Contents

What is Data Communications? Communications Channels Serial Communications Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission The ASCII Character Set

Parity and Checksums

Data Compression Data Encryption Data Storage Technology Data Transfer in Digital Circuits Transmission over Short Distances (< 2 feet) Noise and Electrical Distortion Transmission over Medium Distances (< 20 feet) Transmission over Long Distances (< 4000 feet) Transmission over Very Long Distances (> 4000 feet) What is Data Communications? -Data Communications is the transfer of digital data -Data Communications is the movement of encoded information by means of electrical

transmission systems. The transmission of data from one point to another over communication channels

The distance over which data moves within a computer may vary from a few thousandths of an inch, as is the case within a single IC chip, to as much as several feet along the backplane of the main circuit board. Over such small distances, digital data may be transmitted as direct, two-level electrical signals over simple copper conductors. Except for the fastest computers, circuit designers are not very concerned about the shape of the conductor or the analog characteristics of signal transmission. Frequently, however, data must be sent beyond the local circuitry that constitutes a computer. In many cases, the distances involved may be enormous. Unfortunately, as the distance between the source of a message and its destination increases, accurate transmission becomes increasingly difficult. This results from the electrical distortion of signals traveling through long conductors, and from noise added to the signal as it propagates through a transmission medium. Although some precautions must be taken for data exchange within a computer, the biggest problems occur when data is transferred to devices outside the computer's circuitry. In this case, distortion and noise can become so severe that information is lost.

Data Communications concerns the transmission of digital messages to devices external to the
message source. "External" devices are generally thought of as being independently powered circuitry that exists beyond the chassis of a computer or other digital message source. As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is directly proportional to signal power, and inversely proportional to channel noise. It is the aim of any communications system to provide the highest possible transmission rate at the lowest possible power and with the least possible noise.

125

Communications Channels

A communications channel is a pathway over which information can be conveyed. It may be defined by a physical wire that connects communicating devices, or by a radio, laser, or other radiated energy source that has no obvious physical presence. Information sent through a communications channel has a source from which the information originates, and a destination to which the information is delivered. Although information originates from a single source, there may be more than one destination, depending upon how many receive stations are linked to the channel and how much energy the transmitted signal possesses. In a digital communications channel, the information is represented by individual data bits, which may be encapsulated into multibit message units. A byte, which consists of eight bits, is an example of a message unit that may be conveyed through a digital communications channel. A collection of bytes may itself be grouped into a frame or other higher-level message unit. Such multiple levels of encapsulation facilitate the handling of messages in a complex data communications network.

Any communications channel has a direction associated with it:

The message source is the transmitter, and the destination is the receiver. A channel whose direction of transmission is unchanging is referred to as a simplex channel. For example, a radio station is a simplex channel because it always transmits the signal to its listeners and never allows them to transmit back. A half-duplex channel is a single physical channel in which the direction may be reversed. Messages may flow in two directions, but never at the same time, in a half-duplex system. In a telephone call, one party speaks while the other listens. After a pause, the other party speaks and the first party listens. Speaking simultaneously results in garbled sound that cannot be understood. A full-duplex channel allows simultaneous message exchange in both directions. It really consists of two simplex channels, a forward channel and a reverse channel, linking the same points. The transmission rate of the reverse channel may be slower if it is used only for flow control of the forward channel.

Serial Communications
Most digital messages are vastly longer than just a few bits. Because it is neither practical nor economic to transfer all bits of a long message simultaneously, the message is broken into smaller parts and transmitted sequentially. Bit-serial transmission conveys a message one bit at a time through a channel. Each bit represents a part of the message. The individual bits are then reassembled at the destination to compose the message. In general, one channel will pass only one bit at a time. Thus, bit-serial transmission is necessary in data communications if only a single channel is available. Bit-serial transmission is normally just called serial transmission and is the chosen communications method in many computer peripherals. Byte-serial transmission conveys eight bits at a time through eight parallel channels. Although the raw transfer rate is eight times faster than in bit-serial transmission, eight channels are needed, and the cost may be as much as eight times higher to transmit the message. When distances are short, it may nonetheless be both feasible and economic to use parallel channels in return for high data rates. The popular Centronics printer interface is a case where byte-serial transmission is used. As another example, it is common practice to use a 16-bit-wide data bus to transfer data between a microprocessor and memory chips; this provides the equivalent of 16 parallel channels. On the other

126

hand, when communicating with a timesharing system over a modem, only a single channel is available, and bit-serial transmission is required. This figure illustrates these ideas:

The baud rate refers to the signalling rate at which data is sent through a channel and is measured in electrical transitions per second. In the EIA232 serial interface standard, one signal transition, at most, occurs per bit, and the baud rate and bit rate are identical. In this case, a rate of 9600 baud corresponds to a transfer of 9,600 data bits per second with a bit period of 104 microseconds (1/9600 sec.). If two electrical transitions were required for each bit, as is the case in non-return-tozero coding, then at a rate of 9600 baud, only 4800 bits per second could be conveyed. The channel efficiency is the number of bits of useful information passed through the channel per second. It does not include framing, formatting, and error detecting bits that may be added to the information bits before a message is transmitted, and will always be less than one.

The data rate of a channel is often specified by its bit rate (often thought erroneously to be the same as baud rate). However, an equivalent measure channel capacity is bandwidth. In general, the maximum data rate a channel can support is directly proportional to the channel's bandwidth and inversely proportional to the channel's noise level. A communications protocol is an agreed-upon convention that defines the order and meaning of bits in a serial transmission. It may also specify a procedure for exchanging messages. A protocol will define how many data bits compose a message unit, the framing and formatting bits, any errordetecting bits that may be added, and other information that governs control of the communications hardware. Channel efficiency is determined by the protocol design rather than by digital hardware considerations. Note that there is a tradeoff between channel efficiency and reliability - protocols that provide greater immunity to noise by adding error-detecting and -correcting codes must necessarily become less efficient. Asynchronous

vs. Synchronous Transmission

Serialized data is not generally sent at a uniform rate through a channel. Instead, there is usually a burst of regularly spaced binary data bits followed by a pause, after which the data flow resumes. Packets of binary data are sent in this manner, possibly with variable-length pauses between packets, until the message has been fully transmitted. In order for the receiving end to know the proper moment to read individual binary bits from the channel, it must know exactly when a packet begins and how

127

much time elapses between bits. When this timing information is known, the receiver is said to be synchronized with the transmitter, and accurate data transfer becomes possible. Failure to remain synchronized throughout a transmission will cause data to be corrupted or lost. Two basic techniques are employed to ensure correct synchronization. In synchronous systems, separate channels are used to transmit data and timing information. The timing channel transmits clock pulses to the receiver. Upon receipt of a clock pulse, the receiver reads the data channel and latches the bit value found on the channel at that moment. The data channel is not read again until the next clock pulse arrives. Because the transmitter originates both the data and the timing pulses, the receiver will read the data channel only when told to do so by the transmitter (via the clock pulse), and synchronization is guaranteed. Techniques exist to merge the timing signal with the data so that only a single channel is required. This is especially useful when synchronous transmissions are to be sent through a modem. Two methods in which a data signal is self-timed are nonreturn-to-zero and biphase Manchester coding. These both refer to methods for encoding a data stream into an electrical waveform for transmission. In asynchronous systems, a separate timing channel is not used. The transmitter and

receiver must be preset in advance to an agreed-upon baud rate. A very accurate local oscillator within the receiver will then generate an internal clock signal that is equal to the transmitter's within a fraction of a percent. For the most common serial protocol, data is sent in small packets of 10 or 11 bits, eight of which constitute message information. When the channel is idle, the signal voltage corresponds to a continuous logic '1'. A data
packet always begins with a logic '0' (the start bit) to signal the receiver that a transmission is starting. The start bit triggers an internal timer in the receiver that generates the needed clock pulses. Following the start bit, eight bits of message data are sent bit by bit at the agreed upon baud rate. The packet is concluded with a parity bit and stop bit. One complete packet is illustrated below:

128

The ASCII Character Set

Characters sent through a serial interface generally follow the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) character standard:

This standard relates binary codes to printable characters and control codes. Fully 25 percent of the ASCII character set represents nonprintable control codes, such as carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF). Most modern character-oriented peripheral equipment abides by the ASCII standard, and thus may be used interchangeably with different computers.

Parity and Checksums

Noise and momentary electrical disturbances may cause data to be changed as it passes through a communications channel. If the receiver fails to detect this, the received message will be incorrect, resulting in possibly serious consequences. As a first line of defense against data errors, they must be detected. If an error can be flagged, it might be possible to request that the faulty packet be resent, or to at least prevent the flawed data from being taken as correct. If sufficient redundant information is sent, one- or two-bit errors may be corrected by hardware within the receiver before the corrupted data ever reaches its destination. A parity bit is added to a data packet for the purpose of error detection. In the even-parity convention, the value of the parity bit is chosen so that the total number of '1' digits in the combined data plus parity packet is an even number. Upon receipt of the packet, the parity needed for the data is recomputed by local hardware and compared to the parity bit received with the data. If any bit has changed state, the parity will not match, and an error will have been detected. In fact, if an odd number of bits (not just one) have been altered, the parity will not match. If an even number of bits have been reversed, the parity will match even though an error has occurred. However, a statistical analysis of data communication errors has shown that a single-bit error is much more probable than a multibit error in the presence of random noise. Thus, parity is a reliable method of error detection.

Another approach to error detection involves the computation of a checksum. In this case, the packets that constitute a message are added arithmetically. A checksum number is appended to the packet sequence so that the sum of data plus checksum is zero. When received, the packet sequence may be added, along with the checksum, by a local microprocessor. If the sum is nonzero, an error has occurred. As long as the sum is zero, it is highly unlikely (but not impossible) that any data has been corrupted during transmission.

129

Errors may not only be detected, but also corrected if additional code is added to a packet sequence. If the error probability is high or if it is not possible to request retransmission, this may be worth doing. However, including error-correcting code in a transmission lowers channel efficiency, and results in a noticeable drop in channel throughput.

Data Compression
If a typical message were statistically analyzed, it would be found that certain characters are used much more frequently than others. By analyzing a message before it is transmitted, short binary codes may be assigned to frequently used characters and longer codes to rarely used characters. In doing so, it is possible to reduce the total number of characters sent without altering the information in the message. Appropriate decoding at the receiver will restore the message to its original form. This procedure, known as data compression, may result in a 50 percent or greater savings in the amount of data transmitted. Even though time is necessary to analyze the message before it is transmitted, the savings may be great enough so that the total time for compression, transmission, and decompression will still be lower than it would be when sending an uncompressed message. Some kinds of data will compress much more than others. Data that represents images, for example, will usually compress significantly, perhaps by as much as 80 percent over its original size. Data representing a computer program, on the other hand, may be reduced only by 15 or 20 percent. A compression method called Huffman coding is frequently used in data communications, and particularly in fax transmission. Clearly, most of the image data for a typical business letter represents white paper, and only about 5 percent of the surface represents black ink. It is possible to send a single code that, for example, represents a consecutive string of 1000 white pixels rather than a separate code for each white pixel. Consequently, data compression will significantly reduce the total message length for a faxed business letter. Were the letter made up of randomly distributed black ink covering 50 percent of the white paper surface, data compression would hold no advantages.

Data Encryption
Privacy is a great concern in data communications. Faxed business letters can be intercepted at will through tapped phone lines or intercepted microwave transmissions without the knowledge of the sender or receiver. To increase the security of this and other data communications, including digitized telephone conversations, the binary codes representing data may be scrambled in such a way that unauthorized interception will produce an indecipherable sequence of characters. Authorized receive stations will be equipped with a decoder that enables the message to be restored. The process of scrambling, transmitting, and descrambling is known as encryption. Custom integrated circuits have been designed to perform this task and are available at low cost. In some cases, they will be incorporated into the main circuitry of a data communications device and function without operator knowledge. In other cases, an external circuit is used so that the device, and its encrypting/decrypting technique, may be transported easily.

Data Storage Technology

130

Normally, we think of communications science as dealing with the contemporaneous exchange of information between distant parties. However, many of the same techniques employed in data communications are also applied to data storage to ensure that the retrieval of information from a storage medium is accurate. We find, for example, that similar kinds of error-correcting codes used to protect digital telephone transmissions from noise are also used to guarantee correct readback of digital data from compact audio disks, CD-ROMs, and tape backup systems.

Data Transfer in Digital Circuits

Data is typically grouped into packets that are either 8, 16, or 32 bits long, and passed between temporary holding units called registers. Data within a register is available in parallel because each bit exits the register on a separate conductor. To transfer data from one register to another, the output conductors of one register are switched onto a channel of parallel wires referred to as a bus. The input conductors of another register, which is also connected to the bus, capture the information:

Following a data transaction, the content of the source register is reproduced in the destination register. It is important to note that after any digital data transfer, the source and destination registers are equal; the source register is not erased when the data is sent. The transmit and receive switches shown above are electronic and operate in response to commands from a central control unit. It is possible that two or more destination registers will be switched on to receive data from a single source. However, only one source may transmit data onto the bus at any time. If multiple sources were to attempt transmission simultaneously, an electrical conflict would occur when bits of opposite value are driven onto a single bus conductor. Such a condition is referred to as a bus contention. Not only will a bus contention result in the loss of information, but it also may damage the electronic circuitry. As long as all registers in a system are linked to one central control unit, bus contentions should never occur if the circuit has been designed properly. Note that the data buses within a typical microprocessor are funda-mentally half-duplex channels.

Transmission over Short Distances (< 2 feet)

When the source and destination registers are part of an integrated circuit (within a microprocessor chip, for example), they are extremely close (thousandths of an inch). Consequently, the bus signals are at very low power levels, may traverse a distance in very little time, and are not very susceptible to external noise and distortion. This is the ideal environment for digital communications. However, it is not yet possible to integrate all the necessary circuitry for a computer (i.e., CPU, memory, disk control, video and display drivers, etc.) on a single chip. When data is sent off-chip to another integrated circuit, the bus signals must be amplified and conductors extended out of the chip through external pins. Amplifiers may be added to the source register:

131

Bus signals that exit microprocessor chips and other VLSI circuitry are electrically capable of traversing about one foot of conductor on a printed circuit board, or less if many devices are connected to it. Special buffer circuits may be added to boost the bus signals sufficiently for transmission over several additional feet of conductor length, or for distribution to many other chips (such as memory chips).

