Biomedical Signals and

Systems (BME130)
Lecture Notes
Zoran Nenadic, D.Sc.
Associate Professor
Biomedical Engineering
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
Last modied:
October 3, 2012
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vices)!
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Copyright c 2012 Zoran Nenadic
Topic: Introduction to BME130
Your main BME130 resource:
BME Class Websites
Can be accessed through eee website.
It is your responsibility to check this page fre-
quently for updates and announcements.
Q: What is BME130 about?
A:
Systems: It is about applying mathematical sys-
tem theory (modeling, analysis, control) to biomed-
ical systems.
Signals: It is about processing and analyzing biomed-
ical signals.
1
Examples of (Biomedical) Systems
Example 1. Eye movement
motorneurons
synapses
eyeball

muscles
J

(t) +B

(t) +K(t) = (t)

Note:

(t) =
d(t)
dt
Example 2. Cellular dynamics
membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondria
Cc
Ro
Cm
V
m

C
m
(t) = R
0
(t) K
12
[C
m
(t) C
c
(t)]
V
c

C
c
(t) = K
12
[C
m
(t) C
c
(t)] K
2
C
c
(t)
2
Examples of (Biomedical) Signals
Example 3. Electrocardiogram (ECG)
0 2 4 6 8 10
1
0
1
Time [sec]
E
C
G

[
m
V
]
Example 4. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
250 500 750 1000
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Time [ms]
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

#
3
Example 5. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imag-
ing (fMRI)
Note: image is a signal.
4
Applications of System Theory
System (*)
Input
Output
Modeling: Find mathematical equation(s) (*) that de-
scribe the system.
Analysis: What can be said about the behavior of the
system. Are the outputs oscillatory, aperiodic? How
quickly do they reach the steady state? What frequen-
cies is the system tuned to, etc?
Control: Can we gure out how inputs aects outputs?
Can we nd a set of inputs so that outputs have a
certain behavior?
Sensitivity analysis: How are the changes in parame-
ters aecting the behavior of the system.
5
Example 6. Disease outbreak (foot and mouth
disease UK 2001)
F
_
y(, , t)
t
,
y(, , t)

,
y(, , t)

, (, , t), ...
_
= u(, , t)
y(, , t) - degree of infection at place (, ) at time
t.
u(, , t) - control variable (slaughter, vaccinate,
quarantine)
What is the best control strategy?
6
Example 7. Population dynamics
N(t +1) = N(t) +births
. .
BN(t)
deaths
. .
DN(t)
+immigration
. .
IN(t)
emigration
. .
EN(t)
N(t) - population at year t
B - birth rate (US: 1 person in 7 sec.)
D - death rate (US: 1 person in 13 sec.)
I - immigration rate
E - emigration rate
N(t +1) = N(t) +(B D +I E
. .

)N(t)
= (1 +) N(t)
Solution: N(t
0
+T) = N(t
0
)(1 +)
T
- exponen-
tial growth
Does not quite t the census data! Can we make
better predictions?
7
Time-varying system: B = B(t), D = D(t), I =
I(t), E = E(t)
N(t +1) = [1 +(t)] N(t)
year (source: US Census Bureau)
1999 0.90%
1992 1.14%
1950 2.05% (baby boomers)
Tweaking the parameters B(t), I(t), etc., we can
control the growth of population.
These manipulations are performed with the model,
and predictions are made.
8
Example 8. Gene regulatory networks (E. coli)
u(t) = u(t) +

u
1 +v(t)

v(t) = v(t) +

v
1 +u(t)

u(t) and v(t) are the concentrations of two repres-

sors.
Each repressor inhibits the synthesis of the mRNA
for the other.
By analyzing these equations, new bacteria can be
engineered that have specic properties (e.g. we
can design a gene network that is bistable)
9
Example 9. Enzyme kinetics
k
1
k
2
E +S

