Project On Organizational Development

Submitted To Prof. Afreen Sayyed (Human Resource Management)

Submitted By: Division B Hasan Abbas Mayor Arote Aniket Nimonkar Jayesh Prabhu Atul Rane Amey Rangnekar Vikas Shinde Neha Zunjarrao

03 07 36 43 46 47 64 68

Anjuman-I-Islam'S Allana Institute Of Management Studies Mumbai University

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Table of contents: Overview History Core Values Change agent Sponsoring organization Applied behavioural science Improved organizational performance Understanding organizations Modern development Action research Criteria For Effective Interventions Overview Of OD Interventions Human Process Interventions Appendix 3 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 12 14 16 20

Organization development
Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned effort to increase an organization's relevance and viability. Vasudevan has referred to OD as, future readiness to meet change, thus a systemic learning and development strategy intended to change the basics of beliefs, attitudes and relevance of values, and structure of the current organization to better absorb disruptive technologies, shrinking or exploding market opportunities and ensuing challenges and chaos. OD is the framework for a change process designed to lead to desirable positive impact to all stakeholders and the environment. OD can design interventions with application of several multidisciplinary methods and research besides traditional OD approaches.

Overview
The purpose of OD is to address perennial evolving needs of successful organizations- a concerted collaboration of internal and external experts in the field to discover the process an organization can use to become more stakeholders effective. OD is a life-long, built-in mechanism to improve immunity of organization's health to renew itself inclusive principles, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of enabling appropriate theories and techniques from applied behavioral sciences, anthropology, sociology, and phenomenology. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking and organizational learning, mind maps, body mind synchronicity, structure of intuition in decision making, and coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but a much more multidisciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach have emerged as OD catalysts. These emergent expert perspectives see the organization as the holistic interplay of a number of systems that impact the process and outputs of the entire organization. More importantly, the term change agent or catalyst is synonymous with the notion of a leader who is engaged in leadership - a transformative or effectiveness process - as opposed to management, a more incremental or efficiency based change methodology. Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective organizational change. Organization development is known as both a field of applied behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Organization development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches including Positive Adult Development.

History
Kurt Lewin (18981947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became current in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged. Douglas McGregor and Richard Beckhard while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950's, the two coined the term organizational development (OD) to describe an innovative bottoms-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112) The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous hypothetical situation. Problems of leadership, structure, status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members. As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training was conducted in "stranger groups," or groups composed of individuals from different organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or training group) and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it to "family groups" that is, groups located within an organization. From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in influencing group members (along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.

Core Values
Underlying Organizational Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia (1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows: 1. Providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources in the productive process. 2. Providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the organization itself, to develop to his full potential. 3. Seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its goals. 4. Attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and challenging work. 5. Providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment. 6. Treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are important in his work and in his life.

Change agent
A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in successful change assignments. In the natural evolution of change mechanisms in organizations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement. Qualified change agents can be found on some university faculties, or they may be private consultants associated with such organizations as the National Training Laboratories Institute for Applied Behavioral Science (Washington, D.C.) University Associates (San Diego, California), the Human Systems Intervention graduate program in the Department of Applied Human Sciences (Concordia University, Montreal, Canada), Navitus (Pvt) Ltd (Pakistan), and similar organizations. The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved except the fee.

Sponsoring organization
The initiative for OD programs comes from an organization that has a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.

Applied behavioral science

One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship." Some believe that the change agent is not a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient," make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does she try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behaviour, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.

Improved organizational performance

The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This would include such things as improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds, more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership style, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, and higher levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.

Understanding organizations
Weisberg presents a six-box model for understanding organization: 1. Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organizations mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization purpose. 2. Structure: How is the organizations work divided up? The question is whether there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure. 3. Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs. 4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organization formally rewarded or punished members for. 5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance among them. 6. Helpful mechanism: Is a helpful organization that must attend to in order to survive which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems that help organization member accomplished.

Modern development
In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically. With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizational development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning. The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organization development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools.

Action research
Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research" If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of action".

Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps: "Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change. "Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested. "Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted. Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis. The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of
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altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage. The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual changes in behaviour (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see Figure 1). Major adjustments and re-evaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness. The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clearcut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior. Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.