Noise and Electrical Distortion

Because of the very high switching rate and relatively low signal strength found on data, address, and other buses within a computer, direct extension of the buses beyond the confines of the main circuit board or plug-in boards would pose serious problems. First, long runs of electrical conductors, either on printed circuit boards or through cables, act like receiving antennas for electrical noise radiated by motors, switches, and electronic circuits:

Such noise becomes progressively worse as the length increases, and may eventually impose an unacceptable error rate on the bus signals. Just a single bit error in transferring an instruction code from memory to a microprocessor chip may cause an invalid instruction to be introduced into the instruction stream, in turn causing the computer to totally cease operation. A second problem involves the distortion of electrical signals as they pass through metallic conductors. Signals that start at the source as clean, rectangular pulses may be received as rounded pulses with ringing at the rising and falling edges:

132

These effects are properties of transmission through metallic conductors, and become more pronounced as the conductor length increases. To compensate for distortion, signal power must be increased or the transmission rate decreased. Special amplifier circuits are designed for transmitting direct (unmodulated) digital signals through cables. For the relatively short distances between components on a printed circuit board or along a computer backplane, the amplifiers are in simple IC chips that operate from standard +5v power. The normal output voltage from the amplifier for logic '1' is slightly higher than the minimum needed to pass the logic '1' threshold. Correspondingly for logic '0', it is slightly lower. The difference between the actual output voltage and the threshold value is referred to as the noise margin, and represents the amount of noise voltage that can be added to the signal without creating an error:

Transmission over Medium Distances (< 20 feet) Computer peripherals such as a printer or scanner generally include mechanisms that cannot be situated within the computer itself. Our first thought might be just to extend the computer's internal buses with a cable of sufficient length to reach the peripheral. Doing so, however, would expose all bus transactions to external noise and distortion even though only a very small percentage of these transactions concern the distant peripheral to which the bus is connected.
If a peripheral can be located within 20 feet of the computer, however, relatively simple electronics may be added to make data transfer through a cable efficient and reliable. To accomplish this, a bus interface circuit is installed in the computer:

It consists of a holding register for peripheral data, timing and formatting circuitry for external data transmission, and signal amplifiers to boost the signal sufficiently for transmission through a cable. When communication with the peripheral is necessary, data is first deposited in the holding register by the microprocessor. This data will then be reformatted, sent with error-detecting codes, and

133

transmitted at a relatively slow rate by digital hardware in the bus interface circuit. In addition, the signal power is greatly boosted before transmission through the cable. These steps ensure that the data will not be corrupted by noise or distortion during its passage through the cable. In addition, because only data destined for the peripheral is sent, the party-line transactions taking place on the computer's buses are not unnecessarily exposed to noise. Data sent in this manner may be transmitted in byte-serial format if the cable has eight parallel channels (at least 10 conductors for half-duplex operation), or in bit-serial format if only a single channel is available.

Transmission over Long Distances (< 4000 feet)

When relatively long distances are involved in reaching a peripheral device, driver circuits must be inserted after the bus interface unit to compensate for the electrical effects of long cables:

This is the only change needed if a single peripheral is used. However, if many peripherals are connected, or if other computer stations are to be linked, a local area network (LAN) is required, and it becomes necessary to drastically change both the electrical drivers and the protocol to send messages through the cable. Because multiconductor cable is expensive, bit-serial transmission is almost always used when the distance exceeds 20 feet. In either a simple extension cable or a LAN, a balanced electrical system is used for transmitting digital data through the channel. This type of system involves at least two wires per channel, neither of which is a ground. Note that a common ground return cannot be shared by multiple channels in the same cable as would be possible in an unbalanced system. The basic idea behind a balanced circuit is that a digital signal is sent on two wires simultaneously, one wire expressing a positive voltage image of the signal and the other a negative voltage image. When both wires reach the destination, the signals are subtracted by a summing amplifier, producing a signal swing of twice the value found on either incoming line. If the cable is exposed to radiated electrical noise, a small voltage of the same polarity is added to both wires in the cable. When the signals are subtracted by the summing amplifier, the noise cancels and the signal emerges from the cable without noise:

A great deal of technology has been developed for LAN systems to minimize the amount of cable required and maximize the throughput. The costs of a LAN have been concentrated in the electrical interface card that would be installed in PCs or peripherals to drive the cable, and in the

134

communications software, not in the cable itself (whose cost has been minimized). Thus, the cost and complexity of a LAN are not particularly affected by the distance between stations.

Transmission over Very Long Distances (greater than 4000 feet)

Previous Topic | TOC Data communications through the telephone network can reach any point in the world. The volume of overseas fax transmissions is increasing constantly, and computer networks that link thousands of businesses, governments, and universities are pervasive. Transmissions over such distances are not generally accomplished with a direct-wire digital link, but rather with digitally-modulated analog carrier signals. This technique makes it possible to use existing analog telephone voice channels for digital data, although at considerably reduced data rates compared to a direct digital link.

Transmission of data from your personal computer to a timesharing service over phone lines

requires that data signals be converted to audible tones by a modem. An audio sine wave carrier is used, and, depending on the baud rate and protocol, will encode data by varying the frequency, phase, or amplitude of the carrier. The receiver's modem accepts the modulated sine wave and extracts the digital data from it. Several modulation techniques typically used in encoding digital data for analog transmission are shown below:

Similar techniques may be used in digital storage devices such as hard disk drives to encode data for storage using an analog medium. END

135

Transmision Media
This section cover the cables and how they are connected. TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Print Page

In order to carry the data packets from one node to another on a network some sort of media must be employed. The most common types of media are:

Twisted Pair Copper Cable Coaxial Copper Cable Fibre Optic Cable

Copper cables have been used to carry electricity and electrical signals from one place to another for many years. Since the 1960's Fibre Optic cables have been used to carry digital signals from A to B in the form of light. Which type of cable is used for a specific situation will depend on several factors:

Distance Environment Security How many signals

There are many variations of cable in existence but only the more popular types used on LANs will be covered here. TWISTED PAIR CABLE Twisted pair cables have been used for connecting telephones to Local Exchanges ever since telephones were invented, the size and thickness have changed but they are basically the same as they were in the early twentieth century. A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated wires which are twisted round each other to form the twisted pair. The frequency of the twist down the cable coincides with the frequency of the electrical signals which will try to invade the cable from outside. The twist will introduce a cancelling effect at the frequency of these signals thus reducing Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI). RFI and EMI are introduced on the cable because the copper wire would act as an efficient aerial at certain frequencies if it were two straight cables. The baseband signals being carried by the cable have sharp edges which can be severely distorted by the RFI, EMI, capacitance, resistance and inductance. Rounding the edges causes the receiving circuitry to think a "1" is a "0" and vice versa.

Two main types of twisted pair cable exist -Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted
Pair (STP).

UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

The number of actual twisted pair cables held in one sheath varies, that used for connecting Networks is generally 4 pairs (8 wires) but the cables laid in the road to feed telephones may have hundreds or thousands of pairs of cables. Each cable is identified by the main colour of the cable and a tracing colour. When there are hundreds of cables in a sheath there may be several tracer colours. The type of cable used for networking have their pairs as the same colour but one will have a white cable with the same tracer colour as the main cable. i.e:

Orange and white with a orange tracer Blue and white with a blue tracer Green and white with a green tracer Brown and white with a Brown tracer

136

Sometimes the white and colour tracer are reversed, i.e Orange with a white tracer. Some cables have one colour and either plain white or black. BT have a standard colour coding for their cables, and they are used in the order of the colours specified. Originally twisted pair cabling was only used for applications which ran at less than 1Mbps, generally used for voice and RS232 or RS422 serial communication.Improving technological techniques, such as Ethernet Hubs and Switches, have allowed frequencies of between 10Mbps and 100Mbps to transmitted by twisted pair cables. Twisted Pair cables are divided into different categories which vary in the number of twists per foot and quality, allowing the higher categories to transmit data at higher speeds, e.g.Category 3 cables have 2 twists per foot whereas Category 5 has 12. Different categories are used for different applications: Category 1 2 3 4 5 Use Less than 1Mbps. Voice and RS232 Up to 4Mbps. Token Ring and ISDN Up to 10Mbps. Ethernet and Wang Up to 10Mbps. 16Mbps Token Ring and ARCnet Up to 100Mbps Twisted Pair Distributed Data Interface (Tpddi

The only one currently recommended for data is Category 5 (CAT5), which is used for integration of Telephone and LAN wiring (Voice and Data). It is used in a structured[1] manner which means that the wiring has to comply with standards such as the following: Length of cable; How many cables in a bundle; No more than 0.5" of twist must be unravelled when making a connection; The radius of the curve if the cable is bent. The full specifications for Category 5 would fill a large A4 manual and are really required only by those employed in installing the Structured cabling. [1] Structured - A structured cabling system is one which can be pre-installed into a new building, or retrofitted to an existing building, and provide a flexible means of connecting devices. The structured nature of CAT5 wiring utilises an RJ45 connection,shown on the right, which is a smaller version of the normal plug and socket used for connecting a BT phone. The wiring is connected to a Wall Plate or floor box at the users station and to a Patch Panel[1] in a Wiring Cabinet[2]. In a new building the wires from all the outlets on a single floor may be brought to a wiring cabinet on the individual floors. Inter-floor connections will also be made via cables between the cabinets on each floor. In this way an individual cable can be connected as either a data (network) or a voice (telephone) connection. The use of patch cables (small cables with an RJ45 plug on each end) can be used to provide the connections.

[2] Patch Panel - A unit which has a connection to accept the twisted pair cable and make the output an RJ45 Socket.

[3] Wiring Cabinet - Wiring Cabinets are large 6' cabinets which usually accept 19" wide units which screw to a vertical rack at each side. Most network equipment is made to fit into the standard 19" rack or have brackets supplied to do so. Cables are brought to the cabinet and connected to the patch panels. Smaller cabinets can be purchased if a small number of units are being purchased, the width is still the same.

137

Shielded Twisted Pair

STP has an extra metallic wrapper around the inner cables which will further reduce RFI and EMI, this sometimes surrounds all the pairs or could surround each individual pair this gives more bulk to the cable. STP is available with two impedances, 100ohm and 150ohm impedance - the later is more expensive. The lower impedance gives the same performance as UTP but the higher impedance STP can deal with speeds up to 100Mbps. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) was originally used for Token Ring Networks and IBM have defined standards for twisted pair cables are defined as a Type x cable where x is a number. The most commonly used types are 1 and 3. The different types defined by IBM are given in the following table: Type Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 5 Type 6 Type 8 Type 9 Description Two STP Pairs for data transmission. Historically used for Token Ring. Each pair is shielded Six pairs of wire, two STP pairs for data and four pairs of UTP for voice Telephone grade UTP equivalent to EIA[1]/TIA[2] category 2 UTP cables Originally recommended for 4Mbps Token Ring but IBM now recommends Cat 3, 4 or 5 for both 4Mbps and 16Mbps LANs {Fibre Optic) IBM recommends 62.5/126 m multimode optical fibre for installations Two pairs for data transmission - similar to Type 1 Two shielded pairs housing in a flat plastic. Suitable for under carpet installation Thinner, low cost version of Type 1. Supported lower distances.

[1] EIA - Electronic Industries Association [2] TIA - Telecommunications Industries Association

Screened Twisted Pair

Screened Twisted Pair (ScTP) is the same as UTP but has an Aluminium foil surrounding the pairs in the same way as STP. It is thought that ScTP may become a replacement for Category 5 cable

COAXIAL CABLE
The first networks to be designed were cabled with Coaxial cable. It has two wires like Twisted pair but the design with an inner conductor and outer braid conductor enable it to have a higher Bandwidth and be capable of higher data rates. Coaxial cables have three types which are suitable for data networks: 50 ohm- suitable for Ethernet Bus Networks. 75 ohm- Suitable for transferring baseband and broadband analogue signals such as Video 93 ohm- suitable for ARCnet networks.

Baseband Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is made up of a central inner core, which may be solid or consist of several thin wires, surrounded by an insulating material. Wrapped around this is a cylindrical conductor, which can be solid or a braided mesh outer conductor which is then wrapped in a plastic sheath. With this type of Coaxial Cable a data rate of 1to 2Gbps can be achieved over lengths of 100Km. Coaxial cable was used extensively to connect telephone exchanges but is now gradually being replaced by fibre optic cables.

138

The thicker a coaxial cable is, the farther it can carry high frequency electrical signals. There are two thicknesses used in Ethernet bus networks and the different cables are called Thick and Thin Ethernet cable. Although different thicknesses they both have the same 50ohmimpedance. The thick Ethernet cable was used in the original Ethernet bus networks and was sometimes referred to as "Yellow Wire" because of its base colour. The thin coaxial cables are used with BNC connectors and creates networks which are referred to as "Thinnet" or "Cheapernet". Each cable has a "T" piece connecting to the Network Interface Card and the last cable each end has a Terminating resistor.

ARCnet[1] uses a 93ohm coaxial cable but still uses BNC connectors even though ARCnet utilises a star topology. [1] ARCNET - A technology which is not used very often today and is not discussed in this course.

Broadband Coaxial Cable

The term Broadband comes from the telephone world, where it refers to any frequency wider than 4kHz. This type of coaxial system uses an analogue 2signal on standard cable television cable. The cables can run for up to 100km at 300Mhz and often up to 400Mhz. Broadband signals are often divided up into smaller channels of around 6Mhz each of which can contain a Television broadcast (6Mhz), a CD quality audio transmission (1.4Mhz) or a digital bit stream (3Mhz). Broadband systems often use a tree topology and sometimes dual cables or frequencies for Transmit and Receive. The main difference between Baseband and Broadband is that Broadband covers a very much larger geographical area than baseband but it requires amplifiers to increase the analogue signal level at regular intervals. Dual and single cable systems have been developed to overcome these problems. The broadband cable is technically inferior to the Baseband but it does have the advantage of already being in place. The Netherlands has 90% of all homes fed by cable TV and the United States has 80%. Cable systems in the United Kingdom already offer telephone facilities as part of their packages but in the future the cable systems could become MANs for data transfer.

