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I feel deeply indedted to Mr. Sam Sir, NBCC trainer who delivered valuable lesson on Networking, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the subject in better way. His method of teaching the minute details helped me a lot to acquire the insight into the subject. I am also grateful to Mr. Aman Sir, trainer for giving best knowledge about Networking the way he instilled knowledge of the subject was undoubtly praise worthy and valuable. I am also thankful to NBCC company as a whole that is doing yeomans service by teaching the learner avreast with the computer , networking and hardware knowledge that is the need of the day. Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at NBCC for extending kind operation. co-
Pankaj Sharma
List of Figures
Figure No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Name of Figure
Computer network Local Area Nework LAN Classification Campus Area Network Metropolitan Area Network To find location of a computer using FQDN Tree structure Structure of domain forest and domain tree Multi-Master Mode Parent child relationship model Direct Sharing Scenario ICS scenario Scenario of win proxy server NAT Server VPN server
Page No.
6 9 9 10 11 24 25 36 37 40 43 44 45 46 48
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 105 27 28 29
LAN routing Static routing Architecture of router Variable Subnet Mask Scenario of Telnet Scenario of Static Routing Routing table Routing table of covered networks Routing loops OSPF Scenario VLAN Operation VTP Configuration VTP Pruning IEEE 802.11 Standard
52 53 60 75 76 81 86 86 87 99
List of tables
Table No.
1 2
3
Name of table
Difference between Workgroup & Domain Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 Address Classes Category and Speed of UTP cables Colour Coding for straight Cable Colour Coding for Crossover cable Colour Coding for Rollover Cable Operating Systems Difference between Workgroup and Domain
Page No.
7
12 13 17 18 19 20 21 34 56 62 63 71 72 74 86 90 91
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Exchange Server with different operating systems Router interfaces and connectors Router Ports Default address mask in binary & dotted decimals Decimal and Binary values of subnet mask Subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address Routing table Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2 Difference between IGRP and RIP
CONTENTS
Sr. No.
1 1.1 2 3 3.1
Topic
INTRODUCTION Company Profile LITERATURE RIEVIEW NETWORKING Introduction to networking
Page No.
1 1 5 6 6 6 8 12 12 15 15 17 20 20 22 23 26 28 29 31 33
3.1.1 Models of Networking 3.1.2 Categories of network 3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses 3.2.1 IPAddressClasses 3.2.2 MAC Addressing 3.3 NETWORKING MEDIA 3.3.1 Ethernet Cabling
3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM 3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems 3.5 DNS SERVER 3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM 3.5.2 DNS Zone 3.6 DHCP SERVER 3.6.1 Working of DHCP Server 3.6.2 InstallationStepsofDHCPServer 3.7 ACTIVE DIRECTORY
3.7.1ActiveDirectoryServices 3.7.2 3.8 CHILD DOMAIN INTERNET SHAREING 3.8.1 Direct Sharing 3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing) 3.8.3 Win Proxy Server 3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation) 3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN) 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.10 ROUTING 3.10.1 Types of Routing 3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER 3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server 3.11.2 3.11.3 Exchange Version Requirements for Exchange Server VPN components Types of VPN
34 40 42 42 43 45 45 47 48 49 51 51 56 56 56 57 57 58 60 60 62 63 65 66 70
3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model 3.12.1 Description of Different Layers 3.13 ROUTERS 3.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component 3.13.2 Router Interfaces & Ports 3.13.3 Modes of Router 3.13.4 Configuring Password 3.13.5 Managing Configuration 3.14 SUBNETTING
Advantages of subnetting
70 73 75 75
3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces 76 3.16 ROUTING 3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING 3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics 3.1.3 R IP (Routing Information Protocol) 3.1.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol) 3.1.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol) 3.1.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 3.17 LAN SWITCHING 3.17.1 SWITCH 3.17.1.1 3.17.1.2 3.18 VLAN (Virtual LAN) Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP) 79 79 84 88 91 93 95 100 100 103 108 113 113 114 115 117
Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY) 3.18.1 Wireless LAN 3.18.2 Wireless Standards 3.18.3 Wireless Security
4 5
CONCLUSION REFRENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
THE COMPANY
YEAR OF INCORPORATION
NBCC was incorporated in November 1960 as a wholly owned Government of India undertakingunder the erstwhile Ministry of Works, Housing & Supply ("MoWHS"), which is now known as the Ministry of Urban Development ("MoUD").
AN ISO COMPANY
ISO 9001:2008 Certification has been awarded to NBCC for its Project Management and Consultancy Divisions. ISO 9001:2008 certification issued by Bureau of Indian Standards is valid up to March 2014.
AUTHORISED CAPITAL
The authorized, issued and paid-up equity share capital is Rs. 120 crore. This includes Rs. 30 crore of fully paid-up bonus shares to the existing share holder s as on 30-09-2011.
PERFORMANCE RECOGNITION
On October 14, 2008, the Government granted NBCCSchedule "A" PSU status. NBCC has also been awarded ISO 9001:2008 from the Bureau of Indian Standards in respect of our consultancy and project management division. NBCC has also received "Excellent" rating from MoUD for each of the Fiscal years from 2004 to 2010 and Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises has awarded us with an "Excellence Award". MoUD grants us "Excellent" rating if all the targets set out in the MoU with MoUD for the respective Fiscal year are acheived. Further, in 2011, for one of our PMC projects, we were awarded an "Appreciation Shield" for quality and timely completion of NSEZ Noida Project by the Ministry of Commerce & Industry and the Development Commissioner, NSEZ.
