Induction motors

These motors are probably the simplest and most rugged of all electric motors. They consist of two basic electrical assemblies: the wound stator and the rotor assembly. The rotor consists of laminated, cylindrical iron cores with slots for receiving the conductors. On early motors, the conductors were copper bars with ends welded to copper rings known as end rings. Viewed from the end, the rotor assembly resembles a squirrel cage, hence the name squirrel- cage motor is used to refer to induction motors. In modern induction motors, the most common type of rotor has cast-aluminum conductors and short-circuiting end rings. The rotor turns when the moving magnetic field induces a current in the shorted conductors. The speed at which the magnetic field rotates is the synchronous speed of the motor and is determined by the number of poles in the stator and the frequency of the power supply.

Where: Ns = synchronous speed f = frequency P = number of poles Synchronous speed is the absolute upper limit of motor speed. At synchronous speed, there is no difference between rotor speed and rotating field speed, so no voltage is induced in the rotor bars, hence no torque is developed. Therefore, when running, the rotor must rotate slower than the magnetic field. The rotor speed is just slow enough to cause the proper amount of rotor current to flow, so that the resulting torque is sufficient to overcome windage and friction losses, and drive the load. This speed difference between the rotor and magnetic field, called slip, is normally referred to as a percentage of synchronous speed:

Where: s = slip Ns = synchronous speed Na = actual speed Polyphase motors NEMA classifies polyphase induction motors according to locked rotor torque and current, breakdown torque, pull up torque, and percent slip.

Figure 4 - Typical speed-torque characteristics for Design A, B, C, and D

Locked rotor torque is the minimum torque that the motors. motor develops at rest for all angular positions of the rotor at rated voltage and frequency. Locked rotor current is the steady state current from the line at rated voltage and frequency with the rotor locked. Breakdown torque is the maximum torque that the motor develops at rated voltage and frequency, without an abrupt drop in speed. Pull up torque is the minimum torque developed during the period of acceleration from rest to the speed that breakdown torque occurs. Figure 4 illustrates typical speedtorque curves for NEMA Design A, B, C, and D motors. Design A motors have a higher breakdown torque than Design B motors and are usually designed for a specific use. Slip is 5%, or less. Design B motors account for most of the induction motors sold. Often referred to as general purpose motors, slip is 5% or less. Design C motors have high starting torque with normal starting current and low slip. This design is normally used where breakaway loads are high at starting, but normally run at rated full load, and are not subject to high overload demands after running speed has been reached. Slip is 5% or less. Design D motors exhibit high slip (5 to 13%), very high starting torque, low starting current, and low full load speed. Because of high slip, speed can drop when fluctuating loads are encountered. This design is subdivided into several groups that vary according to slip or the shape of the speedtorque curve. These motors are usually available only on a special order basis.

Wound-rotor motors Although the squirrel-cage induction motor is relatively inflexible with regard to speed and torque characteristics, a special wound-rotor version has controllable speed and torque. Application of wound-rotor motors is markedly different from squirrel-cage motors because of the accessibility of the rotor circuit. Various performance characteristics can be obtained by inserting different values of resistance in the rotor circuit. Wound rotor motors are generally started with secondary resistance in the rotor circuit. This resistance is sequentially reduced to permit the motor to come up to speed. Thus the motor can develop substantial torque while limiting locked rotor current. The secondary resistance can be designed for continuous service to dissipate heat produced by continuous operation at reduced speed, frequent acceleration, or acceleration with a large inertia load. External resistance gives the motor a characteristic that results in a large drop in rpm for a fairly small change in load. Reduced speed is provided down to about 50%, rated speed, but efficiency is low. Single-phase motors These motors are commonly fractional-horsepower types, though integral sizes are generally available to 10 hp. The most common single phase motor types are shaded pole, split phase, capacitorstart, and permanent split capacitor.

