x = (x 1)/ and

b) BL at x=0,1; u ~ f(x) +

A = (2 e2)/(2 + e2)
_

~ 1/2

d) BL at x=0,1; y ~ exf(x) + (f(0) + 1)ex + (ef(1) 1)exe

1 + x2

e) BL at x=0,1; y0 =
g) BL at x=0,1; y ~

ex

_
x
e

h) BL at x=1; y ~ 7

~
_
+ (4 e)ex where x = x/5/4
9 2x + Y (x ) where
0

Y0

dr

A r2/2 + r3/3 = x for A = (10 + 7 7)/3

2
i) BL at x=1
_

j) BL at x=0,1 & 2nd term for matching; y ~ x + 2e4x + 4erx where r = 1 + 5,

_
x = x/ and x~ = (x 1)/
_
_
k) BL at x=1; y ~ Y(x ) where x = (x 1)/1/2 and
2

dr
2(r ln(r) 1)

_
=x

_
l) BL at x=0,1; y ~ ex + Y(x ) 1 + Z(x~) e1 where
Y

dr
2(r ln(r) 1)

_
= x

_
m) BL at x=1; y ~ y 0(x) + Y0(x ) where 13 y03 y 0 = 6 kx for y0(0) = 3, =
_
y0(1) , x = (x 1)/ , and

October 24, 2000

Y0

_
4dr

=
x
(r2 2)(r2 + 2 + 2)

2. BL at x = 0,1; y ~ 01(1 e (x + 1)/ e(x1)/) and ~ 0 + ... 0 = 21/3

_
_
3. a) y ~ H(0)/H(x) + Y0(x ) H(0)/H(1) where x = (x 1)/ and
H(0) H(1)Y 0
_
x/H(1) = H(1)(Y 0 1) + H(0)ln

H(0) H(1)

4. b) ~ n2 2(1 + 4 + (12 + n2 2)2)

5. y ~ f(x)/q(x) + ( + f0/q0)er0 x/ + ( + f1/q1)er1 (x1)/ where f0 = f(0) , etc. and r0
= p0

p02 + q0 and r1 = p1 +
6. a) = ( )/2

p12 + q1

b) = + 1/2(x,)
/(k+1)1/2)1/k where
c) outer: ~ 1/(2k+1) ; bdy layer at x = 0: ~ /(B + kx
= (2k + 1)/(2k + 2) , B = ( (k + 1)1/2)k/(k+1) and
x = x/ ; solution symmetric
about x = 1/2
d) it's necessary to find the second term in the boundary layer to be able to match ]
e) = ( )/
2.4 Interior Layers
1. a) IL at x=1/2; y ~ erf( (x 1/2)/ 2 )
_
_
_
b) IL at x=0; y ~ 2/x for x 0 and Y ~ 41/2xM(1,3/2,x2) where x=x/1/2
7
12

c) for 0 x
, y ~ ( 53
_
( 12 + x)1 + 2B/(1 + DeBx)

_
1
Bx
x) 2BDe /(1

_
Bx
De )

7
and for 12
x1, y~

_
7
where B = 12
,
x = (x 12
)/
13

/16) and for

d) BL at x = 0 and IL at x = 3/4 ; for 0 x 3/4 , y ~ Y0 3exp(3x
3/4 x 1 , y ~ Y0 + [ (x 1/4)1/2 1/ 2 ]/(x 3/4)3/2 where
Y = 1 + [ (1/4)M(3/4, 1/2, x~2/4) + (1/4)M(5/4, 3/2, x~2/4) ]
0

Also, 1 = 323/4(3) 1/2 , ~

x = (x 3/4)/1/2 and
x = x/

October 24, 2000

_
e) IL at x = 12 ; for 1/2 x 1 , y ~ y0(x) + Y0(x ) where y0 13 y03 = x/2 +
_
1/6 for 1 y0 , = y0(1/2+) , x = (x 1/2)/ , and
Y0
_
4dr