OD Interventions
"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention. There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions: 1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals. 2. An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative condition. 3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy. 4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy. 5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels. 6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change. Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice. One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained
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because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help him are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A real need in the client system to change Genuine support from management Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior A sound background in the behavioral sciences A working knowledge of systems theory A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better ways to do things

A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.

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What is an OD Intervention? The term Intervention refers to a set of sequenced, planned actions or events intended to help an organization to increase its effectiveness. Interventions purposely disrupt the status quo; they are deliberate attempts to change an organization or sub-unit toward a different and more effective state. Criteria for Effective Interventions In OD three major criteria define the effectiveness of an intervention: 1. The Extent to which it (the Intervention) fits the needs of the organization. This criterion concerns the extent to which the intervention is relevant to the organization and its members. Effective interventions are based on valid information about the Organizations functioning; they provide organization members with opportunities to Make free and informed choices; and they gain members internal commitment to those choices. Valid information is the result of an accurate diagnosis of the organizations functioning. It must reflect fairly what organization members perceive and feel about their primary concerns and issues. Free and informed choice suggests that members are actively involved in making decisions about changes that will affect them. It also means that interventions will not be imposed on them. Internal commitment means that organization members accept ownership of the intervention and take responsibility for implementing it. If interventions are to result in meaningful changes, management, staff, and other relevant members must be committed to carrying them out. 2. The degree to which it is based on causal knowledge of intended outcomes Because interventions are intended to produce specific results, they must be based on valid knowledge that those outcomes actually can be produced. Otherwise, there is no scientific basis for designing an effective OD intervention. Unlike other exact sciences (like medicine or engineering) knowledge of the effect of OD interventions is in a rudimentary stage of development. Moreover, few attempts have been made to examine the comparative effects of different OD techniques. All of these factors make it difficult to know whether one method is more effective than another. despite these difficulties, attempts are being made to evaluate different OD intervention methods, so that we can gain the ability to predict outcomes of various interventions and thus be able to use the most appropriate interventions for specific problems.

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3. The extent to which the OD intervention transfers change-management competence to organization members. OD interventions can be said to be effective, only if they make the organization members competent to initiate, implement and monitor change on their own. The values underlying OD suggest that organization members should be better able to carry out planned change activities on their own, following the intervention. They should gain knowledge and skill in managing change from active participation in designing and implementing the intervention. Competence in change management is essential in todays environment, where technological, social, economic, and political changes are rapid and persistent. Factors That Impact the Success of OD Interventions I. Factors relating to Change Situation: These relate to the environment of the organization and include the physical and human environment. 1.Readiness for Change: Intervention success depends heavily on the organization being ready for planned change. Indicators for readiness for change include sensitivity to pressures for change (higher sensitivity means greater readiness to change); dissatisfaction with the status quo; availability of resources to support change; and, commitment of significant management time. 2.Capability to Change: Managing planned change requires particular knowledge and skills including the ability to motivate change, to lead change, to develop political support, to manage transition, and to sustain momentum. If organization members do not have these capabilities, then a preliminary training intervention may be needed to prepare the members for the major change. 3. Cultural Context: The national culture within which an organization is embedded can exert a powerful influence on members reactions to change, and so intervention design must account for the cultural values and assumptions held by organization members. This makes it important for OD interventions to be adapted to different cultures. 4.Capabilities of the Change Agent (OD Consultant): The success of O interventions depend to a great extent on the expertise, experience and talents of the consultant. No consultant should undertake to implement interventions that are beyond their level of competence or their area of expertise. The ethical guidelines under which OD practitioners operate require full disclosure of the applicability of their knowledge and expertise to the clients situation. II. Factors Related to the Target of Change: These relate to the specific targets at which OD interventions are targeted. The targets of change can be different issues of the organization and at different levels. A. Organizational Issues 1. Strategic Issues: Strategic issues refer to major decisions of organizations such as what products or services to offer, which markets to serve, mergers, acquisitions, expansions, etc. OD Interventions aimed at these strategic issues are