E S E +P
k
1
E - enzyme, S - substrate, ES - enzyme-substrate
complex, P - product
k
1
, k
2
, k
1
- the reaction rate constant
[S], [ES], [P] - concentrations
d[S]
dt
= k
1
[E][S] +k
1
[ES]
d[ES]
dt
= k
1
[E][S] k
1
[ES] k
2
[ES]
d[P]
dt
= k
2
[ES]
Can predict (and manipulate) the rate of product
formation.
10
Other examples:
Modeling and controlling the depth of anes-
thesia.
Modeling the lead uptake in children (lead ex-
posure still unsolved problem)
Modeling of arsenic transport and metabolism
in animals, and trying to generalize models to
humans.
Modeling cancer spread and chemotherapy.
Modeling chemical reaction (e.g. Belousov-
Zhabotinsky), and designing new chemical ex-
periments.
and many more
11
Applications of Signal Processing
Example 10. Image processing (denoising)
An image of a celebrity scientist garbled beyond
recognition and successfully restored.
12
Example 11. Image processing (edge detection)
Left-original image, right-edges detected.
Listing 1: MATLAB
R
Code

l oad ma n d r i l l
i magesc (X)
col ormap gray
set ( gca , Dat aAs pect Rat i o , [ 1 1 1 ] )
ax i s o f f
B = edge (X, s o b e l ) ;
f i gur e
i magesc(1B)
col ormap gray
set ( gca , Dat aAs pect Rat i o , [ 1 1 1 ] )
ax i s o f f

13
Example 12. Sound analysis
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time [s]
0 1024 2048 3072 4096
0
200
400
600
Frequency [Hz]
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

[
k
H
z
]
Time [s]
0 4 8
1.568
1.248
0.928
0.608
0.288
Handels Messiah (play demo handel.m)
14
Example 13. JPEG compression (wavelets)
15
Other examples:
Processing and analysis of biomedical images
for diagnostic or surgical purposes (e.g. image
segmentation, tracking of anatomical changes,
image registration).
Processing and analysis of biomedical signals
for bedside monitoring (e.g. intracranial pres-
sure, fetal heart rate).
Speech processing for cochlear implants.
Speech processing for non-medical applications
(e.g. voice recognition).
Filtering, denoising, compression and recog-
nition of biomedical (and other) signals (e.g.
FBI ngerprint database, the National DNA
Index System).
16
Miscellaneous applications:
Brain-computer interface (BCI)
Example 14. Noinvasive EEG-based BCI
(play christine take1 edit.wmv)
More examples can be found at our YouTube page
17
Topic: Systems, Signals and Variables

Signals and Systems

Biomedical Signals
and Systems
Biomed. Signals and Systems Signals and Systems
Systems - the denition is quite vague (solar sys-
tems, ecosystems, economic systems, etc.).
18
Denition 1. System is dened as a collection of
units (elements, parts, devices, organs), function-
ally organized to accomplish certain goals by con-
suming, transforming and exchanging energy, mat-
ter and/or information.
In engineering, systems are typically associated
with objects (e.g. machines, electric circuits, tis-
sues, ...) and/or processes (chemical reaction,
blood ow, ...). It is important to realize that:
1) No system is isolated (a system always interacts
with the environment and other systems)
2) A system often comprises other simpler inter-
acting systems called subsystems
Signals - measurements of physical quantities (vari-
ables) that characterize systems (e.g. position,
velocity, temperature, ination rate, stock value,
blood pressure, ...).
19
Example 15. House