=
x
(r2 2)(r2 + 2 + 2)

f) IL at x0 = 1/2
2. y ~ 1 + (1 x2)1/2 for 0 x < xs = 3/2 and y ~ 0 for xs < x < 1; near x = 1 , y ~
_
Y0 where (2 3/Y0)exp(3/(2Y 0)) = 72 exp(3(x 1)/4) ; for x near x s , y ~ Z0
where 2/Z 0 + 43 ln[ (3/2 Z 0)/Z0 ] = x~ + B for x~ = (x xs)/
_
~
_
x
x
3. b) BL at x =0,1; y ~ k(2x 1) + (3 k)e ke where x = x/ and x~ = (x
1)/
4. a) outer: y ~ 12 (k + (k2 + 4)1/2) for k = 1 x/2 ; bdy layer:
x = (x 1)/ , 4a
= 1 2 + (1 + 12 + 42)1/2 , 4b = 1 + 2 + (1 + 12 + 42)1/2 , and 0 Y a
satisfies

aY a b+Y b
2(a+b)x)
(
)
=
e
a
b
x

7. c) y = 2 + x/4 + e2rg(r)/dr where g(r) = (r a)(r b) r2/3 + ab and is an

0
dependent constant that makes y(1) = 3 . The desired conclusion comes from the
fact that 0 if g(r) < 0 anywhere in the interval 0 r 1 . If 0 then the
layer is at x = b.
8. a) T = T

b) T ~ 1 ln(1 t)
c) T ~ T T1 where = nexp( (T 1)/(T)) and
T1

+ 0 =

1 rnexp(r/T)dr

October 24, 2000

2.5 Corner Layers

1. a) CL at x=1/2; youter ~
(x 12 )/

1
2

+ |x

1
|
2

and yinner ~

1
2

_
_
_
+ [2ln(1 + e x ) x ] for x =

b) CL at x=1/3; youter ~ 1 + 3|x 13 |

c) CL at x=0; yR ~ xex , yL ~ x(2e ex)

d) BL at x=0 and CL at x=5/8; y R = 0 for 0 < x 5/8 and yL = 1 9/4 2x for
5/8 x 1
e) BL at x=0 and CL at x=1/2; y R = 1/2 for 0 < x 1/2 and yL = x for 1/2 x 1 ;
BL at x=0
_
_
_
2. YCL ~ 1 + 0( M(, 1/2, (b a)x2/2) xM(1/2 , 3/2, (b a)x2/2) ) where
= 2(b a a) and = 2(b a) ( + 1/2)/() for = 2(bb a)
~

3. BL at x = 0,1 and a CL at x = xs where xs ~ 1/2 ln(3/y0(0)); y ~ y0(x) + 3ex for

_
_
x
xs < x 1 and y ~ 3e for 0 x < xs where ~
x = (x 1)/1/2 , x = x/1/2 and
2
dr

arctanh(r 1) = 1 x .

y0
4. a) boundary layers at x = 0, 1 and a corner layer at x = 1/3
b) there is an interior layer at x = 13 2 3/8 and at x = 11/8 13 2
c) interior layer at x = 13 2 3/8 , a corner layer at x = 1/3 , and a boundary layer at x
=1
2.6 Partial Differential Equations
t

4. a) u ~ h(x + s) + [g(t) h(s)]exp[xv(t)/] where s = v()d

0

b) the 2nd term in the outer expansion is u1(x, t) = th (x + s)

7. b) X ~ s(t) + 2ln(B)/(u + u )
0

8. a) outer layers ( x 0 ): u ~ (x t)exp( 2

(x + t)) and shock layer:

October 24, 2000

x t
u ~ 12 e t[ (0+)erfc( z) + (0 )erfc(z) ] where z =
2(t) 1/2
9. u0 = (x f(u0)t) and _xU0 = F(U0) s(t)U0 + A(t) where F = f , s = (F(u0+ )
F(u ))/(u + u ) and A = (u F(u + ) u + F(u ))/(u + u )
0

x
x r + 1/2
12. c ~ r +1 erfc( 1/2 ) + (1 r +1 )erfc( (
) )
2 t
2t

2.7 Difference Equations

4. a) yn ~ Ar+ n + Br n where r = [ (2 + 2)1/2]/
b) = hpn/2 , = h2qn/2 ; the 2nd derivative doesn't contribute

10

October 24, 2000

Chapter 3
Multiple Scales
3.2 Introductory Example
1. a) y ~ 2sin(t)/(4 + 3t)1/2
d) y ~ 1/2exp(t/2)sin(t/1/2)
3. ~ cos((1 2/16)t)
5. a) y ~ A()cos(t) + B()sin(t) where A(0) = 0 , B(0) = 1 ,
2