AREAS OF OPERATION
NBCC is one of the few public sector companies engaged in the business of (i) project management consultancy services for civil construction projects ("PMC") (ii) civil infrastructure for power sector and (iii) real estate development. NBCC is headquartered in New Delhi and in addition has 10 regional / zonal offices across India. The projects undertaken by our Company are spread across 23 states and 1 union territory in India. In addition, NBCC has also have also undertaken projects overseas. NBCC's PMC business segment includes providing management and consultancy services for a range of civil construction projects including residential and commercial complexes, redevelopment of buildings and colonies, hospitals, educational institutions; infrastructure works for security personnel, border fencing as well as infrastructure projects such as roads, water supply systems, storm water systems and water storage solutions. NBCC's civil Infrastructure for power sector segment includes providing engineering and construction services for power projects, including design and execution of (i) civil and structural works for power
projects (ii) Cooling towers (iii) Chimneys. NBCC's real estate development segment focuses on principally two types of projects, namely, (i) residential projects, such as apartments and townships and (ii) commercial projects, such as corporate office buildings and shopping malls.
* There are 3 projects for which the contract value is yet to be determined.
Completed Projects
Forthcoming Projects Leasable No. of Developable Area Projects Area 0 66,624 66,624 6 6 12 5,555,821 2,323,908 7,879,729 Saleable Area 4,878,882 1,724,101 6,602,983 Leasable Area 147,585 290,786 438,353
No. of Developable No. of Developable Projects Area Projects Area Residential Commercial Total Nil 8 8 1,076,65 1,076,65 4 3 7 3,732,053 407,633 4,139,686
Durgapur, Thermal Power Project at West Bengal, Rihand Super Thermal Power Project, Uttar Pradesh, Barh Super Thermal Power Project, Patna, Mauda and Vindhyachal Super Thermal Projectat Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh respectively. As of September 30, 2011 Number of projects Contract Value(` in million) Outstanding Contract Value / Order Book(` in million) Civil Infrastructure for power projects (Ongoing Projects) 14 7,875.43 3,199.49
2.
LITERATURE RIEVIEW
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN. The courses in AIT comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on active participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with handson training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of corporate world.
3. NETWORKING
3.1 Introduction to networking
Networking is a practice of linking of two or more computing devices such as PCs, printers, faxes etc., with each other Connection between two devices is through physical media or logical media to share information, data and resources. Networks are made with the hardware and software.
Cable/media
(iii)
Domain Model
(i) Client Server Model In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share the resources of server, but a server cannot share the resources on clients. On the point of view of administrator its very easy to control the network because we combine with the server also at security point of view. It is very useful because it uses user level security in which users have to remember only one password to share the resources. (ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model) In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we cannot manage centralization, administration secutity. In Peer to Perr networking client use operating system like Window 98, Window XP, Window 2000, Window Vista. (iii) Domain Model It is a mixture of client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can share their resources as peer-to-peer but with the permission of the server as in client server model therefore it is commonly used model because in this security is more as we can put restriction on both server and clients.
Workgroup
Domain
2. There is no client and no server. All the 2. There is a centralized dedicated server computers are in equal status. computer called domain controller which controls all other computers called clients. 3. This model is recommended for small networks, upto 10 computers. 4. There is no centralized administrated separately. 3. This model is recommended for large networks. 4. There is centralized administration and each PC can be administrated and managed from the server. 5. in this model high grade OS like WIN 5. In this model, low grade OS like 2000/2003 Server can be used. 2000/XP professional, WIN 98 etc. can be used. 6. Users accounts are created in each PC and are called as Local Users. 6. Users accounts are created on the server side and are called Domain Users.
LAN is a computer network that is used to connect computers and work station to share data and resources such as printers or faxes. LAN is restricted to a small area such as home, office or college. Devices used in LAN are : HUB and switch. Media for LAN is UTP cables. Figure 1.2 shows how all work stations, server and printer are interconnected with the help of the network device.
Fig 2: Local Area Network Types of LAN In LANs, data can be transferred using techniques like token passing. As per techniques used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classification.
Advantages of LAN a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure. b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results in fast work. Disadvantages of LAN a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN. b). LAN cannot cover large area. c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.
Fig 4: Campus Area Network Devices used in CAN are : HUB, Switch, Layer-3 switch, Access Point .And the media used for CAN is Unshielded twisted pair of cables and Fiber Optics Cable.
3.1.2.3
MAN is the interconnection of networks in a city. MAN is not owned by a single organization. It act as a high speed network to allow sharing resources with in a city. MAN can also be formed by connecting remote LANs through telephone lines or radio links. MAN supports data and voice transmission. The best example of MAN is cable T.V network in a city.
3.1.2.4
WAN covers a wide geographical area which include multiple computers or LANs. It connects computer networks through public networks like, telephone system, microwave, satellite link or leased line. Most of the WANs use leased lines for internet access as they provide faster data transfer. WAN helps an organization to establish network between all its departments and offices located in the same or different cities. It also enables communication between the organization and rest world. Devices used in WAN is only Router
IPv4 It is 32 bit long. It is divided into 4 octets. Ipv4 performs broadcasting, multicasting and unicasting. IPv4 is divided into 5 classes: A to E. IPv4 is in decimal form. -
IPv6 It is 128 bit long. It is divided into 16 octets. IPv6 doesnt it support performs broadcasting,
multicasting and unicasting. Ipv6 doesnt support classes. IPv6 is in hexadecimal form.
Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16-bit network ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network ID and 8-bit of host ID. Address Classes
Table 3: Address Classes Addres s Class Class A 0 1to 127 255.0.0.0 256*256*256-2= 16,777,214 Starting Bits Range of First Mask Value (first-byte) Octet Valid Hosts
Class B
10
128 to 191
255.255.0.0
256*256-2=65,534
Class C
110
192 to 223
255.255.255.0
256-2
Class D
1110
224 to 239
Class E `
1111
240 to 255
Reserved development
for
research
and
Start-run-cmd-ping 10.0.0.1
3.3
NETWORKING MEDIA
To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (iv) Coaxial Cable Fiber optic cable Twisted Pair of Cables Micro- wave Satellite
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types: (i) (ii) Base Band Cable (RG 59) Broad Band Cable (RG 58)
We used Base Band signal cable in Networking of Computers, It is so called because it carries single frequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 . Where as Broad Band Cables carries multiple frequencies. Connector used for Coaxial cable is BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-62 coaxial cable. It has an impedance of 93 and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation factor.