Figure 5 - Rings in shaded-pole motor

Shaded pole motors have a continuous copper loop wound around a small portion of each pole, Figure 5. The loop causes the magnetic field through the ringed portion to lag behind the field in the unringed portion. This produces a slightly rotating field in each pole face sufficient to turn the rotor. As the rotor accelerates, its torque increases and rated speed is reached. Shaded pole motors have low starting torque and are available only in fractional and subfractional horsepower sizes. Slip is about 10%, or more at rated load. Split phase motors, Figure 6, use both a starting and running winding. The starting winding is displaced 90 electrical degrees from the running winding. The running winding has many turns of large diameter wire wound in the bottom of the stator slots to get high reactance. Therefore, the current in the starting winding leads the current in the running winding, causing a rotating field. During startup, both windings are connected to the line, Figure 7. As the motor comes up to speed (at about 25% of full-load speed), a centrifugal switch actuated by the rotor, or an electronic switch, disconnects the starting winding. Split phase motors are considered low or moderate starting torque motors and are limited to about 1/3 hp. Capacitor-start motors are similar to split phase motors. The main difference is that a capacitor is placed in series with the auxiliary winding, Figure 8. This type of motor produces greater locked rotor and accelerating torque per ampere than does the split phase motor. Sizes range from fractional to 10 hp at 900 to 3600 rpm. Split-capacitor motors also have an auxiliary winding with a capacitor, but they remain continuously energized and aid in producing a higher power factor than other capacitor designs. This makes them well suited to variable speed applications.

distort alternating field sufficiently to cause rotation.

Figure 6 - Split-phase windings in a twopole motor. Starting winding and running winding are 90 apart.

Figure 7 - Split-phase start induction motor.

All About Electric Induction Motors Tutorials

All About Induction Motor Facts, Tutorials and Important Information Advantages of a three phase induction motor: This is simple in construction. It is robust. It si almost unbreakable. - It requires minimum care and maintenance. - For a given horse power cost of induction motor is less. - It has high efficiency - It has a reasonably good power factor. - It is self starting Disadvantages of a three phase induction motor: - Its speed can not be varied without loss of efficiency. - Its speed decrease with the increase of load. - It has inferior starting torque Principle of Induction Motor: When a three phase supply is given to the stator, a rotating field produces induced e.m.f. in rotor windings which cause induced currents tend to propose the action, producing them and therefore they circulate in such a manner that a torque is produced in the rotor tending it to cause it to flow the rotating field and thus reduce the relative motion which is producing the induced currents.

Key facts on Induction Motor: - Squirrel cage induction motor has very small starting torque. - Just like a D.C. shunt motor, the speed of an induction motor operating in stable region decreases with increase in load. - Magnetic flux produced due to the stator winding with three phase current of frequency and which is of constant value, rotates at synchonous speed. If the number of pole of the motor. the synchronous speed is given by Ns = 120f/P. - An induction motor rotor runs at a speed which is always less than the speed of the stator field. - In a three phase induction motor the torque increases with the increase in supply voltage. - Improvement in the power factor in an induction motor increase the torque and decrease the current due to increased impedance. - Two of the power supply terminals to a three phase induction motor got interchanged during recondition after maintenance of the motor, when put back into service, the motor will rotate in the reverse direction to that prior to maintenance. - If the air gap of the induction motor is increased the magnetizing current will increse. - In a slip ring induction motor resistance is connected in rotor phases to increase the starting current. - For a three phase wound rotor induction motor, and increase in rotor resistance effects the motor performance in the starting current decrease. - It is advisable to avoid line starting of induction motor and use starter because motor takes five to seven times its full load current. - A change of five percent in the supply voltage of a three phase induction motor will produce to its torque a change of approximately ten percent.

Induction motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Two three-phase induction motors.