A =

1
2

F(Asint + Bcost)sintdt

and B =

1
2

F(Asint + Bcost)costdt

b) A = 0 and B = 3/(3 + 4)
7. ~ [1 2exp ((1 + ) t /2)sin(t + /4)]
9. a) ~ A(x,t)exp[iv(x)sin(t/)] where 2iA t + 2Axx = vx2A
10. b) q = q0exp(it1) where = ( 2)1/2 and q0 = (, i )T
c) p = 0p0exp(it1) + cc where p0 = (, i + ) T

3.3 Slowly Varying Coefficients

t
2. y ~ D(t)1/4 ( D(0)3/4sin + D(0)1/4cos) where =

0 D(s)1/2ds

4. The higher order terms for the stability boundaries can be found in Abramowitz and
Stegun (1972), pg 724. Note, using their notation, a = 4 and q = /4 .
x
7. b) s = g(x)/g(1) where g(x) =

0 [1 + (r)]1/2dr and = g(1)

1
c) h ~ (s)/2 ~ n v1 where 4v1 = (s)sin(2ns)ds
0
d) 1 = 0 ~ 0 + 1 where 0 = n and 1 = v1 v 0/2 = n/2 . Also, Y ~ A(1
s/4)sin(ns) + Bsin(ns) and s ~ x[1 + (x 1)/4]

11

October 24, 2000

3.4 Forced Motion Near Resonance

1. a) u ~ + (0 )sin( + /2)
b) 2(1 + 2)
c) 42.98"
2. b) A2 [ 9 2 + (6 3
A 2)2 ] = 1 AM = (3)1
4
3. a) y ~ A(t)cos(t + 0) where A = 2 or A = 2[c/(c + 4exp( t))]1/2
4. a) ~ 2(sint sint)/(1 2) + O(8)
b) 2A = cos( t) and A3 + 16A 8 = 0
5. y ~ 1/3A(t)cos[t + (t)] where A( 3
A 2 2) = 1
8
6. a) y ~ 1/3A(2/3t)cos[t + (2/3t)] where A2[ 2 + (2 + A2)2] = 1
b) yes
7. a) y ~ f(v)(1 etcos(t)) where = + a(v2 1)
b) y ~ 1A(t)cos(t + 0) where 2A + [ + a(v2 1 + 14 A2)]A = 0
Other references: Derjaguin, et al. (1957) and Vatta (1979)
10. a) ~ 1/2A(t)cos[t + (t)] where 8A = [sin(2) 4]A and if A 0 then
16 = 2cos(2) A2 4 . Note, < 4 A 0

3.6 Introduction to Partial Differential Equations

5. a) u(x,t) ~

net/2cos(( n2 /2)t)sinnx

n=1

8. b) u ~ (1 x)U() and ~ (1

U()d)1

0
3.7 Linear Wave Propagation

1. u ~

12

[c(0)/c(t)]1/2[

t
t
f(x c()d) + f(x + c()d) ]/2
0
0

October 24, 2000


2. u ~

1/2 )er2dr
f(x

t
+
2r(t)

1/2
1

3. a) p ~ [F(x t) + G(x + t)][A(0)/A(x)]1/2

4. characteristics satisfy xt = y , yt = f(t)x x + (a cos(t))x = 0 which is
Mathieus' eq
3.8 Nonlinear Waves
2. b) u ~ {B0 + A0cos[ + () ] } where = kx t and = t ; (i) B0 0
= 1 , = 0 0 , and (ii) B0 = 0 = 2 , = 0 + C for C = kc0
2A02/(24k) where c0 is an arbitrary constant
c) u ~ [ + A(r)cos[ + (x t)/(3k) + 0(r)] ] where r = x (1 3k2)t; the
case of when = 0 is considered in Schoombie (1992)

4. b) u ~ [1 + exp((x + t) t)]1
6. a) u0 = U0(t1 + (x, t2)) where
U0(s) =

1
1 + es

1
[ 2t(x1 x0)2 (x x0)(x x 1) ]
1 + 4t
8. b) u ~ u0(, x2) , for = t x and x2 = x , where u0 = 0 if < 0 otherwise u0
= g (s) where s = s(,x2) is the non-negative solution of
and = 12 ln(1 + 4t)