Fiber Optical Cable Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of glass, one for the inner core and the other for the outer layer. Here signal is transmitted in the form of light. Different varieties of fiber optics is used depending on the size of the network. Single mode fiber optics is used for networks spanning longer distance. Fiber Optics has lower propagation factor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure transmission media. Twisted Pair Cable There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI (Electro Magnetic Induction).these cables are easy to terminate. However they have a slightly higher value of attenuation value and hence have limited distance covering capacity. Connector used for Twisted Pair of Cable is (Registered Jack) RJ-45 and RJ-11. There are two types of twisted pair of cables:
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped over the inner
cover which holds copper in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal from external noise. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra protection from noise. There are different categories of UTP cables:
Categories of UTP Cables Table 4: Category and Speed of UTP cables Category Speed
3.3.1
Ethernet Cabling
Straight cable Crossover cable Rolled cable
568A (one end) Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown (other end) Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown (one end) Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown
568B (other end) Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown
Colour Coding for Crossover cable Table 6 Colour Coding for Crossover cable
(one end) Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown
(other end) Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown
568A (one end) Green/white Green Orange/white Blue Blue/white Orange Brown/white Brown (other end) Brown Brown/white Orange Blue/white Blue Orange/white Green Green/white (one end) Orange/white Orange Green/white Blue Blue/white Green Brown/white Brown
568B (other end) Brown Brown/white Green Blue/white Blue Green/white Orange Orange/white
3. In this OS, there is less security. 4. In this OS, all computers are clients. 5. In this OS, MS-DOS, GUI package Win 3.1, Win 95, Win 98, Win ME comes.
3. In this OS, there is more security. 4. In this OS, there are servers and clients. 5. In this OS Win NT, Win 2000, Win 2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and MAC comes.
(ix)
Support for a hard based Watch Dog Timer, which can restart the server if the operating system does not suspend with in a certain amount of time.
Removed Features The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used instead . Edition of Window 2003 Window server 2003 comes in a number of editions, each targeted towards a particular size and type of business. In general, all variant of window server 2003 have the ability to share files and printers, act as application server and host message queue, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509 certificate server, provide LDAP (Light Weight Directory Access Protocol) services, serve streaming media, and to perform other server-oriented functions.
3.5
DNS SERVER
DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology
for managing the names of websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer and allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet. DNS is the resolution mechanism used by Window Server 2003 clients to find other computers and services running on those computers for computers in a window 2003 network infrastructure to talk to one another, one of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not communicate globally but communicate locally, but if domain name is added along with it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use for name reservation i.e. to convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of DNS is to resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only user friendly name and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC address DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (fully qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name .
3.5.1.1 HOST NAME Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can use the transport services of TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is 16byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the network. 3.5.1.2 DOMAIN NAME Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the location without having to remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or gmail.com
3.5.1.3 FQD FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized the root level namespace, top level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Left most
portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an IP address.
Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identify host id and location of a computer as in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1 with IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2nd floor in the organization center. The FQDN for this is Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use c name technique as: Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1 3.5.1.4 Domain Namespace DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an organized, hierarchical division of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these domain in a hierarchical tree structure.
Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure of root domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting point of the fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2 shows the tree structure or domain namespace.
Fig 7: Tree structure or Domain Namespace 3.5.1.5 DNS server Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to convert host name FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To store the name-to-IP-addresses mappings so crucial to network communication, name server uses zone files.
3.5.2.1
Each record stored in a zone file has a specific purpose. Some of the records set the behavior of the name server, others have the job of resolving a host name or service into an IP table. (i) NS (Name Server): These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing iterative queries to perform name resolution. (ii) SOA (Start of Authority): This resource record indicates the name of origin for the zone contains the name of the server that is the primary source for information about the zone. The information in an SOA record affect how often transfer of the zone are done between servers authoritative for the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as version information and timings that affect zone renewal or expiration.
(iii)
CNAME can be used to assign multiple names of a single IP address. For example, the server hosting the site www.abc.com is probably not named www, but a CNAME record exist resolution of www to an IP address all the same. The CNAME record actually points not to an IP address, but to an existing A record in the zone. 3.5.2.2 Steps to Install and configure DNS server Start control panel add and remove program Add remove window components Select networking services and click on detail button Check box of DNS server Ok and finish
3.5.2.3 Creating a Forward Lookup Zone Statically fill the IP address Start administrator tools DNS right click on forward lookup zone New zone next Select primary zone next Enter zone name (abc.com) next Tick Allow both secure and non secure updates and secure dynamic updated next next now click on created zone (abc.com) new host enter host name for global level (i.e by entering www) fill IP address of the web server , click on add button enter another host name, a blank host with same IP i.e do not fill its host name
steps to change SOA and NS records Right click on SOA records properties
Fill primary server e.g (www.abc.com) responsible person host master.abc.com apply ok right click on NS records click on add button enter FQDN www.abc.com resolve ok apply ok
Now go to start menu ping abc.com On Client Side To access DNS server fill IP address of server then use ping command e.g ping www.abc.com
3.5.2.3
Creating a Reverse Lookup Zone Right click on reverse lookup zone New zone next select primary zone next fill Network ID next next Select allow both non secure and non secure dynamic updates Finish Right click on created reverse zone new pointer enter host IP number e.g (50.0.0.50) enter FQDN (www.chd.com)
This command flush or clear all the information in the cache that is retrieved from DNS server. (v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns Display the current contents or entries in the cache. (vi) c:>ip config /register register any DNS name
DHCP Scope
manageable. Using super scope you can group multiple scopes as a single administrative entity that allows the client to lease from either one. With this feature, a DHCP server can: Support DHCP clients on a single physical network segment where multiple logical IP networks are used. When more than one logical IP network is used on each physical subnet or network, such configuration is called multinets. Support DHCP clients located on the far side of DHCP and BOOTP relay agent. In multinet configuration, DHCP superscope can be used to group and activate individual scope ranges of IP addresses used on your network. In this way , a DHCP server computer can activate and provide leases from more than one scope to clients on a single physical network. Exclusion IP range If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the series of 192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not be assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range. DHCP Leased Time DHCP lease time is validity of IP address. By default DHCP lease time is 8 days minimum,1 day maximum 999 days, 23 hours to53 day. With in 8 days:After 80% of day clients demand new IP some times server refuse the client request. After 87.5% of days it will retry, and if the server did not give the new IP address then the client will receive APIPA address (Automatic Private IP Address). When a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a random IP address from the private APIPA address range of 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is not in use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host number for that network. The significance of APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot find a DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other computers on the same subnet mask that also cannot find DHCP server. It allows communication when
DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assign a default gateway, and therefore it cannot communicate with any computer that lives on the other side of a router. IP Reservation There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by statically filling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help of MAC address for a particular computer.