Fibre Optic Cables

In recent years Fibre Optic Cables have been used increasingly as a Transmission media for data. Fibre Optic Cables are very thin (as thin as a human hair) strands of glass or plastic through which a laser light is passed from one end to the other. The strands are measured in m (millionths of a metre).

The thickness varies from 5 to 10m for Single mode to 50 to 100m for Multimode cables.
The cables can be purchased with just one single fibre optic strand inside, the top one in the diagram on the left, or with multiple strands, the bottom two. Using Fibre Optic cable is very expensive due its handling and the precision needed to attach the connector. Special tools, costing a lot of money, are used to attach the connector to the fibre strand. Two types of connector are shown on the right. The top one has a protective sleeve over the Fibre Optic Cable connection.

Fibre Optic cables can be joined together, spliced, in three ways but all three will introduce reflections at the join which can interfere with the signal:

139

by using connectors - this loses approximately 10 to 20% of the light but it easy to reconfigure the systems.

by splicing mechanically - the fibre is very carefully cut, the two ends are then laid into a special sleeve and
permanently clamped into place. Light is passed through the junction and adjustments made for minimum light loss. This method has about 10% light loss.

by fusing - melting the two ends together to form a solid connection. This method has very low attenuation.

When using Fibre optic cables there must be units to transfer electrical signals to light signals and vice versa. Two types of interface are used - Passive and Active. The Passive interface consists of two taps directly fused onto the fibre optic cable, one will contain a photodiode for reception and the other an LED or Laser diode for transmission. This system is extremely reliable as the light path is not broken even if one of the electrical components become faulty, the computer just goes off line. The Active interface has an electrical regenerator and will break the path if an electrical fault occurs. As most Fibre optic systems run on ring topology this will bring the ring down. The Active optical interface is shown below. Fibre Optic cables have replaced a lot of the twisted pair cables being used to carry voice conversations because it is thin and light, e.g. two fibre optic cables will carry more capacity than one thousand twisted pair cables. if the cables are 1Km long the twisted pair will also weigh 8000Kg. Because photons (particles of light) are not charged they do not bump into each other thereby losing energy. EMI does not affect the signals running in a fibre optic cable as they are not electrical and they are more secure as the signals do not leak out either and cannot be picked up by an outside source. Light source, transmission and reception Two types of light source are used to generate the light used for transmission - LED and semiconductor laser. Although very low power DO NOT to look down the fibre optic cable, as damage to the eye could result. In recent years Fibre Optic Cables have been used increasingly as a Transmission media for data.

The two light sources are compared in the table below:

140

Item Data Rate Mode Distance Lifetime Temperature sensitivity Cost

LED Low Multimode Short Long Life Minor Low Cost

Semiconductor Laser High Single or Multimode Long Short Life Substantial Expensive

They can be tuned using either a Fabry-Perot or Mach-Zehnder interferometer. These are inserted between the fibre and the source. The Fabry-Perot interferometer has a resonant cavity which consists of two parallel mirrors. The light is perpendicular to the mirrors. The Mach-Zehnder interferometer separates the light into two beams, which travel slightly different distances, when recombined only certain wavelengths are in phase. The system operates on pulses of light that are received by a photodiode, which transfers the light into pulses of electrical energy. Typically 1 pulse of light is equal to a "1" bit and the absence of light equals a "0" bit. The system would be useless if the light leaked out, but the principle that when light passes from one medium to another, e.g. fused silica to air, the ray is refracted (bent) at the boundary. The amount of refraction depends on the medium being used. if the angle at which it is refracted back is correct then none of the light escapes and it continues along the fibre bouncing back and forth from the boundary.

Types of fibre optic cable There are two types of fibre optic cable - Single mode and Multimode
recent years Fibre Optic Cables have been used increasingly as a Transmission media for data. Each ray of light which travels through a fibre is called a Mode. By altering the diameter of the fibre two different transmission operating modes can be achieved - Single mode and Multimode. The Multimode cable is thicker than the single and as such allows room for more than one light ray to pass through. Each ray that passes through will have a different angle of incidence1 and reflection as they are reflected off the cladding and therefore each ray will travel different distances, some will travel straight through the core. Because the ray travels at the same speed but each one can travel a different distance, the signal will spread over time and introduce data errors over long distances. This problem is known as dispersion. To reduce this problem there are two different types of fibre optic cable:

Step-index - This is a single fibre and cladding which does nothing to reduce dispersion. Graded-index - This type of cable has a single fibre but several layers of transparent cladding. This causes the rays of light to reach the other end in a more consistent manner. Modes travelling down the centre of the core travel more slowly than those bouncing off the cladding thus this tends to equalise the time taken for each mode to go from one end to the other, thus the modes reach the other end more uniformly.

The most common Multimode fibre optic cable is 62.5/125 graded-index. The first figure is the core diameter and the second is the cladding diameter The Single mode fibre optic cable utilises Step-index with only the core and the cladding. This makes the cable much thinner and more expensive to install. These fibres have their diameters sized to the wavelength they need to carry. A diameter of 8 may carry, for example, a wavelength of 1.3. As there is only one wavelength and a more coherent light source greater lengths of cable can be used. Currently available Single Mode cables can transmit data at several Gbps over distances of 30Km. In the laboratory even higher speeds have been achieved over shorter distances.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

141

Data is transmitted over copper wires, fiber optic cable, radio and microwaves. The term 'media' is used to generically refer to the physical connectors, wires or devices used to plug things together.

BASIC COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA TYPES

o o o o o o
Copper Unshielded Twisted Pair (3,5,5e,6,7) Shielded Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable (Thinnet, Thicknet) Heliax Fiber Optic Single-mode Multi-mode Infrared Radio & Microwave

COPPER
COAXIAL CABLING Coaxial cabling is used in bus-style Ethernet networks. Coaxial cable consists of a copper wire core surrounded by a plastic cladding sheathed in a wire mesh. Coaxial cable comes in two sizes which are called thinnet and thicknet.

UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)

If you use two pairs of wires to enable two communications circuits, one for transmit, and one for receive. If you twist the wires of each pair, you can place them much closer together. There are several grades of coaxial cable with category ratings. There are Category 3 (<10 Mbps), Category 5 (10 Mbps), Category 5e (10/100 Mbps) and Category 6 (100/1000 Mbps) versions of unshielded twisted pair.

FIBER OPTIC
SINGLE MODE Single mode fiber refers to the fact that only a single wavelength (one color of light) is transmitted over the physical medium. Typically, single mode fiber is true doped fiberglass fibers wrapped in a plastic cladding. Single mode typically has much longer reach, but a larger bend radius than multi-mode.

o o o

Dispersion Shifted Non-Dispersion Shifted Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted

MULTI-MODE

142

Multi-mode fiber can carry multiple wavelengths, is made of special clear plastic materials and has a much smaller bend radius than single mode fiber. Multi-mode does not have as long a reach as single mode fiber.

o o o

Step Index Graded-Index

INFRA-RED
There are many systems today using infra-red communications. This is usually a directional infrared light signal transmitted into the air and received by nearby devices. Such systems came into use in the early 90's for use with laptops, printers and later in the 90's with cameras and handhelds.

R ADIO

AND

M ICROWAVE

Last of all, but certainly not least are radio and microwave signals. These are the signals we think of as being radio, television and satellite, but they are now being put to use in wireless Ethernet and Bluetooth communications technologies.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The three main types of transmission medium used in LANs are twisted pair, coaxial cable and optic

fiber.

Twisted pair is mostly used in connections of star and hub networks. It is easier to install twisted pair than coaxial or optic fiber because it is more flexible and does not require new cable ducts. Generally, twisted pair is used to connect DTEs to hubs and coaxial cable or optic fiber is used to link the hub to the others. There are some limitations on the length of twisted pair cable according to the bit rate used. Normally at 1Mbps, the length limit is 100m. With additional circuits, 100m cable can be used at 10Mbps also. Coaxial cable is one of the most important kinds of transmission medium used in LANS. It is used mainly in bus networks with baseband or broadband transmission.

Baseband Transmission:
Two kinds of coaxial cables are used in baseband transmission: thin wire and thick wire. Thin wire, also known as 10 Base 2, is of 0.25" diameter and 10Mbps bit rate where thick wire, also known as 10 base 5, is of 0.5" diameter and 10Mbps bit rate. The length limit of thin wire is 200m between repeaters. Thick wire has greater signal attenuation and the length limit is 500m for thick wire. Thin wire is usually used for interconnecting DTEs which are close to each other. Physically, thin wire is directly connected to the DTEs with connectors. As an example, the computers in the same lab can be interconnected with thin wire. Thick wire is not useful for DTEs that are close to each other because it is not as flexible as thin wire. It can be installed as a main line in a corridor and the DTEs can be connected to it with drop cables and transceivers that are used as transmit and receive devices, but this is rather expensive. Other than that, thick wire is used between different offices and for interconnecting thin wires in baseband transmission.

143

Broadband Transmission:
In broadband transmission, with the help of rf modems, the whole frequency width of the cables are used for transmission. Length limits are very high in broadband transmission. One of the most well-known applications of broadband transmission is the community antenna television(CATV). Using broadband transmission, lots of TV channels are transmitted on a single cable. TV users tune their TV to the appropriate frequency to select the channel from the ones transmitted on the cable. Optic fiber is the fastest transmission medium among the ones listed. Unlike the others, the data is not transferred using electric pulses but it is transferred using beams of light. This requires us to use special converter electronics are used at the ends of optic fiber to convert electrical pulse to optical and vice versa. Despite being a fast transmission medium, optic fibers are expensive. The cable itself, the converter and tapping electronics cost much more than other solutions. That is why optic fibers are used in hub configurations, high speed rings and fast point-to-point transmissions. . Related Questions 1. The two types of transmission media are _________ and _______ Skill/Topic: Networking BasicsA) guided and unguided. Explanation: Transmission media can be guided or unguided. The principal guided media are twisted 2. What are the types of Transmission media? Signals are usually transmitted over some transmission media that are broadly classified in to two categories. Guided Media:These are those that provid 3. Difference between the communication and transmission. Transmission is a physical movement of information and concern issues like bit polarity, synchro 4. An application must a connection-oriented protocol to transfer data. Which statement about this method of data transfer is true? A. Transmission of Answer: D 5. Why logical address required is in OSI model? State the difference between guide media and unguide media. 6. What is difference between baseband and broadband transmission? In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single signal. In broadband transmission, signals are sent on multiple 7. Please Guys I need help in this case project. Arctic University is opening a new satellite location and it has been decided that it will use a combinat 8. What are the two types of transmission technology available? (i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point 9. What are the data units at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol suite? The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the transport layer the data unit created is called either a segment or an user 10. To send a data packet using datagram, connection will be establisheda) before data transmission. b) Connection is not established before data transmiss (c)

Introduction to Data Communications 15. Transmission Media - Guided

144

15. Transmission Media - Guided

There are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media:

Guided and Unguided.

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media is also known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling only. Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media.

There 4 basic types of Guided Media:

1.Open Wire 2.Twisted Pair 3.Coaxial Cable 4.Optical Fibre

15a. Open Wire

Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from noise interference is used. We are going to extend the traditional definition of Open Wire to include any data signal path without shielding or protection from noise interference. This can include multiconductor cables or single wires. This media is susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently not acceptable for data transmission except for short distances under 20 ft.

145

Types of Protocols
Networking protocols can be characterized as connectionless or connection-oriented, and as transactionless or transaction-based. A connectionless protocol is one in which a node that wants to communicate with another simply sends a message without first establishing that the receiving node is prepared to receive it. Each message sent must include addressing information so that it can be delivered to its destination. A connection-oriented protocol is one in which two nodes on the network that want to communicate must go through a connection-establishment process called a handshake. This involves the exchange of predetermined signals between the nodes in which each end identifies itself to the other. Once a connection is established, the communicating applications or processes on the nodes at either end can send and receive data without having to add addresses to the messages or repeat the handshake process. Connection-oriented protocols provide support for sessions. A session is a logical (as opposed to physical) connection between two entities on a network or internet. A session must be set up at the beginning, maintained by the periodic exchange of information, and broken down at the end. All of these services entail overhead compared to a connectionless protocol, for which no connection setup or breakdown is required and for which no session must be maintained. A connection-oriented session is analogous to a telephone call. The party who initiates the call knows whether the connection is made because someone at the other end of the line either answers or not. As long as the connection is maintained, neither party needs to dial the other telephone number again. A connectionless protocol is analogous to mail. A person sends a letter expecting it will be delivered to its destination. Although the mail usually arrives safely, the sender doesn't know this unless the recipient initiates a response affirming it. Each letter sent by either party requires a complete address. -A transactionless protocol defines how the data is to be organized and delivered from one node to another. -A connection-oriented transactionless protocol is used to maintain a symmetrical connection; that is, one in which both ends have equal control over the communication. Both ends can send and receive data and initiate or terminate the session. In this case, the connection is referred to as full duplex. If the two sides have to take turns transmitting and receiving, the connection is referred to as half duplex. A connectionless transactionless protocol sends data in discrete datagrams. A datagram, also referred to as a packet, is a unit of data that includes a header portion that holds the destination address (and may contain other information, such as a checksum value) and a data portion that holds the message text. A connection-oriented transactionless protocol can send data as a continuous stream of data or, in some cases, as packets. -Low-level connectionless protocols such as DDP and IP usually provide best-effort delivery of data. Best-effort delivery means that the protocol attempts to deliver any packets that meet certain requirements, such as containing a valid destination address, but the protocol does not inform the sender when it is unable to deliver the data, nor does it attempt to recover from error conditions and data loss. Higher-level protocols, on the other hand, can provide reliable delivery of data. Reliable delivery includes error checking and recovery from error or loss of data.