T
i

r
system: house
variable: inside temperature T
i
signal: thermometer reading r T
i
Generally, system variables are changing in time
and space, e.g. T
i
= f(t, , , ). These variables
are called spatio-temporal variables, and we will
see later that they obey partial dierential equa-
tions (PDEs).
Consequently, r = g(t, , , ). These signals are
called spatio-temporal signals.
Example 16. Two thermometers
Two identical thermometers in two dierent rooms
might read dierent temperatures over time:
0 5 10 15 20
30
40
50
60
70
r
1
(t) = g(t,
1
,
1
,
1
)
r
2
(t) = g(t,
2
,
2
,
2
)
Time [h]
T [F]
20
Clearly, r depends not only on time, but also on the
choice of triplet (, , ), therefore it is a spatio-
temporal signal.
Similarly, variables (signals) that only depend on
time are called temporal variables (signals). We
will see later that temporal variables obey ordinary
dierential equations (ODEs).
Temporal variables (signals) typically arise from
spatio-temporal variables (signals) when the spa-
tial coordinates are xed.
Example 17. Room temperature
Room temperature T
i
at a point (
0
,
0
,
0
) is an
example of a temporal variable, i.e.
T
i
= f(t,
0
,
0
,
0
) = f(t).
Example 18. Thermometer reading
Thermometer reading r at a point (
0
,
0
,
0
) is an
example of a temporal signal, i.e.
r = g(t,
0
,
0
,
0
) = g(t).
21
Proceeding in this fashion, we can x time t in a
spatio-temporal variable (signal) to obtain a spa-
tial variable (signal).
Example 19. Snapshot of room temperature
A snapshot of room temperature T
i
at time t
0
is an example of a spatial variable, i.e. T
i
=
f(t
0
, , , ) = f(, , ).
Example 20. Spatial signal
Clearly, any combination of arguments t, , , , can
be xed to produce various variable (signal) types.
22
System Variables
Depending on the systems denition, variables
can play dierent roles:
1) input variables (input)
2) output variables (output)
3) parameters
4) internal variables (state)
Example 21. House

T
i

T
o

L

w

T
w
C
w
input: outside temp. T
o
,
light intensity L, wind
velocity w, etc
output: inside temp. T
i
parameter: thermal capacity
of the wall, C
w
state: wall temp. T
w
This nomenclature is subjective. For whatever
reason, I might declare T
w
as an output variable,
and T
i
as a state variable. Also, I might treat the
capacity C
w
as an output or a state.
23
Here are some general guidelines:
1) Input variables that critically aect the func-
tion of the system.
2) Output variables of interest that depend on
systems behavior.
3) Parameters variables that do not change ap-
preciably in time and/or space.
4) State variables that depend on systems be-
havior, but we are not directly interested in them.
A system can have multiple inputs, outputs, pa-
rameters, and states.
A system that has a single input and a single out-
put is called SISO system.
A system that is not SISO is called MIMO system
(multiple inputs, multiple outputs).
24
System variables are typically acquired (measured)
and handled by sensors and transducers.
Sensor

variable signal
Transducer

variable 1 variable 2
Example 22. Sensor
Thermometer

T
H
V
T - temperature
H - the height of mercury (analog th.)
V - voltage (digital th.)
Example 23. Transducer
Photoresistor

L V L - light intensity
V - voltage
25
Example 24. pH-electrode
pH-electrode (electrochemical sensor)
Variable - pH; Signal - voltage reading
Example 25. Microphone
microphone (acoustic to electric transducer)
Variable 1 - sound; Variable 2 - electric current
(voltage)
26
Note that sensors and transducers are systems
by themselves.
Not all systems variables are measurable.
For example, state variables are often not measur-
able (e.g. the wall temperature).
Parameters are rarely measurable. When possi-
ble, they are estimated from other (observable)
variables. The same stands for unmeasurable (un-
observable) variables.
These problems are the subject of estimation the-
ory.
In the context of system theory, estimation is often
referred to as system identication.
Take home message: Signals can be spatial, tem-
poral or spatio-temporal depending on the govern-
ing set of equations.
27
[BME130-Midterm Preparation, 2005] For each of
the following signals/variables determine whether
they are spatial, spatio-temporal or temporal. Also
specify the dimension of the signal/variable (e.g.
vector or scalar) and the number of spatial or tem-
poral coordinates.
(a). Trajectory of a bullet.
(b). Heart rate.
(c). Deection of a vibrating string.
(d). Blood pressure.
(e). Deection of a vibrating membrane.
28
Topic: Mathematical Models
Denition 2. A formal description of a system us-
ing mathematical symbols, relations, operations,
etc., is called the mathematical model of the sys-
tem.
Schematically
Model
system of equations (*)

