ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I Motor Systems I. Cortical Control of Motor Function A. The motor cortex 1.

The primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) is located in the frontal lobe, in the first gyrus anterior to the central sulcus; it contains a somatotopic representation of the body muscles (motor homunculus); more than 50% of the primary motor cortex is involved with controlling muscles of the hands and the muscles of speech 2. The premotor area is located immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex a. Acts as "programming area" for complex patterns of movement -- nerve signals elicited here are directed to the primary motor cortex or the basal ganglia b. Specialized areas program movements of certain muscle groups (1) eye movements, head rotation, hand skills
(2)

Broca's area -- necessary for the production of speech; damage to this area can cause Broca's aphasia, or impaired ability to produce speech

c.

Mirror neurons exist in the ventral premotor area; these neurons are thought to become active when we imitate

the movements of others, or even if we watch someone execute a particular movement and imagine ourselves movement

performing that 3.

Inputs to the motor cortex a. b. From the somatic sensory, visual, and auditory cortices From the cerebellum and basal ganglia, by way of motor relay nuclei in the thalamus c. d. From the RAS and generalized thalamocortical system Interhemisphere communication via the corpus callosum

4.

Outputs from the motor cortex a. Corticospinal (pyramidal) tracts (1) originate in the primary motor cortex and premotor area; give rise to the medullary pyramids as they pass through the medulla (2) most pyramidal nerve axons decussate at the medulla and descend into the spinal cord as the lateral corticospinal tracts; these axons terminate mainly on spinal cord interneurons b. Nerve axons project from the primary motor cortex to the red nucleus in the midbrain

c.

Nerve axons project from the primary motor cortex to brainstem nuclei responsible for control of antigravity muscles

d.

Extensive connections between the motor cortex and the cerebellum (corticopontocerebellar tracts)

e.

Nerve axons project from the premotor area to the basal ganglia

B.

The red nucleus and rubrospinal tracts 1. The red nucleus (midbrain; bilateral structure) works closely with, and in parallel with, the pyramidal tracts 2. The red nucleus receives input from the ipsilateral primary motor cortex and the contralateral cerebellum 3. The rubrospinal tracts originate in the red nucleus, decussate ventral to the nucleus, descend through the brainstem, and parallel the pyramidal tracts in the lateral spinal cord white matter 4. The red nucleus primarily influences muscles of the shoulders and upper arms, with less important input to the hands and fingers; crawling in babies is controlled primarily by the red nucleus 5. The red nucleus has a somatotopic arrangement of the body muscles, though more crude than in the motor cortex; the rubrospinal pathway serves primarily as an accessory, parallel route for control of particular muscles in the upper limbs

II.

Motor Functions of the Brainstem A. General Comments 1. The principal function of the brainstem in motor activity is to control background contractions of antigravity muscles in the neck, trunk, and proximal portions of the limbs 2. The level of contractile activity in the antigravity muscles is largely controlled by inputs from the brainstem reticular nuclei and vestibular nuclei B. Reticular nuclei 1. Pontine reticular nuclei a. b. Located in the pons and lower midbrain Highly excitable neurons; receive excitatory inputs from the vestibular nuclei and the cerebellum c. Transmit excitatory motor signals into the spinal cord via the pontine (medial) reticulospinal tracts; nerve axons terminate on anterior motor neurons that control muscles of the vertebral column and extensor muscles of the limbs 2. Medullary reticular nuclei a. Extend the length of the medulla; receive inputs from the pyramidal and rubrospinal tracts, the cerebellum, and the basal ganglia; inputs can be excitatory or inhibitory

b.

Transmit inhibitory motor signals into the spinal cord via the medullary (lateral) reticulospinal tracts; nerve axons terminate on the same anterior motor neurons that receive excitatory input from the pontine reticular nuclei

c.

The clinical syndrome of decerebrate rigidity demonstrates the importance of the medullary reticular system in controlling excitability anterior motor neuron (especially gamma)

C.

Vestibular nuclei 1. Located in the lower pons and medulla; play a key role in the maintenance of equilibrium 2. Receive excitatory input from the vestibular apparatus (inner ear) via the vestibular nerves 3. Transmit excitatory signals into the spinal cord via the

vestibulospinal tracts; nerve axons terminate on anterior motor neurons that control antigravity muscles of the neck, shoulders, trunk, and limbs; gamma motor neurons are particularly affected 4. Vestibular apparatus (labyrinth) a. Responsible for the sensation of equilibrium; located in the inner ear

b.

Utricle and saccule (otoliths)

(1)

sensory organ is the macula -- detects orientation of the head in space; responds to linear acceleration (and deceleration) of the body

(2)

macula hair cells are oriented in different directions so that some are activated when the head bends forward, others are activated when the head bends backward, yet others are activated when the head leans to one side, etc.

c.

Semicircular canals (ducts) (1) series of three ducts (anterior, posterior, horizontal) filled with endolymph; sensory organ is the crista ampullaris hair cells detect when the head begins to rotate as well as when it stops rotating (2) the semicircular canals prevent disequilibrium that might otherwise occur in response to turning of the body (head) by stimulating appropriate anticipatory adjustments in antigravity muscle tone (3) output is directed primarily to the ocular muscles; in response to rotation of the head, information from the semicircular canals causes the eyes to rotate in a direction opposite to that of the head rotation this response stabilizes the gaze of the eyes

d.

Output of the vestibular apparatus is directed to: (1) (2) (3) brainstem vestibular nuclei brainstem reticular nuclei cerebellum (flocculonodular lobe)

5.

Examples of vestibular reflexes

Reference: Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th Edition, Chapter 55 Objectives and Study Questions: 1. Describe the anatomy of the motor cortex. Where is the primary motor cortex located? Where is the premotor area located, and what is its general function? Know the importance of Broca's area. What are mirror neurons? Outline the neural inputs to the motor cortex. Know the principal output pathways from the motor cortex. Know the significance of the red nucleus and the rubrospinal nerve tracts. Where is the red nucleus located in the brain, and what are its important inputs? Describe how the rubrospinal tracts descend within the brainstem and spinal cord. Where do these nerve fibers terminate? Describe the function of the brainstem in overall motor control. Where are the reticular nuclei and the vestibular nuclei located? Name the principal motor pathways that descend from the brainstem. Where do these pathways terminate? Describe the structures found in the vestibular apparatus. How do these function to maintain equilibrium? Describe some reflexes activated by the vestibular apparatus.

2. 3.

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5.