An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction, rather than a commutator or slip rings as in other types of motor. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are rugged and have no brushes. Single-phase versions are used in small appliances. Their speed is determined by the frequency of the supply current, so they are most widely used in constant-speed applications, although variable speed versions, using variable frequency drives are becoming more common. The most common type is the squirrel cage motor, and this term is sometimes used for induction motors generally.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Operation

o o o

2.1 Synchronous speed 2.2 Slip 2.3 Torque curve

3 Construction 4 Speed control 5 Equivalent circuit 6 Starting 7 Linear induction motor 8 Electrical energy efficiency 9 Sources 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

[edit]History

Squirrel cage rotor

The idea of a rotating magnetic field was developed by Franois Arago in 1824,[1] and first implemented by Walter Baily.[2] Based on this, practical induction motors were independently invented by Nikola Tesla in 1883 and Galileo Ferraris in 1885.[3] According to his 1915 autobiography Tesla conceived the rotating magnetic field in 1882 and used it to invent the first induction motor in 1883;[4] Ferraris developed the idea in

1885.[5] In 1888, Ferraris published his research to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, where he detailed the foundations of motor operation;[6] Tesla, in the same year, was granted U.S. Patent 381,968 for his motor. The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky a year later.

[edit]Operation

A 3-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction motor.

In both induction and synchronous motors, the stator is powered with alternating current (polyphase current in large machines) and designed to create a rotating magnetic field which rotates in time with the AC oscillations. In a synchronous motor, the rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field. By contrast, in an induction motor the rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. Therefore the magnetic field through the rotor is changing (rotating). The rotor has windings in the form of closed loops of wire. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor as in a transformer. These currents in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor, that interact with (push against) the stator field. Due to Lenz's law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose this the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field to make the relative speed between rotor and rotating stator magnetic field zero. For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field ( ), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents

would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called "slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors.[7] An induction motor can be used as induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.

[edit]Synchronous

speed

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is the rotation rate of the rotating magnetic field created by the stator. It is always an integer fraction of the supply frequency. The synchronous speed ns in revolutions per minute (RPM) is given by:

where f is the frequency of the AC supply current in Hz and p is the number of magnetic pole pairs per phase.[8] For example, a small 3-phase motor typically has six magnetic poles organized as three opposing pairs 120 apart, each powered by one phase of the supply current. So there is one pair of poles per phase, which means p = 1, and for a line frequency of 50 Hz the synchronous speed is 3000 RPM.

[edit]Slip

Typical torque curve as a function of slip (slip is represented by g here, equivalent tos in the formula at left).

Slip s is the rotation rate of the magnetic field, relative to the rotor, divided by the absolute rotation rate of the stator magnetic field

where

is the rotor rotation speed in rpm.[9] It is zero at synchronous speed and 1 (100%) when the

rotor is stationary. The slip determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces large torque. [10] At full rated load, typical values of slip are 4-6% for small motors and 1.5-2% for large motors, so induction motors have good speed regulation and are considered constant-speed motors.

[edit]Torque

curve

The torque exerted by the motor as a function of slip is given by a torque curve. Over a motor's normal load range, the torque line is close to a straight line, so the torque is proportional to slip.[11] As the load increases above the rated load, increases in slip provide less additional torque, so the torque line begins to curve over. Finally at a slip of around 20%[10] the motor reaches its maximum torque, called

the "breakdown torque". If the load torque reaches this value, the motor will stall. At values of slip above this, the torque decreases. In 3-phase motors the torque drops but still remains high at a slip of 100% (stationary rotor), so these motors are self-starting. The starting torque of an induction motor is less than other types of motor, but still around 300% of rated torque.[11] In 2-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to the stator such as shaded poles to provide starting torque.

[edit]Construction

Typical winding pattern for a 3 phase, 4 pole motor (phases here are labelled U, V, W). Note the interleaving of the pole windings and the resulting quadrupole field.

The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field in the motor, so they must incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. There are three types of rotor: squirrel cage rotors made up of skewed (to reduce noise) bars of copper or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, slip ring rotors with windings connected

to slip ringsreplacing the bars of the squirrel cage, and solid core rotors made from mild steel. For information on die-cast copper rotors in energy-efficient induction motors, see: Copper die-cast rotors.

[edit]Speed

control

Typical torque curves for different line frequencies. By varying the line frequency with an inverter, induction motors can be kept on the stable part of the torque curve above the peak over a wide range of rotation speeds. However, the inverters can be expensive, and fixed line frequencies and other start up schemes are often employed instead.