3.6.2
3.6.2.1
After DHCP server is configured, it is required to be authorized and DHCP scope should be active. For that select DHCP server and click on authorize in action menu. Then right click on scope name and click on active.
3.6.2.2
On Client Side
Go to LAN card properties select TCP/IP protocol properties Select obtain IP address automatically Go to command prompt (cmd) Give command
3.6.2.3
We can take backup of all the configuration in DHCP server with the help of administrator. Backup means to export the DHCP database to another system, as it is helpful in case due to any reason our data is corrupted or deleted, we can take our database from the place where it is stored. Steps of taking backup : Stop the DHCP server and disable the DHCP server services Copy the DHCP server directory to a temporary location, say pen drive or on a new DHCP server.
Right click on relay agent properties Enter IP address of DHCP server add apply ok
3.7
ACTIVE DIRECTORY
With the release of Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced Active Directory, a scalable, robust directory service. Active Directory is used to create server based networking. Active Directorys job is to store and make available a Directory database i.e information about the user, its class, name, address, mails, phone numbers, location. Active Directory is a technology created by Microsoft that provides a variety of network services like Directory Services, DNS based naming and other network information. Active Directory also allows administrator to assign policies, deploy software and apply critical updates to an organizations. Active Directory was previewed in 1999, released first with window 2000 server edition and revised to extend functionally and improve administration in Window 2003. Additional improvements were made in Window server 2003 and Window server 2008. The fundamental building block of Microsofts Directory services continues to be a domain. A domain is logically grouping of network resources, including shares, printers, groups and users accounts. The user account represents the individual to domain, and allows for different type of access and different types of tasks. Every users account is unique. It has uniqueness of the user account that allows administrator to control access for every member of domain. There are two types of users accounts: local account and domain account. Local accounts are maintained in the local database of a computer and cannot be used to grant access to network resources. Local users are primarily used to administer a computer or to allow several people to share a single computer that is not a member of a domain. Whereas domain users accounts are much more widely used in organizations that local user accounts because they allow for central administration and user can log onto any computer in the domain. Domain users accounts are stored in Active Directory.
1. It is a peer-to-peer networking 1. It is a server based networking model. model. 2.there is a centralized dedicated server 2. There is no client and no server. computer All computers are in equal status. 3.This model is recommended for small networks (upto 10 pcs). 4. There is no centralized Administration and each PC is administrated 4. There is centralized administration and separately. 5.In this model, low grade operating system like 2000/xp professional, 5.In this model high grade operating win 98 etc can be used. 6. Workgroup can be given names like sales, HR, accounts etc. 6. Domain can also given names like abc.com, xyz.com etc. system ,like win2000/2003 server are used. each PC can be administrated and managed from the server. 3. This model is recommended for large networks. called domain controller (DC)which controls all other computers called clients.
7 Users accounts are created in each PC and are called as Local Users. 7.Users accounts are created on sever side DC and are called as Domain Users. Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary. Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides before they can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links related domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the domain in which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain is called a tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace. All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All domains in the forest share same schema.
3.7.1.1
Types of Domain
Domain Forest A forest is created when window 2k3 server computer is configured as a domain controller. A forest is a collection of multiple domain link together and relationship between the domains. Domain Tree A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent domain.
Fig 8: Structure of domain forest and domain tree Organization Unit (OU) Organization unit is the smallest unit in a domain network that can contain users, computer groups, shared folders, printers and group policy object in simple words. OU means department like sale department, accounts department like sales, accounts in a company OU can be used to apply different security policies to computer and users in different department. OU also helps in dividing administration among different administrator of managing only computer and users of sales department.
3.7.1.2
Primary Domain Controller (PDC) This is the first domain controller, in this domain all entries are created in it like users account, group policy, Organization unit etc. All FSMO role are done in PDC.
Additional Domain Controller (ADC) It is a domain network, it is important to have more than one DC so that if one DC fails, the other DC will continue serving the client. There is also load balancing of Active Directory Service if we have more than one DC. The first DC we create is simply called PDC and if we create an extra DC then that DC is known as ADC. ADC has same configuration of AD as primary domain controller. All domain controllers in a domain networking are masters. We can make a change in the active directory of any domain controller and that change is replicated to all other domain controllers. Replication takes place among all the domain controllers and it is controlled automatically. If we create a user in the first domain controller, it is automatically created in the ADC because of replication. All the domain controllers in the domain networking are peers and this model is called as multi- master model .
Atleast 1GB free hard disk space LAN card enabled and connected to the network Install DNS, if not installed of Active Directory and configure it.
It should be noted that active directory cannot work without DNS.DNS is automatically installed and configured during the Active Directory installation.