= s 12 x2f( g(s)) .
Thus, for 0 , u0 = g(s) + 12 x2[g(s)f(g(s)) + F(g (s))] where F () = f()
with F(0) = 0 .
9. a) s ~ 12 [F(1) + F(2)] where 1 = x t tF(1)/2 and 2 = x + t + tF(2)/2
10. a) ~ 1 + f(x t) + 22tf(x t)f(x t) where = +
3.9 Difference Equations
1. a) yn ~ Ae2n

13

October 24, 2000

_
_
_
3. a) yn ~ n y0(s) where y0 = g(y0)
4. from (a), = 38 A2 ; from (i), ~ 38 A2(1 + 18 h2) ; from (ii), ~ 38 A2(1 58 h2) ;
from (iii), ~ 38 A2(1 18 h2)
5. a) 2 = d2 + 4sin2(k/2)

b) un(t) ~ A(t )cos( kn t + (t ) )

6. a) gn ~ G0(n) where G0(s) = G0(1 G0)( + G 0) where =
b) gn ~ 0, 1, / ; 0 < g < 1 if > 0 and < 0 with 0 < g1 < 1

14

f(j)

N1

j=1

October 24, 2000

Chapter 4
The WKB and Related Methods
4.2 Introductory Example
1. c) ywkb ~ A[exp(ex) exp(ex 2 x/)] where
A = (exp(e) exp(e 2 1/))1 and ycom ~ exp(e ex) exp(1 + e x/)
x
x
1
3. d) y ~ q1/4(Ae/ + Be/)exp( 2 f(r)dr) where = q(r)dr
x
x
p
p
1
1
4. c) y ~ h1/2[ a0exp( ( p + h + h )ds + b 0exp( (p + h + h )ds ]
2
2
where h = (p2 4q) 1/2
7. c) w ~ g(x)[ (a + b/n)sin(n)

acos( n)
2 n

0 (pq)1/2(f 2q02 pg /g)ds ] where

x
a,b are arbitrary constants, =

(q/p)1/2ds

and 0 = /

49
)
72(n) 2
x
1
8. y ~ q1/4exp[
((4q + p2)1/2 1/2p)dx ]
2
e) ~ n (1

1
2
10. a) y ~ x[1
+ 4 ( + x ) + ...
ex
1
b) J(x) ~ (2)1/2 (
) [1 12
(1 + 3x2) ]
2

11. a) y ~ et/2 { sin[(1 et)] + 18 (e t 1)cos[(1 et)] } where = 1/

b) two principal shortcomings are: (1) differences in zeros --- this is a relatively minor
problem as discussed in Section 1.4, and (2) unboundedness of second term for large
t --- in particular, we need et << 1 . The latter problem is due to a turning point at t
=.
c) y = 2 [Y0()J0() J0()Y0()] where = 1/ and = et
12. a) R + (1 + )R = 0 and R(0) R(0) = 0 R = 1 rekx/ where r =
1/() and k = (1 + )/

15

October 24, 2000

x
b) R ~ 1 + Ae(x)/(1 )1 where = x

0 1(s)ds and

A = 1 (0)1 ; the conditions are that as x and > 0 for 0 < x <
x

13. P ~ A(x,)exp( (x)/ + 0x(e

1) (s)ds ) where x = ln() and (x)

0

satisfies 1 = 0x exp( 0x( 1) (s)ds )d . Also, A is determined from

0
0
the O() term from the = 0 condition
4.3 Turning Points
3. b) E = (2n + 1)1/2
d) E ~ ( mN2)1/ (1 + /N 2) where 4 = ( ( 3m+2
)/( m+1
) )2 and
2m
m

3(m +

2)2 = 4m(m 1)cot(/m)

4. b) the approximation for (x) is given by (4.44) for x < a , and for x > b one finds

~ 2aRq(x) 1/4e/exp(i( Et / /4)) where q = V(x) E ,

b
=

q(s) ds

and =

q(s) ds

8. b) balancing = 1/2 and = 1/4

4.4 Wave Propagation and Energy Methods
4. b) E = 12 Du2xx + 12 u2t , S = uxtDuxx + utx(Dux) , = 0
4.5 Wave Propagation and Slender Body Approximations
1. a) for the nth mode the general solution has the same form as in (4.84) but
uL =