-A transaction-based protocol specifies the sequence and some of the content of messages passed between nodes. When using a transaction-based protocol, the application on one
node, known as the requester, sends a request to the other application, known as the responder, to perform a task. The responder completes the task and returns a response that reports the outcome of the task. Once one node has issued a request, the receiving node is constrained to respond in a predefined way. A transaction-based connection is sometimes referred to as an asymmetrical connection. Table 1-1 shows where some Open Transport protocols fit in the protocol-type matrix. A protocol of one type can be a client of a different type. For example, the connection-oriented transactionless AppleTalk Printer Access Protocol (PAP) is a client of the connectionless transaction-based AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP), which is in turn a client of the connectionless transactionless Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP).

HANDSHAKING

146

Negotiations between the originating and receiving terminals on the nature of information to be exchanged In addition to these mandatory features, the Q.931 protocol must support the wide range of OPTIONAL features offered by all possible vendors of ISDN terminal and switching equipment. While ISDN provides a standard architecture and common interfaces, it necessarily leaves much room for invention, innovation, and just plain market differentiation among the products and services that implement the standard. No single device supports the whole range of possible Q.931 messages. The ITU Q.931 standard provides only a minimally functional subset that allows different manufacturers and ISDN carriers to provide a rich variety of features and services. To support this variety of features and functions, the Q.931 has several features of its own that make it a uniquely complex protocol:

OPTIONAL FIELDS VARIABLE-LENGTH FIELDS CODESET SHIFTING PROTOCOL SHIFTING

OPTIONAL FIELDS Most protocols offer some options in the structure of a message to allow for efficiency in ordinary operation (i.e., short packets for common functions). The Q.931 protocol provides a broad hierarchy of OPTIONAL fields whose appearance in a given message depends on the nature of the service requested, the nature of the terminal device, and sometimes even the specific application being served. VARIABLE-LENGTH FIELDS Most optional fields in Q.931 messages can vary in length. A Q.931 message can contain a large amount of information designed simply to allow terminal equipment to find specific fields in the message. CODESET SHIFTING Different national ISDNs, equipment vendors, and private carriers require special ways of encoding signalling information. The Q.931 protocol allows for shifting among several CODESETS to accommodate this variation. PROTOCOL SHIFTING Because the ISDN standards require that the D channel be able to carry packet-switched data as well as signalling information, the Q.931 protocol contains features that allow shifting into an entirely different protocol from message to message. These features take the form of a shift indicator that states that the rest of the current message should be interpreted as X.25 (or another alternative protocol). Q.931 AND SS#7 The Q.931 protocol operates only on the D channel of the ISDN interface between the customer's terminal equipment and the ISDN carrier's Exchange Termination (ET). It does not provide end-to-end signalling over the public telephone network, although certain features of the protocol (such as terminal handshaking) do have end-to-end significance. The carrier's ET locates those Q.931 messages that have end- to-end significance and translates them onto the carrier's own common-channel signalling network, which uses ITU Common Channel Signalling System Number 7 (SS#7) for signalling among end-office and central-office switches. At a call's destination end office, the ET retranslates end-to-end signalling information and adds it to the local signalling in the Q.931 data stream between the ET and the terminal equipment on the receiving end of the call.

NETWORK CATEGORIES
There are two main types of network categories which are:

Server based Peer-to-peer

In a server based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of services such as file service or mail service. The computers providing the service are are called servers and the computers that request and use the service are called client computers.

147

In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on the network can act both as clients and servers. For instance, many Microsoft Windows based computers will allow file and print sharing. These computers can act both as a client and a server and are also referred to as peers. Many networks are combination peer-to-peer and server based networks. The network operating system uses a network data protocol to communicate on the network to other computers. The network operating system supports the applications on that computer. A Network Operating System (NOS) includes Windows NT, Novell Netware, Linux, Unix and others.

THREE NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

The network topology describes the method used to do the physical wiring of the network. The main ones are bus, star, and ring.

148

1. 2.

Bus - Both ends of the network must be terminated with a terminator. A barrel connector can be used to extend it. Star - All devices revolve around a central hub, which is what controls the network communications, and can communicate with other hubs. Range limits are about 100 meters from the hub.

3.

Ring - Devices are connected from one to another, as in a ring. A data token is used to grant permission for each computer to communicate.

There are also hybrid networks including a star-bus hybrid, star-ring network, and mesh networks with connections between various computers on the network. Mesh networks ideally allow each computer to have a direct connection to each of the other computers. The topology this documentation deals with most is star topology since that is what Ethernet networks use.

OSI MODELS:
The standard model for networking protocols and distributed applications is the International Standard Organization's Open System Interconnect (ISO/OSI) model. It defines seven network layers. Layer 1 Physical: This layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g. unshielded twisted pairs (UTP). All media of transmission are functionally equivalent in this layer and the main difference is in convenience and cost of installation and maintenance. Layer 2 - Data Link: Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network ( a network data frame, packet and destination address). The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is defined by the largest packet that can be sent through a data link layer. Layer 3 - Network : This layer defines the protocols that are responsible for data delivery at the required destination, and requires.

149

Layer 4 Transport: This layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams and enforces desired transmission control. Two transport protocols, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), sits at the transport layer. Reliability and speed are the primary difference between these two protocols. Layer 5 Session: This layer defines the format of the data sent over the connections. Layer 6 - Presentation This layer converts local representation of data to its canonical form and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard byte ordering and structure packing convention, independent of the host. Layer 7 - Application Provides network services to the end-users. e.g Mail. OSI Model gives; Increased evolution, Modular engineering, Interoperable technology, Reduced complexity Simplified teaching and learning, Standardised interfaces.

Define the following

(i) (ii)

DTE-(Data Terminal Equipment)

DCE-(data communication Equipment)

DTE-(Data Terminal Equipment) is an end-user device such as a terminal or computer. This is equipment that only receives information (ie, no transmission), such as a printer.

A device transmitting data to, and/or receiving data from, a DCE (for example, a terminal or printer).

"Data Communications Equipment" Any type of device, such as a modem, that connects a DTE to a communications line. -DTE means Distributed Computing Environment.

Explain the following types of line impairment with respect to data transmission. i. Impulse

1.

Jitter

150

Computing Dictionary Definition Random variation in the timing of a signal, especially a clock of Jitter:

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

Introduction PPP Components General Operation Physical Layer Requirements PPP Link Layer PPP Link-Control Protocol Summary Review Questions

Chapter Goals

Describe the development of PPP. Describe the components of PPP and how they operate. Provide a summary of the basic protocol elements and operations of PPP.

Stop-and-Wait Protocol
Consider sending frames from a fast machine to a slow machine. What happens if the slow machine is reading the data at half of the rate that the fast machine is sending it? Eventually the sent data will be lost, never to be received. For this reason it is important to provide some kind of flow control. The Stop-and-Wait protocol requires the receiver to send an acknowledgment PDU in return for every frame received. Such a PDU is often called an ACK. The sender will wait for the before sending the next frame.

151

2. STOP-AND-WAIT PROTOCOL
Protocol Features A stop-and-wait protocol is one of the simplest protocols in which both the sender and receiver participate. There are a number of stop-and wait protocols. We will be discussing only one in detail. In its simplest form, this protocol is based on one sender and one receiver. The sender establishes the connection and sends data in packets. Each data packet is acknowledged by the receiver with an acknowledgement packet. When the data has all been sent, the sender disconnects. Packet Exchange for a Simple Stop-and-wait Protocol

This protocol: o is usually used with point-to-point topology although it may also be used with
other topologies if station identifiers (addresses) are included as part of the packet control information.

o o o o o o

may be used with both half- and full-duplex communication. can be modeled after the ISO OSI Reference model with a physical, data link, transport and session layer. has a mechanism for error recovery and flow control. has a mechanism for ordering the packets to keep them in proper sequence and to prevent duplicate and lost packets. may have a mechanism for recovering from unexpected link failure. is one of the least efficient protocols because the sender is idle while it waits for a receiver acknowledgement.

152

Basic FAQ 1.What is layer-2 switch ? 2.What is the difference between Intelligent Switch and dummy switch ? 3.What is VLAN ? Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support overlapped VLAN ? 4.What is the difference between In-Band Management and Out-Band Management ? 5.Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support QoS function ? 6.What is Spanning Tree Protocol ? Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support it ? 7.What is packet buffer ? Will it affect the performance of a switch ? HomePNA FAQ 1.Is 1 Mbps fast enough ? 2.What are the technical aspects of the 1 Mbps HomePNA physical layer technology ? 3.Has NETSYS' tested this technology to ensure it works in homes ? 4.What is the Home Phoneline Networking Alliance ? 5.Why is phoneline important ? 6.Does this new technology interfere with standard telephone services ? 7.How does home phoneline networking work? Will it require any special equipment ? 8.What is RMON and do NETSYS' switches support RMON ? 9.What is the difference between "cut-through" and "store-and-forward" ? 10.What is collision domain ? 11.What is Flow Control regarding of all switches ?

12.What kind of security of switches provide or support ?

1. What is layer-2 switch ?TOP A. If the switching process is carried out based on MAC address in Ethernet packets, the switch is called a layer-2 switch. 2. What is the difference between Intelligent Switch and dummy switch ?TOP A. Dummy switch is a simple switch. It just transfers packets between connections. It can not control and monitor traffic in the switch. Intelligent Switch is a switch with lots of software function. It can help the network administrator to configure and manage network. 3.What is VLAN ? Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support overlapped VLAN ?TOP A. VLAN is Virtual LAN. A Virtual LAN is a collection of network nodes that share the same collision domain regardless of their physical location or connection point in the network. A VLAN serves as a logical workgroup with no physical barriers, allowing users to share information and resources as though located on the same LAN. Because there is a PVID number to assign the VLAN action of each connection port, NETSYS' Intelligent Switch supports overlapped VLAN. 4. What is the difference between In-Band Management and Out-Band Management ?TOP A. If the management of the network is from a station attached directly to the network, it is InBand Management. Telnet and Web- Browser management interface are In-Band Management. If the management of the network is from a station not attached to the network, it is Out-Band Management. Console management interface is Out-Band Management. 5. Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support QoS function ?TOP . If there is priority information in the tag of Ethernet packet, NETSYS' Intelligent Switch will read the priority information and put the packet to some queue according to the priority. There are 4 queues for every port. The QoS (Quality of Service) function is carried out with this function. 6. What is Spanning Tree Protocol ? Does NETSYS' Intelligent Switch support it ?TOP A. Spanning Tree Protocol is a technology that checks your network for any loop. A loop can often occur in complicated or back up linked network systems. Spanning-tree detects and directs data along the shortest path, maximizing the performance and efficiency of the network. NETSYS' Intelligent Switch supports this function.

153

7. What is packet buffer ? Will it affect the performance of a switch ?TOP . Because NETSYS' switches are designed with store-and-forward algorithm, these switches need a buffer to store the incoming packet and the buffer is called packet buffer. If the operation of the switching controller is very high efficient. 1. Is 1 Mbps fast enough ?TOP A. 1 Mbps data transfer rate is nearly 18 times faster than standard 56k modem connections, and provides ample bandwidth for nearly all of the current user requirements for a home networking solution. As next-generation applications begin to be deployed that take advantage of home networking capabilities, additional bandwidth will be required to support the real-time transfer of audio, video and data. 2. What are the technical aspects of the 1 Mbps HomePNA physical layer technology ?TOP

. The HomePNA has chosen to standardize on a technology available now from Tut Systems, allowing consumers to link devices at speeds up to 1 Mbps over existing home phonelines. The technology supports the complex, random-tree type of wiring typically found in the home and does not require any hubs or new Category 5 wiring. The HomePNA network requires no special terminations, filters or splitters. It uses only the single pair of existing phone wires to make its connection, and operates concurrently with any normal telephone service that might be using those same wires. The technology also coexists with the new splitterless Universal ADSL standard. It is fully compatible with the Ethernet MAC layer standard (IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD with a new physical layer) and meets applicable FCC regulatory requirements. 3. Has NETSYS' tested this technology to ensure it works in homes ?TOP . NETSYS' device is fully compliant with the initial 1 Mbps technology specification adopted by the HomePNA. The HomePNA data technology has undergone two rounds of significant testing in hundreds of homes located throughout the United States. The latest indicates that 99% of the tested homes can accommodate Phoneline-networking solutions 4. What is the Home Phoneline Networking Alliance ?TOP A. The Home Phoneline Networking Alliance (HomePNA) is an association of industry-leading companies working together to ensure adoption of a single, unified phoneline networking standard. Founding companies include AMD, Compaq, IBM, Hewlett Packard, Tut Systems, 3Com, and Epigram among others. 5. Why is phoneline important ?TOP . Any home networking solution must fulfill three key requirements. It should not require the installation of new wiring, and must be both inexpensive and easy-to-use. Very few end-users are willing to run new wiring throughout their home to network multiple devices. Phone wiring provides a near ubiquitous solution for this no new wires requirement, providing distributed network access points at key locations throughout a home. Phone wiring is also a very secure transfer medium since internal wiring is connected back directly through the local loop to a central office. 6. Does this new technology interfere with standard telephone services ?TOP A. No. All Home Phoneline Networking Alliance (HomePNA) devices use a technology called Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) that enables multiple services to use the same set of wires simultaneously without impacting one another. The HomePNA technology can also operate simultaneously with the new UADSL technology that delivers over 1 Mbps of bandwidth to the home via telephone wires. 7. How does home phoneline networking work? Will it require any special equipment ?TOP A. The HomePNA is committed to the concept of a "no new wires" networking technology that is simple to install and maintain. NETSYS has develop a Ethernet-compatible control that enables a LAN over the complex, random-tree wiring found in nearly all homes. The technology does not require any hubs, routers, splitters, filters, terminations or any other special equipment.