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called strategic interventions and are among the most recent OD interventions and include, integrated strategic change, mergers and acquisitions, transorganizational development, organizational learning, etc. 2. Technology and Structure Issues: These refer to issues relating to how organizations divide their work amongst departments and how they coordinate between departments. They also must make decisions about how to deliver products or services and how to link people to tasks. OD interventions aimed at these issues are called techno-structural interventions and include OD activities relating to organizational design, employee involvement and work design. 3. Human Resource Issues: These issues are concerned with attracting competent people to the organization, setting goals for them, appraising and rewarding their performance, and ensuring that they develop their careers and manage stress. O techniques aimed at these issues are called human resource management interventions. 4. Human Process Issues: These issues have to do with social processes occurring among organization members, such as communication, decision-making, leadership, and group dynamics. OD methods focusing on these kinds of issues are called human process interventions; included among them are some of the most common OD techniques, such as conflict resolution and team building. B. Organizational Levels OD interventions are aimed at different levels of the organization: individual, group, organization and trans-organization (for example different offices of the organization around the globe; or between organization and its suppliers, customers, etc.) OD interventions are usually aimed at specific levels, and must address cross-level effects and perhaps integrate interventions affecting different levels to achieve overall success. OVERVIEW OF OD INTERVENTIONS The diagram in the following page summarizes the more popular OD interventions classified under different categories. The X mark indicates the target/s at which the interventions are aimed.

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Types of Interventions and Organizational Levels Primary Organizational Level (s) Affected INTERVENTIONS INDIVIDUAL GROUP ORGANIZATION Human Process T Groups Process Consultation Third Party Intervention Team Building Organization Confrontation Meeting Intergroup Relations Large-group interventions Grid Organization evelopment Techno Structural Structural Design ownsizing Reengineering Parallel Structures High-involvement Organizations Total Quality Ma nagement Work Design HR Management Goal Setting Performance Appraisal Reward Systems Career Planning/Development Ma naging Work Force iversity Employee Wellness Strategic Integrated Strategic Change Trans-organization evelopment Mer gers & Acquisitions Integration Culture Change Self-Designing Organizations Organization Learning and Knowledge Ma nagement X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X

X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

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Human Process Interventions

A. The following interventions deal with interpersonal relationships and group dynamics. 1. T Groups: This traditional change method provides members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership, and interpersonal relations. The basic T Group brings ten to fifteen strangers together with a professional trainer to examine the social dynamics that emerge from their interactions. Members gain feedback about the impact of their own behaviors on each other and learn about group dynamics. 2. Process Consultation: This intervention focuses on interpersonal relations and social dynamics occurring in work groups. Typically, a process consultant helps group members diagnose group functioning and devise appropriate solutions to process problems, such as dysfunctional conflict., poor communications, and ineffective norms. The aim is to help members gain the skills and understanding necessary to identify and solve problems themselves. 3. Third Party Interventions: This change method is a form of process consultation aimed at dysfunctional interpersonal relations in organizations. Interpersonal conflict may derive from substantive issues, such as disputes over work methods, or from interpersonal issues, such as miscommunication. The third party intervener helps people resolve conflicts through such methods as problem solving, bargaining, and conciliation. 4. Team Building: This intervention helps work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks. Like process consultation, team building helps members diagnose group processes and devise solutions to problems. It goes beyond group processes, however, to include examination of the groups task, member roles, and strategies for performing tasks. The consultant also may function as a resource person offering expertise related to the groups tasks. B. The following Interventions deal with human processes that are more system wide than individualistic or small-group oriented. 1. Organization Confrontation Meeting: This change method mobilizes organization members to identify problems, set action targets, and begin working on problems. It is usually applied when organizations are experiencing stress and when management needs to organize resources for immediate problem solving. The intervention generally includes various groupings of employees in identifying and solving problems. 2. Intergroup Relations: These interventions are designed to improve interactions among different groups or departments in organizations. The microcosm group intervention involves a small group of people whose backgrounds closely match the organizational problems being addressed. This group addresses the problem and develops means to solve it. The Intergroup conflict model typically involves a consultant helping two groups understand the causes of their conflict and choose appropriate solutions.