input
u

output
y
We will often use terms system and model in-
terchangeably.
Based on their characteristics, we classify models
in several ways (boxed options are more realistic):
29
Deterministic (variables deterministic functions)
Stochastic (variables random functions)
Spatially
_
_
_
Concentrated (*) is a (system of) ODE(s)
Distributed (*) is a (system of) PDE(s)
Static (*) contains no time derivatives
Dynamic (*) contains time derivatives
Time-invariant (parameters do not depend explicitly on t)
Time-varying (parameters depend explicitly on t)
With time delay
Without delay
Linear ((*) is a system of linear equations)
Nonlinear ((*) is a system of nonlinear equations)
Time-continuous (variables dened for continuous t)
Time-discrete (variables dened for discrete t)
Time-varying systems are also known as non-
stationary systems. Likewise, time-invariant sys-
tems are called stationary systems.
30
Example 26. Various examples:
Nonhomogeneous heat equation
y(t, , , )
t
=
2
_

2
y(t, , , )

2
+

2
y(t, , , )

2
+

2
y(t, , , )

2
_
+u(t, , , )
deterministic, spatially distributed, dynamic,
time-invariant, without delay, linear, time con-
tinuous, SISO.
Totally made-up example
y(t) = (t) u
2
(t)
deterministic, spatially concentrated, static, time-
varying, without delay, nonlinear, time contin-
uous, SISO.
The most commonly seen system
x(t) = Ax(t) +Bu(t) (state equation)
y(t) = Cx(t) +Du(t) (output equation)
deterministic, spatially concentrated, dynamic,
time-invariant, without delay, linear, time con-
tinuous, SISO if u and y are scalars, MIMO
otherwise.
31
Another common system
x[k +1] = Ax[k] +Bu[k] (state equation)
y[k] = Cx[k] +Du[k] (output equation)
deterministic, spatially concentrated, dynamic,
time-invariant, without delay, linear, time-discrete,
SISO if u and y are scalars, MIMO otherwise.
For time-discrete dynamic systems the time deriva-
tive in (*) is replaced by a nite dierence.
[HW #1 (Fall 2005)] For each of the following sys-
tems (models) determine whether they are linear,
spatially distributed, time-invariant, etc. Unless
noted otherwise, assume that all the variables are
deterministic scalars. The output is denoted by
y(t) and the input is u(t).
1. 1-D wave equation (the equation of a vibrating
string)

2
y(t, )
t
2
=
2

2
y(t, )