Command used for the removal of Active Directory start run dcpromo
This command is also used to remove active directory, if after this command the active directory is not removed then type startrun cmddcpromo /forceremoval Ok
Change backup path browse keep in your hardware and then send it to the pen drive D:\adbackup
Fig 10 : parent-child relationship model A child domain is created to ease administration in a very large domain network. We can create the parent domain in the head office of the company and the child domain in the branch offices. Each branch office will have its own administrator to manage the users of the child domain present in the branch office. A true relationship is automatically created between the parent domain and the child domain. This means users in the child domain can access the file server of the parent domain. Moreover users of either domain can use clients of either domain for logging in
the domain but a user can always logon only in the domain in which his account resides, though he physically can use client pc of parent or client domain. Users of either domain can logon its own domain from either side but only when it use its own domain name. users of parent domain can communicate with child domain but he has to use its domain name for that.
3.7.2.1
First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram Below are the steps to cerate child domain. Fill the IP address in the child domain Now ping to the parent domain with the domain name (xyz.com) Run dcpromo ok next select domain controller for a new domain next select child domain and existing domain name (mcse.com) next enter username, password and domain name enter user parent domain name also enter child domain name enter complete DNS name i.e xyz.mcse.com next next next next
it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the other hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can apply policies or security on the child domain.
Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name. First right click on My Computer Properties Computer name Change Write domain name ok Now logoff start and then write user name - Tom Domain name - mcse.com Again logoff and check the other user Start-user name- abc Domain name mail.mcse.com
3.8
INTERNET SHAREING
We can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help of
networking or internet sharing. There are four ways to share internet. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Direct sharing ICS Internet connection sharing Win Proxy NAT Network Address Translation
Fig: 11: Direct Sharing Scenario ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS (Domain Name Server) and GW (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs automatically.
doesnt work on the server in which AD+SP1 is present. The scenario for ICS is shown below:
Fig 12: ICS scenario Note:- When we configure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address automatically.
Win Proxy is a third party software which is used for sharing internet and we can also block the web site with the help of win proxy. WIN Proxy supports all the three classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario for WIN proxy is shown below:
Fig 13: scenario of win proxy server In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First of all a ADSL modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector and other end of ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address 192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP address of 192.168.1.2 and end IP address of 192.168.1.254. Then after ADSL modem connect PC1, assign GW 192.168.1.1 and
address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT eliminates the need for large number of IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addresses.
Fig 14: NAT server When deploying NAT, it is needed to configure setting on both the client side and the server side. On the server side of NAT fill the IP address statically.
automatically and then restart the client system. Assuming NAT is used for address assignment, the client system will receive TCP/IP information from the NAT server. The client information includes: IP address from 192.168.0.0 private addressing range Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)
DNS server address, which would be the address of the NAT interface on the server.
With the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server: The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard. Start administrator tools Routing & Remote Access Right click on My Computer right click on computer name Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access Welcome to routing next next Select NAT next Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet next next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a time to remove the other method
go to start setting add & remove change/ remove, tick on remove.
Fig 15 : scenario of VPN server Using VPN server we can connect many private networks to internet services i.e the remote connection. We can create a private network through public network, we can use firewall for security and data encryption in VPN server.
Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system. WAN Options
PPTP or L2TP
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or frame relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN server must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing into an internet server provider (ISP). Security Options Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID.
Point to Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) PPTP is Microsofts legacy protocol for supporting VPN. It was developed in conjunction with other communications companies such as Robotics as an extension to the PPP protocol. PPTP encapsulates IP or IPX packets inside of PPP datagrams. This means that you can remotely run programs that are dependent upon particular network protocols. One of the keys to remember about PPTP is that the protocol provides encryption capabilities, making it much safer to send information over nonsecure networks. Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) L2TP is a standard based encapsulation protocol with roughly the same functionality as a Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). One of the key differences between Windows server 2003 implementation of L2TPand it cousin PPTP is that L2TPis
designed to run natively over IP networks only. This implementation of L2TP does not support native tunneling over X.25, frame relay, or ATM networks. Like PPTP, L2TPencapsulates Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) frames, which then encapsulate IP or IPX protocols, allowing users to remotely run programs that are dependent on specific network protocols . But unlike the PPTP protocol, L2TP does not provide encryption of the data. For data security L2TPrelies on the services of another standards- based protocol, IPSec.
3.9.3
3.9.4
3.9.5
Enter company name (abc) next Enter public IP address of VPN server next Any one use next finish
3.10
ROUTING
It is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from one
network to another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process of routing. The dial-in properties also allow for specific IP address to be assigned to a user. This is the only way in Window Server 2003 that you can assign a specific IP to a user. To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Address and enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as per user. By defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks. In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for effort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer configured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network cards. These two network cards, then, are attached to two different logical IP networks. The routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router. Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to configure the router in order for that router to pass along traffic to the proper network. There are two ways the routing table can be built and modified: either manually or automatically.
enable LAN routing Interface WAN 10.0.0.0 IP 10.0.0.0 SNM 255.0.0.0 GW 20.0.0.1 Fig 16 : scenario for LAN routing
At Router R2:
interface WAN destination 172.15.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 GW 20.0.0.2 Enable LAN routing Right click on static route Interface WAN Destination 10.0.0.0 Mask 255.0.0.0 GW 20.0.0.1
protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative overhead. In dynamic routing, routing information is automatically entered in the router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by Window Server 2003 use one of two kinds of algorithms to determine the best possible path for a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or link state. RIP is used for small networks where as OSPF is used for large networks.
(iii)
Route filters; you can configure RIP to except information from only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared with RIP routers.
(iv) (v)
Peer filters, which allow control over which router announcements are accepted. Simple password authentication support.
But there are significant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, if not unusable solution for large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used for RIP routers is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Where RIP is built to work to work in smaller networks, the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol is designed for large or very large networks. The goal is the same: information about connection to other networks is shared from one router to another. It offers several advantages over RIP, especially significant in large networks: (i) (ii) (iii) Routes calculated with OSPF are always loop free. OSPF can scale much more easily than RIP. Reconfiguration for network topology changes is faster.