154

8.What is RMON and do NETSYS' switches support RMON ?TOP A. The Remote Monitoring (RMON) is a tool used by network managers to monitor remote devices. An RMON implementation consists of a software agent that continually collects statistics about a LAN and a management station that communicates with the agent.The agent transfers information to the management station on request or when a predefined threshold is crossed. RMON is a standard for traffic analysis and troubleshooting, especially for switched networks. It defines specifications for monitoring network traffic above the MAC layer. Network administrators can deploy standards-based diagnostic solutions for enterprise-wide traffic and support mission-critical, server-based applications. We have support this standard. 9.What is the difference between "cut-through" and "store-and-forward" ?TOP A. Cut-Through: The switch will begin forwarding data after it receives the DA (destination address) of the frame, the difference between this and store-and-forward is that store-and-forward receives the whole frame before forwarding. Since frame errors cannot be detected by reading only the DA, cut-through may impact network performance by forwarding corrupted or truncated frames. These "bad" frames can create broadcast storms wherein several devices on the network respond to the corrupted frames simultaneously.

Advantages of Cut-Through:
+ Cut-Through is faster because the packet is sent as soon as the first eight bytes are received. + Cut-Through requires less memory since the switch only reads the address but does not store the entire message. Disadvantages of Cut-Through: + Bad packets are perpetuated, taking up bandwidth. + Benefits diminish in the high traffic networks .+ Cut-Through cannot be used on networks that use both Ethernet and Fast Ethernet. The network must be one or the other. Store-and-Forward: The switch will wait until the entire frame has arrived prior to forwarding it. This process ensures that the destination network is not affected by corrupted or truncated frames, but is a slower method than cut-through. Advantages of Store-andForward: + Store-and-forward only sends out valid data packets. Bad packets created by collisions on the network or other problems are not sent.

+ Use Store-and-Forward when some devices on the network run at 10Mbps and other run at 100Mbps.
Disadvantages of Store-and-Forward:

+ Store-and-Forward requires more time because it receives the whole packet before sending it
out. Every byte buffered is an additional 8 micro-seconds of delay. + More memory is required to store the data packet before sending it out. 10.What is collision domain ?TOP A. Defined by IEEE 802.3 Standard: A single CSMA/CD network. If two or more MACs are within the same collision domain and both transmit at the same time, a collision will occur. MACs separated by a repeater are within the same collision domain. MACs separated by a bridge are within different collision domains.

11.What is Flow Control regarding of all switches ?TOP

A. During times of heavy network activity, the switch's port buffers can receive too much traffic and fill up faster than the switch can send the information. In cases like this, the switch tells the transmitting device to wait so the information in the buffer can be sent. This intervention is called

155

flow control. The method of flow control depends on whether the ports are set to full- or half-duplex. A non-standard but popular scheme called Back-pressure was used in half-duplex links. The IEEE 802.3 committee established a standard called 802.3x flow control was used in full-duplex links. 12.What kind of security of switches provide or support ?TOP A. There are two ways to use a switch to improve network security: VLAN: A network administrator can define several VLANs and block access to each VLAN to prevent users from accessing servers for which they don't have access permission. Mac address filtering: A network administrator can define a DA (Destination Address) so that packets can only be received from port A (a hub) and only allow those same packets to be forwarded to port B(a server connection, for example).Using MAC address filtering, only users that are connected to port A can access the server connected to port B, other packets from other ports, even those whose DA is for the server on port B, will be dropped

Table Of Contents
Chapter Goals

Point-to-Point Protocol Introduction PPP Components General Operation Physical Layer Requirements PPP Link Layer PPP Link-Control Protocol Summary Review Questions

Chapter Goals
Describe the development of PPP. Describe the components of PPP and how they operate. Provide a summary of the basic protocol elements and operations of PPP.

Point-to-Point Protocol
Introduction In computing, the Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is commonly used to establish a direct connection between two nodes. It can connect computers using serial cable, phone line, trunk line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, or fiber optic links. Most Internet service providers use PPP for customers' dial-up access to the Internet.

156

Two common encapsulated forms of PPP are used in a similar role with Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet service. These are:

a) b)

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE), and Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA)

PPP is commonly used to act as a data link layer (layer two of the OSI model) protocol for connection over synchronous and asynchronous circuits, where it has largely superseded the older, non-standard Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), and telephone company mandated standards (such as Link Access Protocol, Balanced (LAPB) in the X.25 protocol suite). PPP was designed to work with numerous network layer protocols, including Internet Protocol (IP), Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), NetBEUI and AppleTalk.

The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) originally emerged as an encapsulation protocol for

transporting IP traffic over point-to-point links. PPP also established a standard for the assignment and management of IP addresses, asynchronous (start/stop) and bit-oriented synchronous encapsulation, network protocol multiplexing, link configuration, link quality testing, error detection, and option negotiation for such capabilities as network layer address negotiation and data-compression negotiation. PPP supports these functions by providing an extensible Link Control Protocol (LCP) and a family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) to negotiate optional configuration parameters and facilities. In addition to IP, PPP supports other protocols, including Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and DECnet.

PPP Components
PPP provides a method for transmitting datagrams over serial point-to-point links. PPP contains three main components: A method for encapsulating datagrams over serial links. PPP uses the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol as a basis for encapsulating datagrams over point-to-point links. (See Chapter 16, "Synchronous Data Link Control and Derivatives," for more information on HDLC.) An extensible LCP to establish, configure, and test the data link connection.

A family of NCPs for establishing and configuring different network layer protocols. PPP is designed to allow the simultaneous use of multiple network layer protocols.

General Operation
To establish communications over a point-to-point link, the originating PPP first sends LCP frames to configure and (optionally) test the data link. After the link has been established and optional facilities have been negotiated as needed by the LCP, the originating PPP sends NCP frames to choose and configure one or more network layer protocols. When each of the chosen network layer protocols has been configured, packets from each network layer protocol can be sent over the link. The link will remain configured for communications until explicit LCP or NCP frames close the link, or until some external event occurs (for example, an inactivity timer expires or a user intervenes).

Physical Layer Requirements

PPP is capable of operating across any DTE/DCE interface. Examples include EIA/TIA-232-C (formerly RS-232-C), EIA/TIA-422 (formerly RS-422), EIA/TIA-423 (formerly RS-423), and International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) (formerly CCITT) V.35. The only absolute requirement imposed by PPP is the provision of a duplex circuit, either dedicated or switched, that can operate in either an asynchronous or synchronous bit-serial mode, transparent to PPP link layer frames. PPP does not impose any restrictions regarding transmission rate other than those imposed by the particular DTE/DCE interface in use.

157

PPP Link Layer

PPP uses the principles, terminology, and frame structure of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) HDLC procedures (ISO 3309-1979), as modified by ISO 3309:1984/PDAD1 "Addendum 1: Start/Stop Transmission." ISO 3309-1979 specifies the HDLC frame structure for use in synchronous environments. ISO 3309:1984/PDAD1 specifies proposed modifications to ISO 3309-1979 to allow its use in asynchronous environments. The PPP control procedures use the definitions and control field encodings standardized in ISO 4335-1979 and ISO 4335-1979/Addendum 1-1979. The PPP frame format appears in Figure 13-1.

Figure 13-1 Six Fields Make Up the PPP Frame

The following descriptions summarize the PPP frame fields illustrated in Figure 13-1: FlagA single byte that indicates the beginning or end of a frame. The flag field consists of the binary sequence 01111110. AddressA single byte that contains the binary sequence 11111111, the standard broadcast address. PPP does not assign individual station addresses. ControlA single byte that contains the binary sequence 00000011, which calls for transmission of user data in an unsequenced frame. A connectionless link service similar to that of Logical Link Control (LLC) Type 1 is provided. (For more information about LLC types and frame types, refer to Chapter 16.) ProtocolTwo bytes that identify the protocol encapsulated in the information field of the frame. The most up-to-date values of the protocol field are specified in the most recent Assigned Numbers Request For Comments (RFC). DataZero or more bytes that contain the datagram for the protocol specified in the protocol field. The end of the information field is found by locating the closing flag sequence and allowing 2 bytes for the FCS field. The default maximum length of the information field is 1,500 bytes. By prior agreement, consenting PPP implementations can use other values for the maximum information field length.

Frame check sequence (FCS)Normally 16 bits (2 bytes). By prior agreement, consenting PPP implementations can use a 32-bit (4-byte) FCS for improved error detection.
The LCP can negotiate modifications to the standard PPP frame structure. Modified frames, however, always will be clearly distinguishable from standard frames.

PPP Link-Control Protocol

The PPP LCP provides a method of establishing, configuring, maintaining, and terminating the point-to-point connection. LCP goes through four distinct phases. First, link establishment and configuration negotiation occur. Before any network layer datagrams (for example, IP) can be exchanged, LCP first must open the connection and negotiate configuration parameters. This phase is complete when a configuration-acknowledgment frame has been both sent and received. This is followed by link quality determination. LCP allows an optional link quality determination phase following the link-establishment and configuration-negotiation phase. In this phase, the link

158

is tested to determine whether the link quality is sufficient to bring up network layer protocols. This phase is optional. LCP can delay transmission of network layer protocol information until this phase is complete. At this point, network layer protocol configuration negotiation occurs. After LCP has finished the link quality determination phase, network layer protocols can be configured separately by the appropriate NCP and can be brought up and taken down at any time. If LCP closes the link, it informs the network layer protocols so that they can take appropriate action. Finally, link termination occurs. LCP can terminate the link at any time. This usually is done at the request of a user but can happen because of a physical event, such as the loss of carrier or the expiration of an idle-period timer.

Three classes of LCP frames exist.

a) b) c)

Link-establishment frames are used to establish and configure a link. Link-termination frames are used to terminate a link, and link-maintenance frames are used to manage and debug a link.

These frames are used to accomplish the work of each of the LCP phases.

Summary
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) originally emerged as an encapsulation protocol for transporting IP traffic over point-to-point links. PPP also established a standard for assigning and managing IP addresses, asynchronous and bit-oriented synchronous encapsulation, network protocol multiplexing, link configuration, link quality testing, error detection, and option negotiation for added networking capabilities. PPP provides a method for transmitting datagrams over serial point-to-point links, which include the following THREE COMPONENTS: A method for encapsulating datagrams over serial links An extensible LCP to establish, configure, and test the connection A family of NCPs for establishing and configuring different network layer protocols

PPP is capable of operating across any DTE/DCE interface. PPP does not impose any restriction regarding transmission rate other than those imposed by the particular DTE/DCE interface in use. Six fields make up the PPP frame. The PPP LCP provides a method of establishing, configuring, maintaining,

and terminating the

point-to-point connection.

Review Questions
QWhat are the main components of PPP? AEncapsulation of datagrams, LCP, and NCP. QWhat is the only absolute physical layer requirement imposed by PPP? AThe provision of a duplex circuit, either dedicated or switched, that can operate in either an asynchronous or synchronous bit-serial mode, transparent to PPP link layer frames.

159

QHow many fields make up the PPP frame, and what are they? ASix: Flag, Address, Control, Protocol, Data, and Frame Check Sequence. QHow many phases does the PPP LCP go through, and what are they?

AFour: Link establishment, link quality determination, network layer protocol

configuration negotiation, and link termination.

Overview
By 'X.25' we mean a protocol recommended by CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee), part of the ITU (International Telecommunication Union). X.25 describes an interface between a DTE (Date Termination Equipment) and a DCE (Data Communication Equipment) and by implication a set of DTEs communicating with each other via their respective DCEs which have some unspecified primative capability to communicate. Q. Define Bit-serial transmission

Bit-serial transmission conveys a message one bit at a time through a channel

160

This project was written by: Levi Ehud, Hadad Eli and Epstein Amir as part of the course : Protocols and Computer Networks given by Dr.Debby Koren at the Tel-Aviv University, Israel. References

Introduction
In the early 1970's there were many data communication networks(also known as Public Networks), which were owned by private companies, organizations and governments agencies. Since those public networks were quite different internally, and the interconnection of networks was growing very fast, there was a need for a common network interface protocol. In 1976 X.25 was recommended as the desired protocol by the International Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) called the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) since 1993. X.25 is a packet switched data network protocol which defines an international recommendation for the exchange of data as well as control information between a user device (host), called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and a network node, called Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE). X.25 utilizes a Connection-Oriented service which insures that packets are transmitted in order. X.25 comes with three levels based on the first three layers of the Open Systems Interconnection(OSI) seven layers architecture as defined by the International Standard Organization(ISO).

The levels are:

The Physical Level describes the interface with the physical environment. It is similar to the Physical Layer in the OSI model. The Link Level responsible for the reliable communication between the DTE and the DCE. It is similar to the Data Link Layer in the OSI model. The Packet Level describes the data transfer protocol in the packet switched network. It is similar to the Network Layer in the OSI model.

161

X.25 was originally approved in 1976 and subsequently revised in 1977, 1980, 1984, 1988 and 1992. It is currently (1996) one of the most widely used interfaces for data communication networks.

Return to TOP We will examine now each level in more detail:

The Physical Level

The physical level (level 1) deals with the electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional interface between the DTE and the DCE. The physical level is specified by the X.21, X.21-bis and the V.24 recommendation for modems and interchange circuits.

X.21 is a CCITT recommendation for operation of digital circuits. The X.21 interface operates over eight interchange circuits(i.e. signal ground, DTE common return, transmit, receive, control, indication, signal element timing and byte timing) their functions is defined in recommendation X.24 and their electrical characteristics in recommendation X.27. X.21-bis is a CCITT recommendation that defines the analogue interface to allow access to the digital circuit switched network using an analogue circuit. X.21-bis provides procedures for sending and receiving addressing information which enable a DTE to establish switched circuits with other DTEs which have access to the digital network. V.24 is also a CCITT recommendation, it provides procedures which enable the DTE to operate over a leased analogue circuit connecting it to a packet switching node or concentrator.

Now we will discuss in more detail the X.21 interface since it is the most commonly used one. X.21 Digital Interface. In 1976 CCITT recommended a digital signaling interface called X.21. The recommendation specifies how the DTE can setup and clear calls by exchanging signals with the DCE.

162

The physical connector has 15 pins, but not all of them are used. The DTE uses the T and C circuits to transmit data and control information. The DCE uses the R and I circuits for data and control. The S circuit contains a signal stream emitted by the DCE to provide timing information so the DTE knows when each bit interval starts and stops. The B circuit may also provide to group the bits into byte frames. If this option is not provided the DCE and DTE must begin every control sequence with at least two SYN characters to enable each other to deduce the implied frame boundary.