The theoretical unloaded speed (with slip approaching zero) of the induction motor is controlled by the number of pole pairs and the frequency of the supply voltage. When driven from a fixed line frequency, loading the motor reduces the rotation speed. When used in this way, induction motors are usually run so that in operation the shaft rotation speed is kept above the peak torque point; then the motor will tend to run at reasonably constant speed. Below this point, the speed tends to be unstable and the motor may stall or run at reduced shaft speed, depending on the nature of the mechanical load. Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency, and induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. However, many older DC motors have now been replaced with induction motors and accompanying inverters in industrial applications.

[edit]Equivalent

circuit

The equivalent circuit of an induction motor.

The equivalent circuit of an induction motor has the equivalent resistance of the stator on the left, consisting of the copper and core resistance in series, as reactance, represented by the inductor . . During operation, the stator induces

represents the effect of the rotor passing through the , is composed of the equivalent value

stator's magnetic field. The effective resistance of the rotor,

of the machine's power and the ohmic resistance of the stator windings and squirrel cage. The induction motor equivalent circuit when idle is approximately , which is mostly

reactive. Induction motors generally have a poor power factor, which can be improved by a compensation network. The idle current draw is often near the rated current, due to the copper and core losses existing without load. In these conditions, this is usually more than half the power loss at the rated load. If the torque against the motor spindle is increased, the active current in the rotor increases by . Due to

the construction of the induction motor, the two resistances induce magnetic flux, in contrast to synchronous machines where it is induced only by the reactive current in the stator windings. The current produces a voltage drop in the cage factor of and a slightly higher one in the stator and the copper factor

windings. Hence, the losses increase faster in the rotor than in the stator. of both cause

losses, meaning the efficiency improves with increasing load and reduces

with temperature. gets smaller with smaller frequency and must be reduced by the delivered drive voltage.

Thus,

increases engine power losses. In continuous operation, this is an approximation

because a nominal torque generated by the cooling of the rotor and stator is not included in the calculation. Above the rated speed or frequency, induction motors are more effective at higher voltages. Today, and are measured automatically and thus can be used on a motor to

automatically configure itself and thus protect it from overload. Holding torques and speeds close to zero can be achieved with vector controls. There can be problems with cooling here, since the fan is usually mounted on the rotor.[citation needed]

[edit]Starting
Main article: Motor controller

Torque curves for 4 types of asynchronous induction motors: A) Single-phase motor B) Polyphase squirrel cage motor C) Polyphase squirrel cage deep bar motor D) Polyphase double squirrel cage motor

A single phase induction motor is not self starting; thus, it is necessary to provide a starting circuit and associated start windings to give the initial rotation in a single phase induction motor. The normal running windings within such a motor can cause the rotor to turn in either direction, so the starting circuit determines the operating direction. A polyphase induction motor is self-starting and produces torque even at standstill. The four methods of starting an induction motor are direct on-line, reactor, auto-transformer and star-delta. Unlike a wound-rotor motor, the rotor circuit is inaccessible and it is not feasible to introduce extra resistance for starting or speed control. For small single-phase shaded-pole motor of a few watts, starting is done by a shaded pole, with a turn of copper wire around part of the pole. The current induced in this turn lags behind the supply current, creating a delayed magnetic field around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts sufficient rotational character to start the motor. These motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans and record players, as the starting torque is very low and low efficiency is not objectionable. Larger single phase motors have a second stator winding fed with out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or having it have different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding. In some designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by a centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or athermistor which heats up and increases its resistance, reducing the current through the second winding to an insignificant level. Other designs keep the second winding on when running, improving torque.

Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed/torque characteristics. The current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of the inducted current. At standstill, the rotor current is the same frequency as the stator current, and tends to travel at the outermost parts of the squirrel-cage rotor bars. As the rotor accelerates, the slip frequency declines, and current tends to travel deeper within the squirrel cage bars. Polyphase motors can generate torque from standstill, so no extra mechanism is required to initiate rotation. The different bar shapes can give usefully different speed/torque characteristics as well as some control over the inrush current at startup. In a wound rotor motor, slip rings are provided and external resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit, allowing the speed/torque characteristic to be changed for purposes of acceleration control and speed control.