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3. Large-group Interventions: These interventions involve getting abroad variety of stakeholders into a large meeting to clarify important values, to develop new ways of working, to articulate a new vision for the organization, or to solve pressing organizational problems. Such meetings are powerful tools for creating awareness of organizational problems and opportunities and for specifying valued directions for future action. 4. Grid Organization Development: This normative intervention specifies a particular way to manage an organization. It is packaged OD program that includes standardized instruments for measuring organizational practices and specific procedures for helping organizations to achieve the prescribed approach. Techno-Structural Interventions These interventions deal with an organizations technology (for examples its task methods and job design) and structure (for example, division of labor and hierarchy). These methods are becoming popular in OD because of the growing problems relating to productivity and organizational effectiveness. These interventions are rooted in the disciplines of engineering, sociology, and psychology and in the applied fields of socio-technical systems and organization design. Cconsultants place emphasis both on productivity and human fulfillment. 1. Structural Design: This change process concerns the organizations division of labor how to specialize task performances. Interventions aimed at structural design include moving from more traditional ways of dividing the organizations overall work (such as functional, self-contained-unit, and matrix structures) to more integrative and flexible forms (such as process-based and network-based structures). Diagnostic guidelines exist to determine which structure is appropriate for particular organizational environments, technologies, and conditions. 2. Downsizing: This intervention reduces costs and bureaucracy by decreasing the size of the organization through personnel layoffs, organization redesign, and outsourcing. Each of these downsizing methods must be planned with a clear understanding of the organizations strategy. 3. Re-engineering: This recent intervention radically redesigns the organizations core work processes to create tighter linkage and coordination among the different tasks. This workflow integration results in faster, more responsive task performance. Reengineering is often accomplished with a new information technology that permits employees to control and coordinate work processes more effectively. Reengineering often fails if it ignores basic principles and processes of OD. The next three interventions: Parallel Structures, High-involvement organizations and Total Quality Management (TQM), fall under the broad category of interventions called Employee Involvement (EI) interventions. These interventions are aimed at improving employee well-being and organizational effectiveness.

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4. Parallel Structures: This intervention involves members in resolving ill-defined, complex problems and build adaptability into bureaucratic organizations. Also known as collateral structures, Dualistic structures or shadow structures, parallel structures operate in conjunction with the formal organization. They provide members with an alternative setting in which to address problems and to propose innovative solutions free from the formal organization structure and culture. For example, members may attend periodic off-site meetings to explore ways to improve quality in their work area or they may be temporarily assigned to a special project of facility to devise new products or solutions to organizational problems. Parallel structures facilitate problem solving and change by providing time and resources for members to think, talk, and act in completely new ways. Cconsequently, norms and procedures for working in parallel structures are entirely different from those of the formal organization. 5. High-involvement Organizations (HIOs): These interventions are aimed at creating organizations with high involvement of employees. They create organizational conditions that support high levels of employee participation. What makes HIOs unique is the comprehensive nature of their design process. Unlike parallel structures that do not alter the formal organization, in HIOs almost all organization features are designed jointly by management and workers to promote high levels of involvement and performance, including structure, work design, information and control systems, physical layout, personnel policies, and reward systems. Some of the features of HIOs are: a. Employees have considerable influence over decisions b. Members receive extensive training in problem-solving techniques, plant operation, and organizational policies. c. Information is shared widely within the organization and employees have easy access to operational and issue-oriented information. d. Rewards are tied closely to unit performance. 6. Total Quality Management: TQM is the most recent and, along with highinvolvement organizations, the most comprehensive approach to employee involvement. Also known as continuous process improvement and continuous quality, TQM grew out of a manufacturing emphasis on quality control and represents a long-term effort to orient all of an organizations activities around the concept of quality. Quality is achieved when organizational processes reliably produce products and services that meet or exceed customer expectations. Although it is possible to implement TQM without employee involvement, member participation in the change process increases the likelihood that it will become part of the organizations culture. Today, continuous quality improvement is essential for global competitiveness. 7. Work design: This refers to OD interventions aimed at creating jobs, and work groups that generate high levels of employee fulfilment and productivity. This techno-structural intervention can be part of a larger employee involvement application, or it can be an independent change program. Work design has been researched and applied extensively in organizations. Recently, organizations have tended to combine work design with formal structure and supporting changes in