The biggest reason OSPF is the choice in large networks is its efficiency; instead of changing routing table via broadcast the way RIP does, OSPF configured routers maintain a map of the network. The mapping is called the link state database, OSPF routers keep the link state database up to date. Once changes have been made to link state database, an OSPF routers link state database is recalculated. As the networks start to multiply, the size of the link state database increases, and a corresponding hit on router performance results. To combat this, OSPF sub divide the network into smaller sections, called areas. Areas are connected to each other through a backbone area, with each router only responsible for the link state database for those areas connected to the routers. Area Border Routers (ABRs) then connect one backbone area to another.
The biggest drawback of OSPF is its complexity; OSPF requires proper planning and is more difficult to configure and administer.
3.11.2
Exchange Version
Table 10: Exchange Server with different operating systems Exchange Version Exchange Server 5.5 Exchange Server 2000 Operating System WIN NT or 2000 server (without SP). WIN NT or 2000 server (SP3,SP4) without (SP). Exchange Server 2003 WIN 2000 Server or WIN2003 server (SP4) without SP. Exchange server 2007 WIN2003 server or R2/WIN 2008 server with SP1.
Where SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.
Hardware Requirements
Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz RAM: min. 256MB Rec. 512MB
Other Requirements
OS: 2k or 2k3 Server NTFS partition Static IP address Active Directory DNS installation with AD zone IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service
(iii)
examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc. Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and ARP etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol. Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of service, fragmentation and protocol identification. Data Link Layer The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers (i) Logical Link Control Media Access Control Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi. (ii) Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing. Physical Layer Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform modulation and demodulation as required.
3.13 ROUTERS
Processor I/O Controller Memory Controller BIOS ROM Incomplete IOS NVRAM Startup Configuration IOS RAM
Fig 18 : Architecture of router Processor Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz Architecture: - RISC Reduce Instruction set computer Manufacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Orion, Intel. Flash RAM Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM). NVRAM NVRAM is a Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store the startup configuration of the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.
RAM (Random Access Memory) It is a volatile memory. All the activities we do are stored in RAM,this means that it holds the running configuration. RAM of the router is divided into two logical parts. Primary RAM Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Shared RAM Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from different interfaces. Size of RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB. The types of memory that may be present in a RAM are: (i) (ii) (iii) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM EDORAM -> Extended Data Out RAM SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic RAM Running copy of IOS. Running configuration Routing table Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC address) Processor & other data structure
ROM (Random Access Memory) It has four components: POST (Power on Self Test) It performs hardware testing. BOOT Strap Boot strap specifies from where and which inter operating system is to be loaded. Mini IOS
AUI Attachment Unit Interface EPABX Electronic Private Automatic Branch PSTN Public Services Telephone Network 3.13.2.2 Router Ports Table 12: Router Ports
Modes of Router
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes. According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
Router> In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change and save router configuration.
Privileged mode
Router# In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task, debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is enable. We have to enter enable password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will work.
Global configuration
Route(config)# This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But here we cannot see and save the changes. For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security. The command to enter in this mode is configure terminal
Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
Console Password
router#configure terminal router(config)#line console 0 router(config-line)#password <word> router(config-line)#login router(config-line)#exit To erase password do all steps with no command.
Vty Password
router>enable router#configure terminal router(config)#line vty 0 4 router(config-line)#password <word> router(config-line)#login router(config-line)#exit
Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal router(config)#line Aux 0 router(config-line)#password <word> router(config-line)#login router(config-line)#exit
Enable Password
router>enable
Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in to the Primary RAM. Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a command for configuration, this command is written in the running configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration Or Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface. Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface <type> <no> Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask> Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router(config-if)#exit
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Mac address IP address Subnet mask Hardware type / manufacturer Bandwidth Reliability Delay Load ( Tx load Rx load) Encapsulation ARP type (if applicable) Keep alive
Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type. Different banners are: Login Appear before login prompt Exec Appear after we enter to the execution mode Incoming Appear for incoming connections Message of the day (motd) This banner appear at every access method
Syntax:Router#config terminal Router(config)#banner <delimation char> Router(config)# <type> <delimation char>Text Massage
Example
Router#config terminal Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router connected to Reliance $ Router(config)#
Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset to the default
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009
3.14
SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based networks. In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id. This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network size does not shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within the network.
3.14.1
Advantages of subnetting
Size of the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage. Reduce network traffic. Easy to troubleshoot. Reduce the wastage of IP address.
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifying a sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit network address. This binary address gives the first address in the subnet block specified in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used for subnet.Each class has a default subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the network address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B consists of 16 1s in network address field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network address field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted-decimal is shown in the table
To Calculate the Subnet Mask 1. Identify the class of address assigned. For this example the class of IP address is Class B. 2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id. 4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that is power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field. 5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-20=12. which defines whole address. 6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0 Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask
Decimal Binary
00000000 0 128 192 224 240 248 252 254 255 3.14.2 Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM) Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) 10000000 11000000 11100000 11110000 11111000 11111100 11111110 11111111
Types of Subnetting
Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address Subnetwork Valid Host Broadcast Address
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.1 192.168.10.63
192.168.10.64
192.168.10.65 192.168.10.126
192.168.10.128
192.168.10.129 192.168.10.190
192.168.10.192
192.168.10.193 192.168.10.254
VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario given:
3.15 TELNET
Telnet stands for terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on the network. Purpose of Telnet is to access the remote device in order to configure it. It provides textual access of the remote device. It uses the services of TCP. Telnet service is used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access of the remote device. Port number of Telnet is 23.
Router>enable Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface f0/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Fig 20: scenario of Telnet Router# Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface s0/1/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router(config)#interface s0/1/0 Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is Router#show ip interface brief
At router 2:
Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface f0/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router# Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface s1/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface s1/1 Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router(config)#interface s1/1 Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000 Router(config-if)#no shutdown
At router 3:
Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface f0/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router# Router#configure terminal Router(config)#interface s1/0 Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Router(config-if)#no shutdown
3.16 ROUTING
Routing is a process or technique to identify the path from one network to another. Routers dont really care about hoststhey only care about networks and the best path to each network.