The Link Level

The link level (also called level 2, or frame level) ensures reliable transfer of data between the DTE and the DCE, by transmitting the data as a sequence of frames (a frame is an individual data unit which contains address, control, information field etc.).

The functions performed by the link level include:

Transfer of data in an efficient and timely fashion. Synchronization of the link to ensure that the receiver is in step with the transmitter. Detection of transmission errors and recovery from such errors Identification and reporting of procedural errors to higher levels, for recovery.

The link level uses data link control procedures which are compatible with the High Level Data Link (HDLC) standardized by ISO, and with the Advanced Data Communications Control Procedures (ADCCP) standardized by the U.S.American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

There are several protocols which can be used in the link level:

Link Access Protocol,Balanced (LAPB) is derived from HDLC and is the most commonly used. It enables to form a logical link connection besides all the other characteristics of HDLC. Link Access Protocol (LAP) is an earlier version of LAPB and is seldom used today. Link Access Procedure,D Channel (LAPD) is derived from LAPB and it is used for Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN) i.e. it enables data transmission between DTEs through D channel, especially between a DTE and an ISDN node.

Logical Link Control (LLC) is an IEEE 802 Local Area Network (LAN) protocol which enables X.25 packets to be transmitted through a LAN channel.

We now discuss LAPB in more detail since,as we mentioned before,it is the most commonly used. LAPB-Link Access Protocol, Balanced. The LAPB protocol uses the following frame structure:

163

The Flag fields indicate the start and end of the frame. The Address field contain the address of the DTE/DCE, it is most important in multidrop lines, where it is used to identify one of the terminals. The Control field contains sequence numbers, commands and responses for controlling the data flow between the DTE and the DCE. The Checksum field indicates whether or not errors occur in the transmission. It is a variation of the Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC).

There are three kinds of frames:

1. 2.

Information: This kind of frame contains the actual information being transfered. The control field in these frames contains the frame sequence number. Supervisory: There are various types of supervisory frames. o RECEIVE READY-Acknowledgment frame indicating the next frame expected.

o o

REJECT-Negative acknowledgment frame used to indicate transmission error detection. RECEIVE NOT READY(RNR)-Just as RECEIVE READY but tells the sender to stop sending due to temporary problems.

3.

Unnumbered: This kind of frames is used only for control purposes. LAPB also provides the following commands:

o o o

DISC (DISConnect)- Allows the machine to announce that it is going down. SNRT (Set Normal Response Time)- Allows a machine that has just come back on line to announce its presence. FRMR (FRaMe Reject)- Used to indicate that a frame with correct checksum but impossible semantics arrived.

The Packet Level

The packet level (also called level 3 or network level) creates network data units called packets which contain control information and user data.

The packet level provides procedures for handling the following services:
o
Virtual Circuit(VC) is a temporary association between two DTEs, it is initiated by a DTE signaling a CALL REQUEST to the network. This service ensures orderly(sequenced) delivery of packets in either direction between two DTEs.Virtual Circuit is established whenever two DTEs want to communicate.This service is the most frequently used by the X.25 protocol.

Permanent Virtual Circuit is a permanent association existing between two DTEs, which does not require call setup(connect) or call clearing (disconnect) action by the DTE.

Datagrams(DG) is a self contained user data unit, containing sufficient information to be routed to the destination DTE(independently of all other data units) without a

164

need of a call to be established. The data units are transmitted one at a time with no guarantee of final delivery,and no guarantee of orderly delivery. Each datagram must contain complete address and control information to enable it to be delivered to the proper destination DTE.

o o

Fast Select is a service which enables the control packet that sets up the VC to carry data as well. Other Services:the packet level also provides the call setup and call clearing procedures required for the VC service. The packet level deals with flow control to ensure that a user(DTE) does not overwhelm the other user with packets, and to maintain timely and efficient delivery of packets. The packet level also handles errors at packet level to abort or restart VCs if necessary.

Call Setup
When DTE A wants to communicate with DTE B, it must set up a connection by building a CALL REQUEST packet, and passing it to it's DCE. DTE B gets the packet through the subnet and it's DCE. If DTE B wishes to accept the call, it sends a CALL ACCEPTED packet back. When DTE A receives the CALL ACCEPTED packet the Virtual Circuit is established. At this point the two DTEs may use a full-duplex connection to exchange data packets. When either side wants to finish the call, it sends a CLEAR REQUEST packet to the other side, which then sends a CLEAR CONFIRMATION packet back as an acknowledgment.

The DTE determines the circuit number on outgoing calls and the DCE determines the circuit number on incoming calls If both simultaneously choose the same number then Call Collision occurs. X.25 specifies that in this case, the outgoing call is put through and the incoming one is cancelled.

Packets Format
We will examine now the format of the packets in X.25 protocol. THE CONTROL PACKET

165

The format of the control packets is as follows:

The control packet as well as all X.25 packets begins with a 3-byte header. Bytes 1,2 contain the Group and the Channel fields that together form a 12 bit virtual circuit number. Number 0 is reserved for future use, so a DTE may have up to 4095 virtual circuits at a time.

The CALL REQUEST packet:

The additional information of the CALL REQUEST packet is as follows:

The Length Of Calling Address and Length Of Called Address fields tell how long the calling and called addresses are, respectively. The next two fields are the addresses, both addresses are encoded as decimal digits, 4 bits for digit. The addressing system used in X.25 is defined in CCITT recommendation X.121. This system is similar to the public switched telephone network, with each host identified by a decimal number consisting of country code, a network code, and an address within the specified network. The full address may contain up to 14 digits, of which the first three indicate the country , and the next one indicates the network number(for countries with many public networks multiple country codes exist). The division of the remaining 10 digits is not specified by X.121, permitting each network to allocate the 10 billion addresses itself. The Facilities Length field tells how many bytes of facilities field follow. The Facilities field itself is used to request special features for this connection. The specific features may vary from network to network. Possible features are reverse charging(collect calls), simplex instead of full-duplex virtual circuit, maximum packet length and a window size rather than using the defaults of 128 bytes and 2 packets. The last field is The User Data field which allows the DTE to send up to 16 bytes of data together with the CALL REQUEST packet. Other Control Packets are:

The CALL ACCEPTED packet is sent by the callee DTE if it accepts the call.

166

The CLEAR REQUEST is sent due to various reasons,the fourth byte of the packet tells why the connection is being cleared. It is acknowledged by a CLEAR REQUEST CONFIRMATION packet.

The INTERRUPT packet allows a short (32 bytes) signal to be sent out of sequence. It is acknowledged by INTERRUPT CONFIRMATION packet. The RECEIVE READY (RR) packet is used to send separate acknowledgments where there is no reverse traffic. The ppp field (three first bits of the type field) tells which packet is expected next.

The RECEIVE NOT READY (RNR) packet allows a DTE to tell the other side to stop sending packets to it for a while. The REJECT packet allows a DTE to request retransmission of a series of packets. The ppp field gives the first sequence number desired. The RESET and RESTART packets are used to recover from varying degrees of trouble. Both are acknowledged by RESET CONFIRMATION and RESTART CONFIRMATION respectively.

The DIAGNOSTIC packet is also provided, to allow the network to inform the user of problems.

THE DATA PACKET:

The format of a data packet is shown bellow:

The Q bit indicates qualified data, the intention is to allow protocols in the higher layers to set this bit to 1, to separate their control packets from their data packets. The control field is always 0 for data packets. The Sequence and Piggyback fields are used for flow control, using a sliding window. The sequence numbers are modulo 8 if Modulo is 01, and modulo 128 if Modulo is 10 (00 and 11 are illegal). If modulo 128 sequence numbers are used, the header is extended with an extra byte to accommodate longer Sequence and Piggyback fields. The D bit determines the meaning of the Piggyback field. D=0, means that the local DCE has received the packet, but not that the remote DTE has received it. D=1, means that the packet has been successfully delivered to the remote DTE. The More field allows a DTE to indicate that a group of packets belong together. The standard is that carriers are required to support a maximum packet length of 128 data bytes. However it also allows carriers to provide optional maximum lengths from 16 up to 4096 bytes (in powers of 2).

167

X.25 State Diagrams

The X.25 standard contains several state diagrams to describe event sequences such as call setup and call clearing. The diagram bellow shows the subphases of call setup:

Initially, the interface is in state P1.A CALL REQUEST or INCOMING CALL changes the state to P2 or P3, respectively. From these states the data transfer state, P4, can be reached, either directly, or via P5. Similar diagrams are provided for Call Clearing, Resetting, and Restarting.

References
Computer Networks / Andrew S.Tanenbaum Data and Computer Communication / William Stallings Telecommunication Networks: Protocols, Modeling and Analysis / Mischa Schwartz Interconnections: Bridges and Routers / Radia Perelman Computer Networks and Their Protocols / D.W. Davies, D.L.A. Barber, W.L. Prince and C.M. Solomonides 6. Computer Networks Architecture and Protocols / Paul E.Green

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

168

DATA COMMUNICATION BASICS This tutorial describes introductory concepts in data communications. Go to the tutorial that describes the TCP/IP. To learn about DATA COMMUNICATIONS read on! This section covers some introductory information on the following:

What a protocol is What a packet is What a gateway ( or router ) and routing are The concept of a layered protocol architecture Layer services Data encapsulation Data fragmentation and reassembly Why standards are needed The concept of an open system Overview of the OSI 7-layer model and the TCP/IP model

What Is a Communication Protocol?

Communication protocols define the manner in which peer processes communicate between computer hardware devices. The protocols give the rules for such things as the passing of messages, the exact formats of the messages and how to handle error conditions. If two computers are communicating and they both follow the protocol(s) properly, the exchange is successful, regardless of what types of machines they are and what operating systems are running on the machines. As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol, communication is possible. Essentially, therefore, a computer protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information.

What Is a Packet?
The term packet is used often in data communications, sometimes incorrectly. To transfer data effectively, it is usually better to transfer uniform chunks of data than to send characters singly or in widely varying sized groups. Usually these chunks of data have some information ahead of them ( called the header ) and sometimes an indicator at the end (called the trailer). These chunks of data are loosely called packets. In some data communications systems, "packets" refer to the units of data passed between two specific layers in a protocol hierarchy e.g. the Data Link Layer and the Network Layer of the OSI 7 layer model. The amount of data in a packet and the composition of the header or trailer may vary depending on the communications protocol as well as some system parameters, but the concept of a packet always refers to the entire chunk of data (including header and trailer).

What Is a Host?
A host typically refers to a computer providing an information or communications service.

What Are a Gateway, a Router, and Routing?

A gateway or router is a computer that interconnects two or more networks and passes packets from one to the other. The gateway has an interface to each of the networks to which it is connected. Generally, congestion on connected networks is avoided by keeping local traffic confined to the network on which it

169

originates, except when the packets are destined for another network. The gateway has the responsibility of acting as the switch that allows such packets to go from one network to another. The process by which the paths that packets travel across a network or internetwork are chosen is known as routing. Protocol Layering A wide range of problems may arise in packet-based data communication. These include the following.

Host failure: A host or gateway may fail due to a hardware or software crash. Link failure: A transmission link may be damaged or disconnected. Network congestion: Networks have finite capacity which cannot be exceeded. Packet delay or loss: Packets are sometimes lost during transmission or may experience excessive delays. Data corruption: Transmission errors can corrupt the data being transmitted. Data duplication or packets out-of-sequence: Where more than one route exists in a network connection, it is possible for transmitted packets to arrive out of sequence. Also, packets that traverse a long route may be retransmitted, having been presumed lost. This results in the presence of duplicate frames if the original and retransmitted packets arrive at the destination.

It is impractical to write a single protocol to handle all of these issues. The early methods were often based on a single protocol with many interacting components. The resulting software was difficult to test, debug and modify. Complex data communication schemes therefore require a family of cooperative protocols to handle all transmission tasks ( Ref. 1 ). The modules of protocol software on each machine can be organised into what may be thought of as layers. Each layer handles a communication sub-problem. This is illustrated in Figure 1.

170

Layer Services Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

The services that layers provide to the layers above them may be classified into two types : connectionoriented and connectionless. In a connection-oriented service, the sender of data first establishes a logical connection with the ( prospective ) receiver of the data, uses the connection ( sends the data ), and then terminates the connection ( Ref. 2). During the establishment of the connection, a fixed route that all packets will take is defined, and information necessary to match packets to their session and defined route is stored in memory tables in the gateways ( Ref. 3 ). Connection-oriented protocols provide in-sequence delivery; that is, the service user receives packets in the order they were sent. Packet re-sequencing may have to be implemented internal to the protocol in order to achieve this, but the service user only receives correctly sequenced packets ( Ref. 4 ). In a connectionless ( or datagram ) service there is no initial end-to-end setup for a session; each packet is independently routed to its destination. When a packet is ready, the host computer sends it on to a gateway. The gateway examines the destination address of the packet and passes the packet along to another gateway, chosen by a route-finding algorithm. A packet may go through many gateways in its travels from one host computer to another. The fact that routes are dynamically chosen means that it is possible for different packets from a single session to take different routes to the destination ( Ref. 3 ). It is also possible for packets, having traversed different routes to the destination, to arrive out of order and be passed on as such to the layer above. Thus, connectionless networks economise on gateway memory and connection set-up time, while connection-oriented networks economise on routing decisions (which have to be redone for every packet in a connectionless network) ( Ref. 3 ).

Reliable and Unreliable Services

Services can also be classified according to the quality of service that they provide to the layers above. There are two types of service quality : reliable and unreliable. A reliable service is one that endeavours never to lose data during a transfer and to provide the data error-free to the service user. In such a scheme the receiver is required to acknowledge the receipt of each item of data, to ensure that no data is lost in transit. In addition to this, the receiver checks each data item received for errors, informing the source if an error is detected and that another copy of the affected data should be sent. The acknowledgement process required for reliable service introduces delays and overhead. There are some cases when it is more important for the service to be free of delays than for it to be one hundred percent reliable. In such situations an unreliable service may be used. An unreliable service is implemented by omitting the requirement for acknowledgements for the data received. Error checking may be done by the receiver on each block of data, and when one is detected ( even when it is only a single unknown bit ) the complete data block discarded. When an unreliable service is implemented in a given layer, reliability is typically implemented by some higher layer.