[edit]Linear

induction motor

Main article: linear induction motor A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but which has been designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply. Their uses include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, and linear actuators. They have also been used for pumping liquid metals.[12]

[edit]Electrical

energy efficiency

Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. There is existing and forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-efficiency induction-type motors in defined equipment. For more information, see: Premium efficiencyand Copper in energy efficient motors.

[edit]Sources

Henri Boy de la Tour (1906). The induction motor: its theory and design, set forth by a practical method of calculation. Translated Cyprien Odilon Mailloux. McGraw Pub. Co..

Benjamin Franklin Bailey (1911). The induction motor. McGraw-Hill. Bernhard Arthur Behrend (1901). The induction motor: A short treatise on its theory and design, with numerous experimental data and diagrams. Electrical world and engineer.

[edit]See

also

Induction generator Premium efficiency Copper in energy efficient motors

[edit]References

1. ^ Babbage, C. and Herschel, J.W.F. (1825) "Account of the repetition of M. Arago's experiments on the magnetism manifested by various substances during the act of rotation," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 115, pages 467-496. 2. ^ Silvanus Phillips Thompson, Polyphase electric currents and alternate-current motors (London, England : E. & F.N. Span, 1895), Page 84. 3. ^ The Electrical Engineer. (1888). London: Biggs & Co. Pg., 239. [cf., "[...] new application of the alternating current in the production of rotary motion was made known almost simultaneously by two experimenters, Nikola Tesla and Galileo Ferraris, and the subject has attracted general attention from the fact that no commutator or connection of any kind with the armature was required."] 4. ^ Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla. Pg 115 5. ^ Galileo Ferraris, "Electromagnetic rotation with an alternating current," Electrican, Vol 36 [1885]. pg 360-75. 6. ^ "Two-Phase Induction Motor" (2011), The Case Files: Nikola Tesla, The Franklin Institute. 7. ^ "Induction (Asynchronous) Machines". 8. ^ "Induction Motors" (2011), Electric Motors Reference Center, Machine Design, Penton Media, Inc. 9. ^ TORQUE SLIP CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTOR By Avinash SrivastavaRavi Kumar (MTECH CAID MSRIT) 10. ^
a b

Herman, Stephen L. (2011). Alternating Current Fundamentals, 8th Ed.. USA: Cengage

Learning. pp. 529536. ISBN 1-111-03913-5. 11. ^

a b

Keljik, Jeffrey J. Keljik (2008). Electricity Four, 9th Ed.. Cengage Learning. pp. 112

115. ISBN 1-4354-0031-3. 12. ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fgsAAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA52&ots=NfAng_7A27&dq=einstein %20Linear%20induction%20motor&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q=einstein%20Linear%20induction%2 0motor&f=false

[edit]External

links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Induction motors

A drawing of an induction motor

(Italian) Rotating magnetic fields: interactive

Construct your squirrelcage electromotor using povray [1] More on Induction Motor.

INDUCTION MOTOR

1. Introduction: The Induction motor is a three phase AC motor and is the most widely used machine. Its characteristic features areo o o o Simple and rugged construction Low cost and minimum maintenance High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency Needs no extra starting motor and need not be synchronized

An Induction motor has basically two parts Stator and Rotor The Stator is made up of a number of stampings with slots to carry three phase windings. It is wound for a definite number of poles. The windings are geometrically spaced 120 degrees apart. Two types of rotors are used in Induction motors - Squirrelcage rotor and Wound rotor. INDUCTION MOTOR:

All loads moved by electric motors are really moved by magnetism. The purpose of every component in a motor is to help harness, control, and use magnetic force. When applying an AC drive system it helps to remember you are actually applying magnets to move a load. To move a load fast does not require more magnets, you just move the magnets fast. To move a heavier load or to decrease acceleration time (accelerate faster) more magnets (more torque) are needed. This is the basis for all motor applications.

STATOR CONSTRUCTION: The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as electromagnets. The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor. The stator core of a NEMA motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.