To route the packet the router must know the following things: Destination network Neighbour device from witch it can learn about remote Networking. Possible number of routers to reach the destination. Best route to reach the destination. How to maintain & verify the routing information.
Features
There is no overhead on the router CPU. There is no bandwidth usage between routers. It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain networks only.
Router(config)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router(config)#interface so/1/0 Router(config)# clock rate 64000 Router # show ip route
3.16.1.2
DEFAULT ROUTING
Default routing is used to send packets with a remote destination network
not in the routing table to the next-hop route. Default routing is also a type of static routing which reduces the routing overhead & default routing is also used with stub networks. Stub networks are those having a single exit interface. Default routing is also used for unknown destination.
A special address is used to perform the default routing ie 0.0.0.0 The scenario for default routing is same and but the commands used at the routers having single exit interface like R1 and R3 have different commands.
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1 Router#show ip route
3.16.1.3
DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers. A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the routing table. The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF There are two type of routing protocols used in internetwors:
These protocols are:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) RIPv1 (Routing Information Protocol Version 1) RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
Administrative Distances The Administrative Distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing
information received on a router from a neighbor router. An Administrative Distance is an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route. If a router receives two updates listing he sane remote network, the first thing the router checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has lower AD than the other, then the route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.If both advertised routes to the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics (such as hop count or bandwidth of the lines) will be used to find the best path to the remote network. The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table.
Route Source Connected interface Static Route EIGRP IGRP OSPF RIP External EIGRP Unknown 255
Default AD 0 1 90 100 110 120 170 This route will never be used
But if both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then the routing protocol will load-balance in the remote network.
3.16.2.1
A router receiving an update from a neighbor router believes the information about remote networks without actually finding out for itself. Its possible to have network that has multiple links to the same remote network, and if thats the case, the administrative distance is checked first. If the AD is the same, the protocol will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to use to that remote network.
Converged Network
Fig 23 : Routing table of covered networks Routing Loops Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadcast includes the complete routing table. Routing loops can occur because a every router isnt updated simultaneously.
Router A
Router B
Router C
Router E
Network 3
Network 4
Network 5
Router D
The interface to Network 5 fails. All routers know about Network 5 from Router E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B. When Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D dont know about Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. Router C will eventually send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and D are still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through Router B with a metric of 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-second Hello, Im still herethese are the links I know about message, which includes the ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderful news that Network 5 can be reached from Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will go to Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop. Link state protocol Also called shortest-path-first protocols, the routers each create three separate tables. One keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines the topology of the entire internet work, and one is used as the routing tables. Link state routers know more about the internet work than any distance-vector routing protocol. Link state protocols send updates containing the state of their own links to all other routers on the network Ex: OSPF Hybrid protocol Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol. Ex: EIGRP
3.16.3
an IGB (Inter Gateway Protocol). It sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds to its immediate neighbour. This is slow convergence means that one router sends a request to other about its route or network get networks which are
not assigned to it after all thee three routers have same networks, this process is repeated to send and receive request so it is called slow convergence RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop count of 0-15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP version 1 uses only class full routing, which means that all devices in the network must use the same subnet mask. RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing, and does send subnet mask information with the route updates. This is called classless routing.
Hop Count It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15
routers, if there is one more router in the network then this routing will fails. Default administrative distance (120)
Timers of RIP
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Update timers. Hold timers. Invalid timers. Flush out timers.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed. Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet is received with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
At router 2
Router(config)# router rip Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0 Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0 Router#show ip route
At router 3
Router(config)# router rip Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0 Router#show ip route
Uses an autonomous system number for Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers activation Gives a full route table update every 90 Gives full route table update every 30 seconds Has an administrative distance of 100 seconds Has an administrative distance of 120
Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the best metric (lowest composite metric),with a path to a remote network, with 15 hops maximum hop count of 255 being the maximum
IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings:
Update timers These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The default
is 90 seconds.
Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesnt receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update period.
Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer is 90 seconds by default, then 7 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10 R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 R1#show ip route
At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10 R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 R2#show ip route
At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10 R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 R1#show ip route
3.16.5
that gives us a real edge over IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous routers that run the same routing protocol and share routing information. But unlike IGRP, EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates. The advertisement of subnet information allows us to use VLSM and summarization when designing our networks. EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. It sends traditional distance-vector updates containing information about networks plus the cost of reaching them from the perspective of the adverting router. EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.
advanced distance vector or even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports different Network layer protocols through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information that applies to a specific protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables, IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.
Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship establishment: Hello or ACK received AS numbers match Identical metrics (K values) To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue receiving Hellos from their neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous systems (ASes) dont automatically share routing information and they dont become neighbors. The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new neighbor and forms an adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When this happens, both neighbors advertise their entire routing tables to one another. After each has learned its neighbors routes, only changes to the routing table are propagated from then on. EIGRP maintains three tables containing information about the internetworks. (i) Neighbor Table Records information about routers with whom neighborship relationships have been formed. (ii) Topology Table Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received from each neighbor.
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a combination of four: 3.16.6 Bandwidth Delay Load Reliability
implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco. This works by using the Dijkstra algorithm. First, a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the routing table is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although perhaps not as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same destination. But unlike EIGRP, it only supports IP routing. OSPF is an IGP protocol. It is a link state routing protocol. It is supported by many operating systems. Its default AD is 110, hop count limit is unlimited. It is classless routing protocol, supports VLSM/CIDR. By default the highest IP address of interface will be elected as Router id.
OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means that you can separate the larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called areas. This is the best design for OSPF. The reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include: To decrease routing overhead To speed up convergence To confine network instability to single areas of the network Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0. OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
OSPF Terminology
Link A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an interface is added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link. Router ID The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP address of all active physical interfaces. Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link. Adjacency An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing informationunlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends upon both the type of network and the configuration of the routers.