Data Encapsulation, Segmentation ( Fragmentation ) and Reassembly

Encapsulation is the technique used by layered protocols in which a protocol accepts a message from a protocol above it and places it in the data portion of the lower level protocols message unit ( Ref. 1 ). As data move down the layers, additional information will be appended to it, and it may be segmented into smaller pieces. The encapsulation process is illustrated for the TCP/IP model in Figure 2.

171

Say an application process on one host has some data it wishes to send. It passes the data to the transport layer, which ( possibly ) modifies the data then attaches the transport header, T, to it and passes the resulting item to the Internet layer. The Internet layer treats the entire message received as data, may make some modifications, and attaches its own header, I, to the message. This message is then passed to the network access layer and the process is repeated. Here, the message from the Internet layer is enclosed in a physical network frame, the header from this layer being represented as N. The data are then transmitted over the medium. Note that, in each layer (below the application layer), depending on the protocol, a trailer may be appended to the message in addition to the header as is mentioned here. On the receiving end the various headers are successively stripped off as the message moves up the layers until it reaches the receiving process. Data are reassembled ( i.e. the segmentation sub-process is reversed ) if they had been fragmented during their downward path in the transmitting system. At each layer the data at the receiving end ( after reassembly, if performed ) match data at the sending end ( before segmentation, if performed ) ( Ref. 4 ). Data segmentation and reassembly are illustrated in Figure 3.

Why Are Data Communication Standards Needed?

Standards prevent a situation arising where two seemingly compatible systems really are not. Data communication standards are created to ensure that individual products ( possibly from two independent sources ) designed to perform data communications tasks will actually be able to work together to perform these tasks. Once the standards are adhered to, the respective designers should not need to collaborate in order to achieve compatibility.

What Is an Open System?

Many definitions for the term open system exist. Perhaps the best definition that can be offered here is that an open system is one for which the architecture is not a secret. The description of the

172

architecture has been published or is readily available to anyone who wants to build products for a hardware or software platform. This definition of an open system may be applied to both hardware and software. Open systems are in contrast to vendor-owned or proprietary systems. In such systems the vendor developes an architecture which he keeps a secret from the general population. Consequently, only persons the vendor authorizes can build products that will work with the vendor's products. Years ago, open systems were virtually nonexistent. It was customary for hardware manufacturers to have product lines which bound clients to that manufacturer for all software and hardware needs. Some companies took advantage of the captive market, charging outrageous prices or forcing unwanted configurations on their customers. The equipment from one manufacturer that adheres to an open system standard can be used interchangeably with the equipment from any other manufacturer that adheres to that particular standard. This is so regardless of the other specifics of the vendors' respective equipment ( e.g. operating system, if this is not itself a part of the protocol ). The customer therefore has choices. Established Data Communication Standards Some vendors have established data communication models based on the layered approach previously described. The vendors base their systems or products ( such as network operating systems ) on their own model. An example of this is Novells IPX/SPX protocol architecture, upon which Novell Netware, a popular network operating system, is based. As stated before, in such cases, to develop applications for a particular vendors products, one must adhere to that vendors model. This tends to lead to considerable complication when products or systems from a number of different vendors are to be integrated in some way. To address this problem, two groups concerned with the interconnection of independent systems, the ISO and DARPA, have defined commonly-used models for systems interconnection. The International Standards Organization ( ISO ) developed a model for the connection of open systems ( systems that are open for communication with other systems ) known as the Open Systems Interconnection ( OSI ) reference model. The OSI model has seven layers : Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application. The OSI model is not a network architecture in that it does not specify the actual protocols to be used in each layer ( Ref. 2 ). Rather, the model clearly defines the functions to be performed by each layer and the boundaries between each layer. The OSI model is illustrated in Figure 4.

Prior to, and concurrently with the development of the ISOs OSI model, the US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was heavily involved in internetworking activity. It was such activity that resulted in the creation of the Internet. As a result of this activity, DARPA created a four layered model of data communication known as the TCP/IP suite, which has become the de facto standard for interconnection, despite the official status of the OSI model. The TCP/IP model is illustrated in Figure 5.

173

The TCP/IP and OSI standards are the two major open system, vendor-independent, standards in use ( Ref. 5 ). REFERENCES

174

Table Of Contents Chapter Goals X.25 Introduction X.25 Devices and Protocol Operation
Packet Assembler/Disassembler X.25 Session Establishment X.25 Virtual Circuits

The X.25 Protocol Suite

Packet-Layer Protocol Link Access Procedure, Balanced The X.21bis Protocol

LAPB Frame Format X.121 Address Format Summary Review Questions Chapter Goals Discuss the history and development of the X.25 protocol.

Describe the basic functions and components of X.25. Describe the frame formats of X.25.
X.25 Introduction

X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN communications that defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established and maintained. X.25 is designed to operate effectively regardless of the type of systems connected to the network. It is typically used in the packet-switched networks (PSNs) of common carriers, such as the telephone companies. Subscribers are charged based on their use of the network. The development of the X.25 standard was initiated by the common carriers in the 1970s. At that time, there was a need for WAN protocols capable of providing 175

connectivity across public data networks (PDNs). X.25 is now administered as an international standard by the ITU-T.
X.25 Devices and Protocol Operation

X.25 network devices fall into three general categories: data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and packetswitching exchange (PSE). Data terminal equipment devices are end systems that communicate across the X.25 network. They are usually terminals, personal computers, or network hosts, and are located on the premises of individual subscribers. DCE devices are communications devices, such as modems and packet switches, that provide the interface between DTE devices and a PSE, and are generally located in the carrier's facilities. PSEs are switches that compose the bulk of the carrier's network. They transfer data from one DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN. Figure 17-1 illustrates the relationships among the three types of X.25 network devices. Figure 17-1 DTEs, DCEs, and PSEs Make Up an X.25 Network

PACKET ASSEMBLER/DISASSEMBLER

The packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) is a device commonly found in X.25 networks. PADs are used when a DTE device, such as a character-mode terminal, is too simple to implement the full X.25 functionality. The PAD is located between a DTE device and a DCE device, and it performs three primary functions: buffering (storing data until a device is ready to process it), packet assembly, and packet disassembly. The PAD buffers data sent to or from the DTE device. It also assembles outgoing data into packets and forwards them to the DCE device. (This includes adding an X.25 header.) Finally, the PAD disassembles incoming packets before forwarding the data to the DTE. (This includes removing the X.25 header.) Figure 17-2 illustrates the basic operation of the PAD when receiving packets from the X.25 WAN. Figure 17-2 The PAD Buffers, Assembles, and Disassembles Data Packets

176

X.25 SESSION ESTABLISHMENT

X.25 sessions are established when one DTE device contacts another to request a communication session. The DTE device that receives the request can either accept or refuse the connection. If the request is accepted, the two systems begin full-duplex information transfer. Either DTE device can terminate the connection. After the session is terminated, any further communication requires the establishment of a new session.
X.25 VIRTUAL CIRCUITS

A virtual circuit is a logical connection created to ensure reliable communication between two network devices. A virtual circuit denotes the existence of a logical, bidirectional path from one DTE device to another across an X.25 network. Physically, the connection can pass through any number of intermediate nodes, such as DCE devices and PSEs. Multiple virtual circuits (logical connections) can be multiplexed onto a single physical circuit (a physical connection). Virtual circuits are demultiplexed at the remote end, and data is sent to the appropriate destinations. Figure 17-3 illustrates four separate virtual circuits being multiplexed onto a single physical circuit. Figure 17-3 Virtual Circuits Can Be Multiplexed onto a Single Physical Circuit

Two types of X.25 virtual circuits exist: switched and permanent. Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are temporary connections used for sporadic data

177

transfers. They require that two DTE devices establish, maintain, and terminate a session each time the devices need to communicate. Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are permanently established connections used for frequent and consistent data transfers. PVCs do not require that sessions be established and terminated. Therefore, DTEs can begin transferring data whenever necessary because the session is always active. The basic operation of an X.25 virtual circuit begins when the source DTE device specifies the virtual circuit to be used (in the packet headers) and then sends the packets to a locally connected DCE device. At this point, the local DCE device examines the packet headers to determine which virtual circuit to use and then sends the packets to the closest PSE in the path of that virtual circuit. PSEs (switches) pass the traffic to the next intermediate node in the path, which may be another switch or the remote DCE device. When the traffic arrives at the remote DCE device, the packet headers are examined and the destination address is determined. The packets are then sent to the destination DTE device. If communication occurs over an SVC and neither device has additional data to transfer, the virtual circuit is terminated.
The X.25 Protocol Suite

The X.25 protocol suite maps to the lowest three layers of the OSI reference model. The following protocols are typically used in X.25 implementations: Packet-Layer Protocol (PLP), Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB), and those among other physical-layer serial interfaces (such as EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, and G.703). Figure 17-4 maps the key X.25 protocols to the layers of the OSI reference model. Figure 17-4 Key X.25 Protocols Map to the Three Lower Layers of the OSI Reference Model

PACKET-LAYER PROTOCOL

178

PLP is the X.25 network layer protocol. PLP manages packet exchanges between DTE devices across virtual circuits. PLPs also can run over Logical Link Control 2 (LLC2) implementations on LANs and over Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces running Link Access Procedure on the D channel (LAPD). The PLP operates in five distinct modes: call setup, data transfer, idle, call clearing, and restarting. Call setup mode is used to establish SVCs between DTE devices. A PLP uses the X.121 addressing scheme to set up the virtual circuit. The call setup mode is executed on a per-virtual-circuit basis, which means that one virtual circuit can be in call setup mode while another is in data transfer mode. This mode is used only with SVCs, not with PVCs. Data transfer mode is used for transferring data between two DTE devices across a virtual circuit. In this mode, PLP handles segmentation and reassembly, bit padding, and error and flow control. This mode is executed on a per-virtual-circuit basis and is used with both PVCs and SVCs. Idle mode is used when a virtual circuit is established but data transfer is not occurring. It is executed on a per-virtual-circuit basis and is used only with SVCs. Call clearing mode is used to end communication sessions between DTE devices and to terminate SVCs. This mode is executed on a per-virtual-circuit basis and is used only with SVCs. Restarting mode is used to synchronize transmission between a DTE device and a locally connected DCE device. This mode is not executed on a pervirtual-circuit basis. It affects all the DTE device's established virtual circuits. Four types of PLP packet fields exist: General Format Identifier (GFI)Identifies packet parameters, such as whether the packet carries user data or control information, what kind of windowing is being used, and whether delivery confirmation is required. Logical Channel Identifier (LCI)Identifies the virtual circuit across the local DTE/DCE interface. Packet Type Identifier (PTI)Identifies the packet as one of 17 different PLP packet types. User DataContains encapsulated upper-layer information. This field is present only in data packets. Otherwise, additional fields containing control information are added.
LINK ACCESS PROCEDURE, BALANCED

LAPB is a data link layer protocol that manages communication and packet framing between DTE and DCE devices. LAPB is a bit-oriented protocol that ensures that frames are correctly ordered and error-free. 179

Three types of LAPB frames exist: information, supervisory, and unnumbered. The information frame (I-frame) carries upper-layer information and some control information. I-frame functions include sequencing, flow control, and error detection and recovery. I-frames carry send- and receive-sequence numbers. The supervisory frame (S-frame) carries control information. Sframe functions include requesting and suspending transmissions, reporting on status, and acknowledging the receipt of I-frames. S-frames carry only receive-sequence numbers. The unnumbered frame (U frame) carries control information. U-frame functions include link setup and disconnection, as well as error reporting. U frames carry no sequence numbers.
THE X.21BIS PROTOCOL

X.21bis is a physical layer protocol used in X.25 that defines the electrical and mechanical procedures for using the physical medium. X.21bis handles the activation and deactivation of the physical medium connecting DTE and DCE devices. It supports point-to-point connections, speeds up to 19.2 kbps, and synchronous, full-duplex transmission over four-wire media. Figure 17-5 shows the format of the PLP packet and its relationship to the LAPB frame and the X.21bis frame. Figure 17-5 The PLP Packet Is Encapsulated Within the LAPB Frame and the X.21bis Frame

LAPB Frame Format

LAPB frames include a header, encapsulated data, and a trailer. Figure 17-6 illustrates the format of the LAPB frame and its relationship to the PLP packet and the X.21bis frame. The following descriptions summarize the fields illustrated in Figure 17-6:

180

 FlagDelimits the beginning and end of the LAPB frame. Bit stuffing is used to ensure that the flag pattern does not occur within the body of the frame. AddressIndicates whether the frame carries a command or a response. ControlQualifies command and response frames and indicates whether the frame is an I-frame, an S-frame, or a U-frame. In addition, this field contains the frame's sequence number and its function (for example, whether receiver-ready or disconnect). Control frames vary in length depending on the frame type. DataContains upper-layer data in the form of an encapsulated PLP packet. FCSHandles error checking and ensures the integrity of the transmitted data. Figure 17-6 An LAPB Frame Includes a Header, a Trailer, and Encapsulated Data

X.121 Address Format

X.121 addresses are used by the X.25 PLP in call setup mode to establish SVCs. Figure 17-7 illustrates the format of an X.121 address.

181

The X.121 Address field includes the International Data Number (IDN), which consists of two fields: the Data Network Identification Code (DNIC) and the National Terminal Number (NTN). DNIC is an optional field that identifies the exact PSN in which the destination DTE device is located. This field is sometimes omitted in calls within the same PSN. The DNIC has two subfields: Country and PSN. The Country subfield specifies the country in which the destination PSN is located. The PSN field specifies the exact PSN in which the destination DTE device is located. The NTN identifies the exact DTE device in the PSN for which a packet is destined. This field varies in length. Figure 17-7 The X.121 Address Includes an IDN Field

Summary

X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol that defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established and maintained, and that operates effectively regardless of the type of systems connected to the network. X.25 devices include DTEs, DCEs, and PSNs. X.25 connections contain both SVCs and PVCs within the physical circuit. X.25 uses the following three protocols, which map to the bottom three layers of the OSI reference model: PLP, which maps to the network layer LAPB, which maps to the data link layer

X.21bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, and G.703, which map to the physical layer

182

Review Questions

QIn what kind of networks does X.25 generally operate? AIt is typically used in packet-switched networks of common carriers, such as the telephone companies. QName the three general categories into which X.25 devices fall. ADTEs, DCEs, and PSEs. QWhat are the three main functions of the PAD? ABuffering, packet assembly, and packet disassembly. QName the X.25 protocol suite and the layers in the OSI reference model to which they map. APLP: network layer; LAPB: data link layer; X.21bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, and G.703: physical layer.