STATOR WINDINGS; Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.

Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an electromagnet. Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source. ROTOR CONSTRUCTION: The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit. The most common type of rotor is the "squirrel cage" rotor. Other types of rotor construction will be mentioned later in the course. The construction of the squirrel cage rotor is reminiscent of rotating exercise wheels found in cages of pet rodents.

The rotor consists of a stack of steel laminations with evenly spaced conductor bars around the circumference.

The laminations are stacked together to form a rotor core. Aluminum is die cast in the slots of the rotor core to form a series of conductors around the perimeter of the rotor. Current flow through the conductors form the electromagnet. The conductor bars are mechanically and electrically connected with end rings. The rotor core mounts on a steel shaft to form a rotor assembly.

INDUCTION MOTOR - 2

ENCLOSURE: The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap separating it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator. The enclosure also protects the electrical and operating parts of the motor from harmful effects of the environment in which the motor operates. Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. A fan, also mounted on the shaft, is used on the motor shown below for cooling. ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is produced around the conductor. The magnetic field is made up of lines of flux, just like a natural magnet. The size and strength of the magnetic field will increase and decrease as the current flow strength increases and decreases. LEFT HAND RULE FOR CONDUCTORS: A definite relationship exists between the direction of current flow and the direction of the magnetic field. The left-hand rule for conductors demonstrates this relationship. If a currentcarrying conductor is grasped with the left hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic lines of flux.

ELECTROMAGNET:

An electromagnet can be made by winding the conductor into a coil and applying a DC voltage. The lines of flux, formed by current flow through the conductor, combine to produce a larger and stronger magnetic field. The center of the coil is known as the core. In this simple electromagnet the core is air. Iron is a better conductor of flux than air. The air core of an electromagnet can be replaced by a piece of soft iron. When a piece of iron is placed in the center of the coil more lines of flux can flow and the magnetic field is strengthened. NO OF TURNS: The strength of the magnetic field in the DC electromagnet can be increased by increasing the number of turns in the coil. The greater the number of turns the stronger the magnetic field will be.

CHANGING POLARITY: The magnetic field of an electromagnet has the same characteristics as a natural magnet, including a north and south pole. However, when the direction of current flow through the electromagnet changes, the polarity of the electromagnet changes. The polarity of an electromagnet connected to an AC source will change at the same frequency as the frequency of the AC source. This can be demonstrated in the following illustration. At Time 1 current flow is at zero. There is no magnetic field produced around the electromagnet. At Time 2 current is flowing in a positive direction. A magnetic field builds up around the electromagnet. The electromagnet assumes a polarity with the south pole on the top and the north pole on the bottom. At Time 3 current flow is at its peak positive value. The strength of the electromagnetic field is at its greatest value. At Time 4 current flow decreases and the magnetic field begins to collapse, until Time 5 when current flow and magnetic field are at zero. Current immediately begins to increase in the opposite direction. At Time 6 current is increasing in a negative direction. The polarity of the electromagnetic field has changed. The north pole is now on top and the south pole is on the bottom. The negative half of the cycle continues through Times 7 and 8, returning to zero at Time 9. This process will repeat 60 times a second with a 60 Hz AC power supply.

INDUCED VOLTAGE: A conductor moving through a magnetic field will have a voltage induced into it. This electrical principle is used in the operation of AC induction motors. In the following illustration an electromagnet is connected to an AC power source. Another electromagnet is placed above it. The second electromagnet is in a separate circuit. There is no physical connection between the two circuits. Voltage and current are zero in both circuits at Time 1. At Time 2 voltage and current are increasing in the bottom circuit. A magnetic field builds up in the bottom electromagnet. Lines of flux from the magnetic field building up in the bottom electromagnet cut across the top electromagnet. A voltage is induced in the top electromagnet and current flows through it. At Time 3 current flow has reached its peak. Maximum current is flowing in both circuits. The magnetic field around the coil continues to build up and collapse as the alternating current continues to increase and decrease. As the magnetic field moves through space, moving out from the coil as it builds up and back towards the coil as it collapses, lines of flux cut across the top coil. As current flows in the top electromagnet it creates its own magnetic field.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION: The polarity of the magnetic field induced in the top electromagnet is opposite the polarity of the magnetic field in the bottom electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the top electromagnet will follow the bottom electromagnet when it is moved.