16

sin( ny)
x

{ aLei[t (x)/] + (x) + bLei[t + (x)/] (x) }

October 24, 2000


where (x) is given in (4.87) and (x) = 2

0 (x)(22 n)1/2 dx

4.6 Ray Methods

1. a) It's not hard to show that aidi + ardr + atdt = 0 where ai, ar, at are not all zero.
b) Using the t, n, txn coordinate system, where t is the unit tangent to S in the plane of
incidence which satisfies td i > 0 , then I = + dix , R = + drx , and T = dtx
uI = (, , 0) , uR = (, , 0) and uT = (, (1 2 2)1/2, 0) where = + / and
= (1 2)1/2
3. a) D() 2 =
4. b) SIAM Appl Math, v16, 1968, 783-807
5. a) = (1/2)sin() where zR = min{0, roots of (z) = for z > 1/2 }
c) v0 = [tan/(J)] 1/2/(4)
7. a) = constant rays are straight lines wave fronts parallel Ri = i + s ;
in R2 , 2 =
_
_
_
8. a) (4.103) x ss = ax bx s p s = 0
b) = r0(r0)sin(0) where 0 is the initial angle the ray makes with the radius
vector
10. c) note 0.065rc where rc is the scale factor (in km) used to nondimensionalize
r* = rcr
4.8 Discrete WKB Method
6. a) yn ~ (qn2 4) 1/4[a0exp( + /) + b0exp( /)] where
n
1
=
ln[ 2 (q()

q()2 4 ) ]d .

b) n+1 = (cn/an) n1
7. a) yn ~ (1 2)1/4(a0exp(i/) + b0exp(i/)) where = n and

17

October 24, 2000

 = cos1() (1 2)1/2
b) a0 = (/2)1/2exp(i/4) and b0 = (/2)1/2exp(i/4)
8. a) zn ~ 1/2(1 + 4)1/2(arn + b/rn) where = n and
1 + 2 + (1 + 4)1/2 n/2
(1 + 4)1/2
rn = (
)
exp(
)

2
9. b) = k n and R ~ e()/ [ R0(n,) + ... ] , where = + (1 )ln(1 ) and
R0 = A[(1 )en]en/2 .

18

October 24, 2000

Chapter 5
The Method of Homogenization
5.2 Introductory Example
_
2. a) x(Dxu0) + g(u0) = tu0 + f
8. e) D1 1 = 1/(/D + /D ) which is a volume fraction weighted harmonic
mean ; the harmonic mean is obtained only when = = 1/2

the greatest relative error occurs when = 1/2 with a relative absolute error of
(D D)2/(4D D) ; the error is zero if = 0 or if = 1
f)

5.4 Porous Flow

3. b) setting wq = (uq, vq, wq) for q = s,f 2wq = 0 where wq is periodic and on
the interface Dsn(e1 yus) = Dfn(e1 yuf) etc
4. b) ( 2y z2e

z 0

)f = ze

z 0

where n yf = 0 on f

e) satisfies the Poisson-Boltzmann equation 2y = zez in f where is

periodic and n y = on f .

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October 24, 2000

Chapter 6
Introduction to Bifurcation and Stability
6.2 Introductory Example
1. b) y = (1 42)1/2/3 for 1 2 1 where y + stable and y unstable
3. a) supercritical pitchfork when n = (n)2 and n ~ 2(2)1/2cos(nx)/(n)
b) V1 ~ 22/2 s = 0 unstable for > 2
c) for n one finds Vn ~ 22/(n)2 V 1 < V2 < ... < Vn < 0 and this suggests V1
is the preferred configuration
4. a) y = Asin(nx) where A = 0 or A2 = 2( (n) 2) ; pitchfork bifurcation at (p,
Ap) = ((n)2, 0) for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
b) Vn = An4/2
5. a) = 0 stable for 0 < < 1 and = arccos(2) stable for 1 < < ; =
unstable
6. c) 0 = 0 and 0 < 1 < 1/2
d) slope for = 40 is 24.34 and slope for = 30 is 20.36 ; = (1/2 2)1/2