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be elected for each broadcast multi-access network. Non-broadcast multi-access Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access, but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined. Point-to-point Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to-point connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it can be logical. Point-to-multipoint Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.
Cisco uses a simple equation of 108/ bandwidth.The bandwidth is the configured bandwidth for the interface. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interface would have a default OSPF cost of 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interface would have a cost of 10. An interface set with a bandwidth of 64,000 would have a default cost of 1563.
Benefits of OSPF
(i) (ii) (iii) Minimum routing updates. Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1. The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination Router)
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 1 Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2 Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config)#interface s0/1/0 Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000 Router#show ip route
At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1 Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Router#show ip route
networking device which filters and forward packets through the network. It is a layer 2 device. It is more advanced then hub but not as advanced as router.The basic function of a switch is to manage the signal flow. When the switch is open, it allows the signal to flow through it and when it is closed, it stopes the signal to flow. Switch connects separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A switch is a hardware device that filters and forward data packets between network segments. Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward the traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC addresses and port numbers are used to perform switching decision.
WORKING OF SWITCH
When switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access Control (MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a uniqe number that is programed in to every Network Interface Card(NIC). Concider, device A wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch than cecks the MAC address of the destination system. It then transfer data to device B only instead of brodcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the system to witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link.
SWITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method: Store-and-forward switching The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it will be discarded. It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is not
significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by most switches. Cut-through switching It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but the shortest latency for switching Fragment-free switching ( Modified Cut-through switching ) A frame is forwarded after the first 64 bytes of the frame have been received. Since a collision can be detected within the first 64 bytes of a frame, fragment-free switching can detect a frame corrupted by a collision and drop it.Therefore, fragment-free switching provides better error checking than cutthrough switching. The error rate of fragment-free switching is above store-and-forward switching and below cut-through switching. The latency of fragment-free switching is shorter than store-and- forward switching and longer than cut-through switching. NOTE: Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches use fragment-free switching by default.
Layer-2 Switching Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC address
from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can be considered as multi- port bridge. Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before deciding to either forward the frame or drop it. Limitations of Layer 2 Switching With bridge the connected networks are still one large broadcast domain. Layer 2 switch cannot break the broadcast domain, this cause performance issue which limits the size of your network. For this one reason the switch cannot completely replace routers in the internetwork.
3.17.1.1
VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices, which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses. Vlan provides following advantages: Logical Segmentation of network Enhance network security
broadcast domain, unless there is a router in between. Different ports of a switch can be assigned to different VLANs. A VLAN can also span multiple switches. The advantages of implementing VLAN are It can group devices based on the requirements other than their physical locations. It breaks broadcast domains and increases network throughput. It provides better security by separating devices into different VLANs. Since each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain, devices in different VLANs cannot listen or respond to the broadcast traffic of each other. Inter-VLAN communication can be controlled by configuring access control lists on the router or Layer 3 switch connecting the VLANs.
Types of VLAN
Static VLAN Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set up and manage. Dynamic VLAN Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the devices connected to the ports. A VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and configure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the MAC addresses of the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS). Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridge table for each VLAN.
VLAN Operation
Fig 26: VLAN Operation Each logical VLAN is like a separate physical bridge. VLANs can span across multiple switches. Trunks carry traffic for multiple VLANs. Trunks use special encapsulation to distinguish between different VLANs.
VLAN links
There are two different types of links in a switched network: Access link A link from Pc to switch is called as access link or A link that is part of only one VLAN. Therefore, a port connecting to an access link can be a member of only one VLAN. And the mode of port is called as access mode.
Trunk link A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100 Mbps
or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member of multiple
VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches. VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagging or frame identification. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch. With frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (since a separate bridge table is used for each VLAN). A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.
VTP Operation
VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames. VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number. VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.
VTP Modes
VTP server mode By default all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP clients. VTP client mode On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The switch in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The client will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp update. VTP Transparent mode Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will not learn any information from received vtp update.
At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco Switch(config)#vtp password sun
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1 is not prun eligible. Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward
3.18
audio recording term "High Fidelity" or "Hi-Fi". The term "Wi-Fi", first used commercially in August 1999. Wi-Fi is an IEEE standard 802.11.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11b and 802.11g are both susceptible to these.
3.18.2
Wireless Standards
The different wireless standards that are used for IEEE 802.11 standard are
802.11
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.
802.11a
It was modified in year 1999. this is improved version of original standard. Operates at the frequency of 5GHz, which is less crowded than 2.4GHz where telephones and microwaves may cause interference. Although the speed is up to 54Mbps, the range is only up to 75 feet or distance covered is 46m. 802.11a standard is incompatible with both 802.11b and g because it operates at a different frequency.
802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet or a distance of 90m.Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
802.11g
This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbps. It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.
802.11n
The latest version of IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress of development. The next generation of high-speed wireless networking, capable of delivering the range and capacity to support today's most bandwidth-hungry applications like streaming high definition video, voice, and music. Wireless-n is based on MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to transmit multiple streams of data over multiple channnels. Operates in two modes of frequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz frequency band and can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet . Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
3.18.3
Wireless Security
A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users is to suppress the AP's SSID broadcast, "hiding" it. This is ineffective as a security method because the SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID query. Another unproductive method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the network. MAC address are easily spoofed. If the eavesdropper has the ability to change his MAC address, then he may join the network by spoofing an authorized address.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or aircrack can quickly recover WEP encryption keys. To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) for wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed lifetime, has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended. In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. If used with a 802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2 is still considered secure, as of 2009.
4.
General Conclusion
CONCLUSION
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
Applications
Communication Field Industries Medical Field Rearch Field Organisations School Colleges
REFRENCES
www.goole.com http://nbccindia.gov.in www.microsoft.com www.nythimes.com www.digitech-engineers.com Network Essentials module Introduction to Window Server2003 CISCO Cretified Network Associate Faruk Husain