2
32
2. Undamped pendulum
d
2
y(t)
dt
2
+
g
L
sin(y(t)) = 0
3. For small values of angle y, the following ap-
proximation is valid y sin(y), therefore the pen-
dulum equation becomes:
d
2
y(t)
dt
2
+
g
L
y(t) = 0
4. RLC circuit
d
2
y(t)
dt
2
+
R
L
dy(t)
dt
+
1
LC
y(t) =
1
L
du(t)
dt
5. Non-linear spring-mass-damper equation
m y(t) +b( y) y(t) +k(y)y(t) = u(t)
6. Model of the heart ventricle
V (t) = C(t)P(t)
33
7. Made-up example 1
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
= A(t)
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+B(t) u(t)
y(t) = C(t)
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+D(t) u(t)
where A(t) R
22
, B(t) R
21
, C(t) R
12
and
D(t) R
11
8. Made-up example 2
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
= A
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+B
_
u
1
(t)
u
2
(t)
_
y(t) = C
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+D
_
u
1
(t)
u
2
(t)
_
where A R
22
, B R
22
, C R
12
and D
R
12
9. Made-up example 3
_
x
1
[k +1]
x
2
[k +1]
_
= A[k]
_
x
1
[k]
x
2
[k]
_
+B[k] u[k]
y[k] = C[k]
_
x
1
[k]
x
2
[k]
_
+D[k] u[k]
where A[k] R
22
, B[k] R
21
, C[k] R
12
and
D[k] R
11
34
10. Made-up example 4
_
x
1
[k +1]
x
2
[k +1]
_
= A
_
x
1
[k]
x
2
[k]
_
+B u[k]
_
y
1
[k]
y
2
[k]
_
= C
_
x
1
[k]
x
2
[k]
_
+Du[k]
where A R
22
, B R
21
, C R
22
and D
R
21
It is important to note that most real-world sys-
tems are too complex (nonlinear, stochastic, non-
stationary, spatially distributed, etc.) to be mod-
eled accurately.
Mathematical models represent considerably sim-
plied description of the systems.
The simplications are based on certain assump-
tions that need to be inspected carefully, and if
possible justied. It is reasonable to start with
a very simple model, and add more complexity if
necessary.
Throughout this course we will be mostly deal-
ing with deterministic, spatially concentrated, dy-
namic, time-invariant, without delay, linear, time-
continuous systems (models).
35
Example 27. Scale
system: scale (spring & mass)
input: forces F(t) acting upon the
mass
output:
parameters: m [kg] and k [N/m]
states: (will see in the next lec-
ture)
Let 0 be the position of the red hand, when F(t) =
0. Dene as a deviation from 0.
What happens if I step on the scale?
First note that: F(t) = M
..
my mass
g = F
..
weight
(Newtons
Law)
Static equilibrium: F
s
= F, where F
s
= k (spring
force, Hookes Law).
g = 9.81[m/s
2
] is the gravity acceleration.
k > 0 is the spring constant (stiness).
36
Therefore k = F, which implies that the mass will
move from = 0 to = F/k.
But how does the mass get there, i.e. how do we
describe as a function of time?
Dynamic balance of forces (dynamic equilibrium):
m

(t)
. .
inertia
+k(t)
. .
spring
= F
..
weight
(1)
Brake this down to:
i) m

(t) +k(t) = 0 homogeneous equation

ii) k(t) = F particular equation
Therefore:

h
(t) = C
1
cos
_
_

k
m
t
_
_
+C
2
sin
_
_

k
m
t
_
_

p
(t) =
F
k
(t) =
h
(t) +
p
(t) (2)
Initial conditions:
(0) = 0 (system at 0 initially) (3)

(0) = 0 (system has zero velocity initially) (4)

37
Substitute (2) into (3) to obtain C
1
= F/k. Dif-
ferentiate (2) and substitute into (4) to obtain
C
2
= 0. Therefore
(t) =
F
k
_

_
1 cos
_
_
_
_
_

k
m
. .

n
t
_
_
_
_
_
_

_
(5)
is the solution to (8) with the initial conditions (3),(4).
The frequency
n
is called the natural frequency.
Most systems have their own natural frequency.
In a certain sense a system is tuned to its natural
freq., i.e. thats the freq. the system prefers.
0 0.05 0.1
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
m=1 [kg] k=100 [kN/m]
0 0.05 0.1
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
m=2 [kg] k=100 [kN/m]
0 0.05 0.1
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
m=1 [kg] k=200 [kN/m]
0 0.05 0.1
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
m=2 [kg] k=200 [kN/m]
38
Demo (experiment with spring mass simulation).
Conclusion: The model (8) generates solutions
that do not correspond to real spring-mass be-
havior. Clearly, this model is overly simple and
something is missing? Add friction and we have:
m

(t) + b

(t)
. .
friction
+k(t) = F (6)
where b 0[kg/s] is the friction coecient.
Proceed as before:
i) m

(t) +b

(t) +k(t) = 0 homogeneous equation

ii) k(t) = F particular equation
If we assume b
2
< 4km, then we have the following
roots of the characteristic equation:

1,2
=
b
2m
j

_
k
m
_
1
b
2
4km
_
Dene := b/(2

km) and recall that

n
=
_
k/m,
thus:

1,2
=
n
j
n
_
_
1
2
_
39
It follows then

h
(t) = e

n
t
_
C
1
cos
_

n
_
1
2
t
_
+ C
2
sin
_

n
_
1
2
t
__
[0, 1] is called the damping factor.
Also recall that
p
(t) = F/k, so from the rst initial
condition we have C
1
= F/k. From the second
initial condition we obtain C
2
= F/
_
k
_
1
2
_
,
which yields:
(t) =
F
k
_
1 e

n
t
_
cos
_

n
_
1
2
t
_
+

_
1
2
sin
_

n
_
1
2
t
_
_

_
_

_
(7)
40
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
envelope
m=1 [kg] k=100 [kN/m] b=1 [kg/s]
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0
0.02
Time [s]
[m]
envelope
m=1 [kg] k=100 [kN/m] b=2 [kg/s]
Compare now the solution (7) to the solution (5):
both solutions are periodic, one with the fre-
quency
n
(undamped freq.) and one with the
frequency
n
_
1
2
(damped frequency).
Since
n

n
_
1
2
the rst system oscil-
lates faster (with higher frequency).
If we set to 0 (b = 0), then the solution (7)
reduces to (5) (as it should).
For large t, the homogeneous part of (7) dis-
appears, i.e. (t) F/k. We will see later that
this is the property of stable linear systems.
41
Demo (experiment with spring mass simulation).
Conclusion: The mathematical model (9) faith-
fully describes the spring-mass system. While the
original system is certainly non-linear, the linear
model provides an accurate description of the sys-
tem.
Since we know the spring constant is non-linear,
we could further increase the complexity, i.e.
m

(t) +b

(t) +k()(t) = F
This, however, gives rise to a non-linear dierential
equation, and in this case the complexity is not
justied.
What about the states of the spring-mass system?
We we learn about them in the next lecture.
Take home message: Most real systems are non-
linear, stochastic, spatially distributed, etc. Math-
ematical models are simplied mathematical ab-
stractions of real systems, which faithfully capture
certain systems behavior.
42
Topic: Input-Output and State-Space
Models
Recall (from last lecture):
m

(t)
. .
inertia
+k(t)
. .
spring
= F
..
weight
(8)
After adding friction we have:
m

(t) + b

(t)
. .
friction
+k(t) = F (9)
Eq. (8) and (9) represent two dierent (mathe-
matical) models of the spring-mass system.
Note that both systems (8) and (9) are determin-
istic, spatially concentrated, dynamic, stationary,
without delay, linear, time-continuous. Both (8)
and (9) represent the so-called input-output model.
F - input (cause)
- output (eect)
In general, for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems,
the input-output model takes the following form
(y-output, u-input):
43
n

k=0
a
k
y
(k)
(t)
. .
output & its derivatives
=
p

k=0
b
k
u
(k)
(t)
. .
input & its derivatives
(10)
where n p, a
n
= 1 and z
(k)
(t) := d
k
z(t)/dt
k
.
For the spring-mass system (n = 2, p = 0):
m
..
a
2

(t)
. .
y(t)
+ b
..
a
1

(t)
. .
y(t)
+ k
..
a
0
(t)
. .
y(t)
= 1
..
b
0
F
..
u(t)
The order of the system, n, is equal to the order of
the highest derivative on the left hand side of (10).
In the spirit of linear systems theory, all higher
order ODEs are converted to a rst order ODE.
In other words, the input-output model (10) can
be written in the form:
x(t) = Ax(t) +B u(t)
y(t) = Cx(t) +Du(t)
The model above is called the state-space model,
and is seemingly simpler than the one given by (10).
44
The trick is that x is now a vector in R
n
. In par-
ticular, if p = 0 (no derivatives with respect to u),
we can dene the elements of x as:
x
1
(t) := y(t)
x
2
(t) := dy(t)/dt
.
.
. (11)
x
n
(t) := d
n1
y(t)/dt
n1
The variables x
1
(t), , x
n
(t) represent the state
variables, and the state vector is dened as
x(t) :=
_