7. c) = 2 and v ~ A()cos(t + ()) where A = A0( 02 + e3)1/2e3/4 and = /4

+ arctan(0e3/2)
6.5 Relaxation Dynamics
3. b) ln(y0) 12 y02 = t + 12 (ln3 3) and the corner is at t = 1 12 ln3 , y = 1 and v =
2/3
d) T ~ 3 2ln2 1.614
5. a) subcritical saddle-node at ( b, gb) (0.1292, 0.0635)
6. a) supercritical saddle-node at (0 , y0) (280.76, 2.360) and subcritical saddlenode at ( 1 , y1) (336.6, 6.6355)
~
c) Y ~ y1 1/3(a0Ai(~) + a1Bi(~))/(a 0Ai(~) + a1Bi(~)) where =
/(15y 74) , = [(15y 74)(y 1)] 1/3 and ~
= ( )/2/3 = +
1

(2.3381...)2/3/

20

October 24, 2000

7. a) transcritical bifurcation at (0,0) and a subcritical saddle-node at (9/8, 3/4)

c) y ~ ys + 1/3Acos(t + ) where A2{ 22 + 94 A4[ 1 + 7(1 2ys)2/ 2]2} = 1

6.6 An Example Involving A Nonlinear Partial Differential Equation

1. a) us = 1/2Asin(nx) and b = n2 where A = 2/ 3
b) us = 0 stable for < 1 and us = 1/2Asin(x) stable for 0 1 << 1

2. a) us = Asin(nx) and b = (n)2 where

,
(i) n odd A = 3/(8n) and = 1 ,
and (ii) n even A2 = 6/(5b) and = 1/2
b) stable for < 2
Additional References: Bramson (1983) and Fisher (1937)
3. a) (i) us = 0 , and (ii) us = Ansin(nx) with = n(1 + An2/8) where n =
(n) 2
b) unbuckled state is stable if < 2 and unstable if > 2
6. b) = 0 and stable for < 1

c) v ~ [B0 + A0cos((1 + 12 )x + 0)] and ~ 14 A022 where = 1

8. c) u0 = (ui + uj)/2 , ij = (ui u j)/2 , ij = (1/8)1/2(uj u i) , and ij = 21/2sgn(uj
ui)(u1 + u2 + u3 3u 0) ; see Albano, et al. (1984)

9. b) for 0 < 7 the steady states are u i = ix , for 1 < 2 < 3 , where u1,u3 are
stable and u2 is unstable; for 7 < the steady state u3 is unique and stable
10. a) u ~ us +

vneint < 1

6.7 Bifurcation of Periodic Solutions

1. a) saddle-node at (1/4,1/2) , a Hopf at (0,0) , and a transcritical at (0,1)
b) y ~ 1/2Acos(t1 + ) where 8A = A(4 A2) and 24 = 36 31A 2 ]
2. a) ys = 0 asy. stable only when < 0
b) y ~ A(t)sin(t + 0) where A() = 1/( 0 + cexp(n) )1/2n

3. b) y = 0 unstable; y = y0 stable for 0 < rT < /2 and for rT > /2 there are stable
limit cycles
4. b) y = y0 is stable for y 0 < 2 and there's a Hopf bifurcation at y0 = 2

21

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6.8 Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations

3. a) r = r(r2 (1 )) and = 1
4. a) y = v = (1 + )/2
5. a) y = v = 1 is stable for < ( 1)-1 and unstable for > ( 1)1
b) a Hopf bifurcation takes place
6. a) x = /(1 ) , n2 = (1 )/ is stable for (1 )3 < 4
7. a) cs = Tsexp(Ts) and Ts = / ; steady state is asymptotically stable if > (Ts
1)exp(Ts)
b) supercritical Hopf bifurcation at l and subcritical Hopf bifurcation at r

d) l ~ (1 + e + e2 2 + ...) and r ~ ( 1 1.5 2 + ... ) where > 1 satisfies

exp() = ~ z0 + ln(z0) + ln(z0)/z0 where z0 = ln(1)
8. a) xs = / , y s = / is stable
b) xs = / , y s = / is stable if > c and it's unstable if 0 < < c ,

where c = (1 )1/2

9. a) = z = 0
b) = 0 and z = 0cos(t) ; the motion is straight up and down; see van der Burgh
(1968)
10. a) < 0
b) k2 = r02 and 0 < r0 < 1/2

11. a) Hopf bifurcation along line = for 1 < < 1

b) y ~ 1/2y0(t,) and v ~ 1/2v0(t,) where = t . As t , y0 sin() and v0
(1 2)1/2cos() + sin() where = (1 )(1 2)1/2 t + 0

22

October 24, 2000