DEVELOPING A ROTATING MAGENETIC FIELD: The principles of electromagnetism explain the shaft rotation of an AC motor. Recall that the stator of an AC motor is a hollow cylinder in which coils of insulated wire are inserted.

INDUCTION MOTOR - 3

STATOR COIL ARRANGEMENT: The following schematic illustrates the relationship of the coils. In this example six coils are used, two coils for each of the three phases. The coils operate in pairs. The coils are wrapped around the soft iron core material of the stator. These coils are referred to as motor windings. Each motor winding becomes a separate electromagnet. The coils are wound in such a way that when current flows in them one coil is a north pole and its pair is a south pole. For example, if A1 were a north pole then A2 would be a south pole. When current reverses direction the polarity of the poles would also reverse.

POWER SUPPLY: The stator is connected to a 3-phase AC power supply. In the following illustration phase A is connected to phase A of the power supply. Phase B and C would also be connected to phases B and C of the power supply respectively.

Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120 apart. In this example, a second set of three-phase windings is installed. The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase winding appears. In this example, each phase winding appears two times. This is a two-pole stator. If each phase winding appeared four times it would be a four-pole stator.

When AC voltage is applied to the stator, current flows through the windings. The magnetic field developed in a phase winding depends on the direction of current flow through that winding. The following chart is used here for explanation only. It will be used in the next few illustrations to demonstrate how a rotating magnetic field is developed. It assumes that a positive current flow in the A1, B1 and C1 windings result in a north pole. Winding Current Flow Direction Positive Negative A1 A2 B1 B2 North South North South South North South North

C1 C2

North South

South North

START: It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start time is picked when no current is flowing through one phase. In the following illustration, for example, a start time has been selected during which phase A has no current flow, phase B has current flow in a negative direction and phase C has current flow in a positive direction. Based on the above chart, B1 and C2 are south poles and B2 and C1 are north poles. Magnetic lines of flux leave the B2 north pole and enter the nearest south pole, C2. Magnetic lines of flux also leave the C1 north pole and enter the nearest south pole, B1. A magnetic field results, as indicated by the arrow.

TIME 1: If the field is evaluated at 60 intervals from the starting point, at Time 1, it can be seen that the field will rotate 60. At Time 1 phase C has no current flow, phase A has current flow in a positive direction and phase B has current flow in a negative direction. Following the same logic as used for the starting point, windings A1 and B2 are north poles and windings A2 and B1 are south poles.

TIME 2: At Time 2 the magnetic field has rotated 60. Phase B has no current flow. Although current is decreasing in phase A it is still flowing in a positive direction. Phase C is now flowing in a negative direction. At start it was flowing in a positive direction. Current flow has changed directions in the phase C windings and the magnetic poles have reversed polarity.

360 degree ROTATION: At the end of six such time intervals the magnetic field will have rotated one full revolution or 360. This process will repeat 60 times a second on a 60 Hz power supply.

INDUCTION MOTOR - 4

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED: The speed of the rotating magnetic field is referred to as synchronous speed (NS). Synchronous speed is equal to 120 times the frequency (F), divided by the number of poles (P). Ns = 120 F / P If the frequency of the applied power supply for the two-pole stator used in the previous example is 60 Hz, synchronous speed is 3600 RPM. N s =( 120 x 60 )/ 2 N = 3600 RPM

The synchronous speed decreases as the number of poles increase. The following table shows the synchronous speed at 60 Hz for the corresponding number of poles. no of poles 2 4 6 8 synchronous speed 3600 1800 1200 900

The magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed, VSthe motors theoretical top speed that would result in no torque output. In actual operation, rotor speed always lags the magnetic fields speed, allowing the rotor bars to cut magnetic lines of force and produce useful torque. This speed difference is called slip speed. Typical slip values range 2-5% of VS at running speed, but can be large at motor startup. Slip also increases with load, so for accurate control of speed, closed-loop control or feedback is needed. ROTOR ROTATION: PERMANENT MAGNET: To see how a rotor works, a magnet mounted on a shaft can be substituted for the squirrel cage rotor. When the stator windings are energized a rotating magnetic field is established. The magnet has its own magnetic field that interacts with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. The north pole of the rotating magnetic field attracts the south pole of the magnet, and the south pole of the rotating magnetic field attracts the north pole of the magnet. As the rotating magnetic field rotates, it pulls the magnet along causing it to rotate. This design, used on some motors, isreferred to as a permanent magnet synchronous motor.

INDUCED VOLTAGE ELECTROMAGNET: The squirrel cage rotor acts essentially the same as the magnet. When power is applied to the stator, current flows through the winding, causing an expanding electromagnetic field which cuts across the rotor bars.

When a conductor, such as a rotor bar, passes through a magnetic field a voltage (emf) is induced in the conductor. The induced voltage causes a current flow in the conductor. Current flows through the rotor bars and around the end ring. The current flow in the conductor bars produces magnetic fields around each rotor bar. Recall that in an AC circuit current continuously changes direction and amplitude. The resultant magnetic field of the stator and rotor continuously change. The squirrel cage rotor becomes an electromagnet with alternating north and south poles.

The following drawing illustrates one instant in time during which current flow through winding A1 produces a north pole. The expanding field cuts across an adjacent rotor bar, inducing a voltage. The resultant magnetic field in the rotor tooth produces a south pole. As the stator magnetic field rotates the rotor follows.

SLIP: There must be a relative difference in speed between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. If the rotor and the rotating magnetic field were turning at the same speed no relative motion would exist between the two, therefore no lines of flux would be cut, and no voltage would be induced in the rotor. The difference in speed is called slip. Slip is necessary to produce torque. Slip is dependent on load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down or increase slip. A decrease in load will cause the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. Slip is expressed as a percentage and can be determined with the following formula. % Slip = (Ns - Nr) x 100/Ns For example, a four-pole motor operated at 60 Hz has a synchronous speed (NS) of 1800 RPM. If the rotor speed at full load is 1765 RPM (NR), then slip is 1.9%. % Slip = (1800 - 1765) x 100 / 1800 % Slip = 1.9% WOUND ROTOR MOTOR: The discussion to this point has been centered on the more common squirrel cage rotor. Another type is the wound rotor. A major difference between the wound rotor motor and the squirrel cage rotor is the conductors of the wound rotor consist of wound coils instead of bars. These coils are connected through slip rings and brushes to external variable resistors. The rotating magnetic field induces a voltage in the rotor windings. Increasing the resistance of the rotor windings causes less current flow in the rotor windings, decreasing speed. Decreasing the resistance allows more current flow, speeding the motor up.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR: Another type of AC motor is the synchronous motor. The synchronous motor is not an induction motor. One type of synchronous motor is constructed somewhat like a squirrel cage rotor. In addition to rotor bars coil windings are added. The coil windings are connected to an external DC power supply by slip rings and brushes. On start AC is applied to the stator and the synchronous motor starts like a squirrel cage rotor. DC is applied to the rotor coils after the motor reaches maximum speed. This produces a strong constant magnetic field in the rotor which locks in step with the rotating magnetic field. The rotor turns at the same speed as synchronous speed (speed of the rotating magnetic field). There is no slip. Variations of synchronous motors include a permanent magnet rotor. The rotor is a permanent magnet and an external DC source is not required. These are found on small horsepower synchronous motors.

Induction motors have five major components of loss; Iron loss, Copper loss, Frictional loss, Windage loss and Sound loss. All these losses add up to the total loss of the induction motor. Frictional loss, windage loss and sound loss are constant, independent of shaft load, and are typically very small. The major losses are Iron loss and Copper Loss. The iron loss is essentially constant, independent of shaft load, while the copper loss is an I2R loss which is shaft load dependent. The iron loss is voltage dependent and so will reduce with reducing voltage.