_
x
1
(t)
.
.
.
x
n
(t)
_

_
The choice of state variables is not unique, and the
scheme above represents one canonical choice.
Let us get back to Eq. (8) (similar analysis applies
to Eq. (9)). Re-write (8) as:

(t) +
k
m
(t) =
1
m
F (12)
Observe that (12) satises (10) with n = 2, p = 0,
a
2
= 1, a
1
= 0, a
0
= k/m and b
0
= 1/m. Also note
that y(t) = (t) and u(t) = F(t) = F.
45
Following the scheme (11) we dene two states:
x
1
(t) := y(t) and x
2
(t) := y(t).
Note that x
1
(t) = y(t) = x
2
(t) (this is going to be
the rst state equation).
From (12) we have:
x
2
(t) = y(t) =
k
m
y(t) +
1
m
u(t)
=
k
m
x
1
(t) +
1
m
u(t) (2nd eq.)
Writing the last two equations in a vector form
yields the following state equation:
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
. .
x(t)
=
_
0 1
k/m 0
_
. .
A
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
. .
x(t)
+
_
0
1/m
_
. .
B
u(t)
Recall that y(t) = (t) = x
1
(t), therefore the out-
put equation can be written as
y(t) = [1 0]
. .
C
_
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_
+ 0
..
D
u(t)
46
Topic: Physiologic Variables and
Signals
Physiologic variables and signals originate from a
variety of physiological systems such as cells, tis-
sues, organs, respiratory system, central nervous
system, etc.
Classication by sensing mechanism
Mechanical
Muscle force
Blood pressure
Heart sound
Respiratory sound
Voice
Chemical
Ion concentration
Hormone
concentration
Blood glucose
concentration
Electrical
Nerve action
potentials
Muscle electrical
activity (EMG)
Heart electrical
activity (ECG)
Brain electrical
activity (EEG)
Other
Temperature
Basic characteristics of physiologic variables and
signals:
47
All are time-continuous (they arise from time-
continuous systems)
All are non-stationary (they arise from time-
varying systems)
Have relatively low bandwidth (frequency con-
tent), e.g. between 0 and several kHz. We will
see later that this is a property of dynamic sys-
tems (static systems have innite bandwidth).
Many of them are periodic
Many of them are noisy (they arise from stochas-
tic systems)
48
Example 28. ECG signal
Source: http://www.physionet.org/physiobank/ which
is a database of physiologic signals
0 2 4 6 8 10
1
0
1
Time [sec]
E
C
G

[
m
V
]
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
1
2
3
4
Frequency [Hz]
P
o
w
e
r

[
m
V
]
2
periodicity (prominent)
limited bandwidth (yes)
nonstationarity (not very prominent)
noise (negligible)
49
Example 29. Action potentials (from the monkey
brain)
0 10 20 30 40 50
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time [ms]
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
action potential
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
2
4
6
8
10
Frequency [kHz]
P
o
w
e
r
periodicity (irregular)
limited bandwidth (yes, but large)
nonstationarity (prominent)
noise (signicant)
50
Example 30. EEG (human brain)
250 500 750 1000
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Time [ms]
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

#
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
50
100
150
Frequency [Hz]
P
o
w
e
r
periodicity (irregular)
limited bandwidth (yes)
nonstationarity (prominent)
noise (signicant)
Conclusion: Most physiologic variables (signals)
arise from stochastic, time-continuous, non-stationary,
dynamic systems.
Conclusion: Most physiologic systems are stochas-
tic, time-continuous, non-stationary, dynamic. In
addition, many of these systems have transport
lags (time delays).
51
Example 31. Drug delivery system.
Its an example of a time-delay system.
Body

amount of
pain killer
degree of
pain
u(t) y(t)
Delay

amount of
pain killer
degree of
pain
u(t) u(t ) y(t)
Example 32. 2-D biomedical variables (signals)
MRI FMRI
52
CAT PET
Example 33. 3-D biomedical signal
(Show a spinning brain clip)
53