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goal setting, reward systems, work environment, and other performance management practices. There are three approaches to work design. The Engineering approach focuses on efficiency and simplification, and results in traditional job and work group designs. Telephone operators and data-entry positions are examples of this job design. A second approach is work enrichment and rests on motivational theories and attempts to enrich the work experience. Job enrichment involves designing jobs with high levels of meaning, discretion, and knowledge of results. A wellresearched model focusing on job attributes has helped clear up methodological problems with this important intervention. The third approach is socio-technical approach and seeks to optimize both social and technical aspects of work systems. This method has led to a popular form of work design called self managed teams which are composed of multi-skilled members performing interrelated tasks. Members are given the knowledge, information, and power necessary to control their own task behaviors with relatively little external control. Human Resource Management Interventions 1. Goal Setting: This change program involves setting clear and challenging goals. It attempts to improve organization effectiveness by establishing a better fit between personal and organizational objectives. Managers and subordinates periodically meet to plan work, review accomplishments, and solve problems in achieving goals. 2. Performance Appraisal: This intervention is a systematic process of jointly assessing work-related achievements, strengths and weaknesses, It is the primary human resources management intervention for providing performance feed-back to individuals and work groups. Performance appraisal represents an important link between goal setting and reward systems. 3. Reward Systems: This intervention involves the design of organizational rewards to improve employee satisfaction and performance. It includes innovative approaches to pay, promotions, and fringe benefits. 4. Career Planning and development: This intervention helps people choose organizations and career paths and attain career objectives. It generally focuses on managers and professional staff and is seen as a way of improving the quality of their work life. 5. Managing workforce diversity: This change program makes human resources practices more responsive to a variety of individual needs. Important trends, such as the increasing number of women, ethnic minorities, and physically and mentally challenged people in the workforce, require a more flexible set of policies and practices. 6.Employee Wellness: These interventions include employee assistance programs (EAPs) and stress management. EAPs are counseling programs that help employees deal with substance abuse and mental health, marital, and financial problems that often are associated with poor work performance. Stress management programs help workers cope with the negative consequences of stress at work. They help managers reduce specific sources of stress, such as role

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conflict and ambiguity, and provide methods for reducing such stress symptoms as hypertension and anxiety. Strategic Interventions These interventions link the internal functioning of the organization to the larger environment and transform the organization to keep pace with changing conditions. These interventions are amongst the newest additions to OD interventions. They are implemented organization-wide and bring about a fit between business strategy, structure, culture and the larger environment. 1. Integrated Strategic Change: This comprehensive OD intervention describes how planned change can make a value-added contribution to strategic management. It argues that business strategies and organizational systems must be changed together in response to external and internal disruptions. A strategic change plan helps members manage the transition between a current strategy and organization design and the desired future strategic orientation. 2Trans organization development: This intervention helps organizations to enter into alliances, partnerships and joint ventures to perform tasks or solve problems that are too complex for single organizations to resolve. It helps organizations recognize the need for partnerships and develop appropriate structures for implementing them. 3. Merger and Acquisition Integration: This intervention describes how O practitioners can assist two or more organizations to form a new entity. Addressing key strategic leadership and cultural issues prior to the legal and financial transaction helps to smooth operational integration. 4. Culture Change: This intervention helps organizations to develop cultures (behaviors, values, beliefs and norms) appropriate to their strategies and environments. It focuses on developing a strong organization culture to keep organization members pulling in the same direction. 5.Self-designing organizations: This change program helps organizations gain the capacity to alter themselves fundamentally. It is a highly participative process, involving multiple stakeholders in setting strategic directions and designing and implementing appropriate structures and processes. Organizations learn how to design and implement their own strategic changes. 6. Organization learning and knowledge management: This intervention describes two interrelated change processes: organization learning (OL), which seeks to enhance an organizations capability to acquire and develop new knowledge; and knowledge management (KM), which focuses on how that knowledge can be organized and used to improve organization performance. These interventions move the organization beyond solving existing problems so as to become capable of continuous improvement

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Appendix 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_development 2. http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IITMADRAS/Management_Science_II/Pdf/6_3.pdf 3. http://www.iiod.in/ 4. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/114925/eum/docs/eum/tanzania/M ODULEIIORGANIZATIONALDEVELOPMENTKINUTHIA.pdf 5. http://www.consultpivotal.com/lewin%27s.htm

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