Posted: Fri Oct 13 14:38:11 PDT 2006 All contents are Copyright 1992--2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Important Notices and Privacy Statement.

X.25
FROM WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA Jump to: navigation, search X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for wide area networks using the phone or ISDN system as the networking hardware. It defines one of many standards implemented for the Physical, Data Link, and Network layers of the OSI network Reference Model or the equivalent Network Access Layer of the DOD protocol model. Packet switched network was the common name given to the international collection of X.25 providers, typically the various national telephone companies. Their combined network had large global coverage during the 1980s and into the '90s, and it is still in use mainly in transaction systems.

183

Contents

1 History

2 Architecture 3 Addressing

and Virtual Circuits 4 X.25 (or OSI) protocol suite 5 Obsolescence 6 X.25 Today 7 X.25 packet types 8 X.25 details 9 Related Technologies 10 External links
11 Bibliography

History
X.25 was developed in the ITU Study Group VII based upon a number of emerging data network projects. Various updates and additions were worked into the standard, eventually recorded in the ITU series of technical books describing the telecoms systems. These books were published every fourth year with different colored covers.

Architecture

A Televideo terminal model 925 made around 1982 The general concept of X.25 was to create a universal and global packet-switched network on what was then the bit-error prone analog phone system. Much of the X.25 system is a description of the rigorous error correction needed to achieve this, a system known as LAP-B. The X.25 model was based on the concept of establishing "virtual calls" through the network, with "data terminal equipment" (DTE) providing endpoints to users, which looked like point-to-point connections. X.25 was developed in the era of dumb terminals connecting to host computers. Instead of dialing directly into the host computer which would require the host to have its own pool of modems and phone lines, and require non-local callers to make long-distance calls the host could have an X.25 connection to a network service provider. Now dumb-terminal users could dial into the network's local PAD (Packet Assembly/Disassembly facility), a gateway device connecting modems and serial lines to the X.25 link as defined by the ITU-T X.29 and X.3 standards. Having connected to the PAD, the dumb-terminal user tells the PAD which host to connect to, by giving a phone-number-like address in the X.121 address format (or by giving a host name, if the service provider allows for names that map to X.121 addresses). The PAD then places an X.25 call to the host, establishing a virtual circuit. Note that X.25 provides for virtual circuits, so appears to be a circuit switched network, even though in fact the data itself is packet switched internally, similar to the way TCP provides virtual circuits even though the underlying data is packet switched. Two X.25 hosts could, of course, call one another directly; no PAD is involved in this case. In theory, it doesn't matter whether the X.25 caller and X.25 destination are both connected to the same carrier, but in practice it was not always possible to make calls from one carrier to another. For the purpose of flow-control, a sliding window protocol is used with the default window size of 2. The acknowledgements may have either local or end to end significance. When D=0, it means that

184

the acknowledge took place between the DTE and the network. When D=1, it means that the acknowledgement took place from the remote DTE.

Error recovery procedures are such:

Reset packets, which re-initializes a virtual circuit Restart the packet, which resets all active virtual circuits.

Addressing and Virtual Circuits

An X.25 Modem once used to connect to the German Datex-P network. The X.121 address consists of a three-digit Data Country Code (DCC) plus a network digit, together forming the four-digit Data Network Identification Code (DNIC), followed by the National Terminal Number (NTN) of at most ten digits. Note the use of a single network digit, seemingly allowing for only 10 network carriers per country, but some countries are assigned more than one DCC to avoid this limitation. For much of its history X.25 was used for permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) to connect two host computers in a dedicated link. This was common for applications such as banking, where distant branch offices could be connected to central hosts for a cost that was considerably lower than a permanent long distance telephone call. X.25 was typically billed as a flat monthly service fee, and then a priceper-packet on top of this. Speeds increased during the years, typically up to 48 or 96 kbit/s. Publicly-accessible X.25 networks (Compuserve, Tymnet, Euronet, and Telenet) were set up in most countries during the 1970s and 80s, to lower the cost of accessing various online services, in which the user would first interact with the network interface to set up the connection. Known as switched virtual circuits (SVC) or "virtual calls" in public data networks (PDN), this use of X.25 disappeared from most places fairly rapidly as long distance charges fell in the 1990s and today's Internet started to emerge. A data Terminal Equipment is allowed to establish up to 4095 virtual circuits, which can be both permanent and virtual. For this purpose each packet has 12 bit virtual circuit number

X.25 (or OSI) protocol suite

A number of systems were developed to directly use the underlying packet nature of X.25, back when it appeared that X.25 would become the single universal networking system. Many of these were "private" applications, but the X.400 e-mail system was also based on X.25 as a transmission layer. The basic idea was to develop a universal set of standards for "Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)", however, industry developments eventually led down the path to Internet.

Examples of protocols in the X.25 protocol suite are:

7. Application layer: FTAM, X.400, X.500, DAP

6. Presentation layer: ISO 8823, X.226 5. Session layer: ISO 8327, X.225 4. Transport layer: TP0, TP1, TP2, TP3, TP4 3. Network layer: X.25 PLP, CLNP 2. Data link layer: LAPB, IEEE802.2 - IEEE802.5

185

1. Physical layer: X.21bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, IEEE802.3 - IEEE802.5

Obsolescence
With the widespread introduction of "perfect" quality digital phone services and error correction in modems, the overhead of X.25 was no longer worthwhile. The result was called Frame relay, essentially the X.25 protocol with the error correction systems removed, and somewhat better throughput as a result. The concept of virtual circuits is still used within ATM to allow for traffic engineering and network multiplexing.

X.25 Today
X.25 networks are still in use throughout the world, although in dramatic decline, being largely supplanted by newer layer 2 technologies such as frame relay, ISDN, ATM, ADSL, POS, and the ubiquitous layer 3 Internet Protocol. X.25 however remains one of the only available reliable links in many portions of the developing world, where access to a PDN may be the most reliable and low cost way to access the Internet. A variant called AX.25 is also used widely by amateur packet radio, though there has been some movement in recent years to replace it with TCP/IP. RACAL Paknet or Widanet as it is otherwise branded is still in operation in many regions of the world, running on an X.25 protocol base. Used as a secure wireless low rate data transfer platform, Paknet is commonly used for GPS Tracking and POS solutions currently.

X.25 packet types

Packet Type DCE -> DTE DTE -> DCE Service VC PVC

Call setup and Cleaning Incoming Call

Call Request

Call Connected

Call Accepted

Clear Indication

Clear Request

Clear Confirmation

Clear Confirmation

Data and Interrupt

Data

Data

Interrupt

Interrupt

Interrupt Confirmation

Interrupt Confirmation

Flow Control and Reset RR

RR

RNR

RNR

186

REJ

Reset Indication

Reset Request

Reset Confirmation

Reset Confirmation

Restart

Restart Indication

Restart Request

Restart

Restart Confirmation

Restart Confirmation

Diagnostic

Diagnostic

Registration

Registration Confirmation Registration Request

X.25 details
The maximal field length the network can support is 128 octets. However the network may allow the selection of the maximal length in range 16 to 4096 octets. The length may vary on two ends of the circuit.

Data terminal equipment constructs control packets which are encapsulated into data packets. The packets are sent to the data center equipment, using LAPB Protocol. Data center equipment strips the layer-2 headers in order to encapsulate packets to the internal network protocol.

Results 1 - 10 of about 876,000 for define TDM. (0.27 seconds)

Web definitions for TDM

Time Division Multiplexing is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is broken up into many segments, each having very short duration. www.3gnewsroom.com/html/glossary/t.shtml - Definition in context

bit A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1. Although computers usually provide instructions that can test and manipulate bits, they generally are designed to store data and execute instructions in bit multiples called bytes. In most computer systems, there are eight bits in a byte. The value of a bit is usually stored as either above or below a designated level of electrical charge in a single capacitor within a memory device. Half a byte (four bits) is called a nibble. In some systems, the term octet is used for an eight-bit unit instead of byte. In many systems, four eight-bit bytes or octets form a 32-bit word. In such systems, instruction lengths are sometimes expressed as full-word (32 bits in length) or half-word (16 bits in length). In telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that are transmitted in a given time period, usually a second.

187

Web definitions for Character Interleaving

A form of TDM used for asynchronous protocols. This can be used either with extra channels, or by carrying RS232-C control signals.

FDM System Overview

K. H. Tong June 1999 With the FDM system, you can take your project from the design stage to concept model to final wax pattern or plastic prototype.

The three main parts to the FDM system are:

QuickSlice Software FDM Hardware Modeling Materials

FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling)

The FDM RP system uses Fused Deposition Modeling to turn computer aid design (CAD) geometry into models that can be used for design reviews, manufacturability studies, investment casting patterns, and marketing. The FDM RP system also features the Break Away Support System (BASS), allowing the designer to create models with greater speed and precision. The BASS uses a second nozzle to extrude the support material. The support tip extrudes a material that supports any overhanging portions of the models geometry during modeling. When the model is completed, the support is easily broken off. Making the finished product look better with minimal post-modeling finishing.

Each CAD file is converted to an STL format. The STL file is read into the software called QuickSlice. QuickSlice breaks the model into individual slices. With each slice representing one layer of material. QuickSlice then generates tool paths to fill the slices. These tool paths form the Stratasys Modeling Language (SML) file. After slicing an STL file and creating a SML file, the SML file is downloaded to the FDM hardware for modeling.

188

In the FDM Hardware, the FDM head moves in two horizontal axes across a foundation and deposits a layer of material for each slice. The material filament is pulled into the FDM head by the drive wheels. It is heated inside the liquidfier in the FDM head so it comes out in a semi-liquid state. The successive layers fuse together and solidify to build up an accurate, three-dimensional model of the design. The modeling envelope temperature is regulated to aid in the bonding process. The FDM head deposits material as it follows the part geometry for each curve. It starts from the bottom curve and build up the model to the top curve.

Close-up of the head of a FDM 8000 equipment.

Conceptual Models
The speed and accuracy of the FDM hardware allows engineers to produce a new part each time the product undergoes a revision. In addition, a full-scale prototype of a proposed part has strong appeal for prospective client.

The Modeler
The hardware mainly consists of two parts the modeler and the printer server. The modeler with control panel and the working envelop access at the front. Inside the working envelope are the head and the foam foundation which support the part when it is build. The material stock is position on the right side of the modeler.

The printer server, a computer with NT platform, is used to download the required file to the
modeler.

189

Materials
The FDM is capable of using a variety of inert, nontoxic materials such as wax, ABS plastic and elastomer. Each material comes wound on a spool in the form of a filament approximately 0.07" in diameter, so it is both easy to load and easy to store. The materials may be stored at normal room temperature. Humidity must be eliminated when using ABS plastics. Exposing the filament material to temperatures outside normal office temperatures may cause the filament to fracture. It is recommended to store ABS plastic spools in dry boxes. These materials also can be stored inside two plastic bags. Enclosed a bag of desiccant with the spool. Place the plastic bags in a closed cabinet or sealed environment. This is to protect them from dust and moisture. Handle the spools of material with care. Sudden or abrupt impacts to material spools may cause the filament to fracture.

P400 ABS PLASTIC

This tough plastic is an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene based material which produces sturdy prototypes. P400 ABS allows you to make models much more similar to the desired final product than was possible with other modeling materials.

P500 ABSI PLASTIC

P500 ABS is a medium grade, high impact strength ABS plastic. This tough plastic can be gamma sterilized with negligible discoloration.

INVESTMENT CASTING WAX

190

Stratasys investment casting wax allows the operator to take an STL file from a CAD model through the Stratasys modeling process and create a wax pattern. Forming and dewaxing a shell mould is done rapidly using normal investment casting procedures. No special burnout is required. The low ash content and low viscosity level of the wax leave a residue-free cavity. ABS and wax have specific release material associated with them. Stratasys recommends making the entire support from the release material.

QuickSlice
QuickSlice software is an integral part of the FDM system. It serves as a bridge between your 3-D STL files and the FDM hardware. QuickSlice works with any STL file. It allows you to specify the physical attributes of that STL file and create a Stratasys Modeling Language (SML) file that can be sent directly to the FDM hardware. The SML file provides the instructions necessary for the FDM hardware to build the physical model. It is important to know some basic function of the mouse. The left mouse button is used for clicking buttons, selecting curves, and typing values into fields. The middle mouse button is used for stepping up or down Z levels after slicing an STL file. The right mouse button is used for selecting items from field pop-up lists and repeating edit commands. It also repeats the "Add Curve to Set" command. QuickSlice cuts the STL file model into horizontal slices. Each slice is extruded as a single layer of material by the FDM hardware to create a physical model. QuickSlice can read an STL file in compressed or uncompressed form. The STL file can be in either ASCII or binary file format. Once in QuickSlice, the STL file can be repositioned, rotated, and scaled. It is important for STL files to be relatively free of defects before reading them into QuickSlice. A defective STL file can make the FDM system operators job unnecessarily complicated. QuickSlice operation involves the following steps:

1. Slice 3D STL file

Starting from an STL file, the geometry of a part can be read into QuickSlice and sliced at a pre-selected modeling resolution. Each slice consists of one or more curves that follow the shape of the part at that particular height. The specific height of a slice is called a "Z level".

2. Assign attributes to the slice curves

When the FDM hardware builds a physical model, it lays down tracks of modeling material called "roads". These roads follow the shapes of slice curves. In QuickSlice, each slice curve can be assigned attributes such as wall thickness and fill patterns.

3. Create roads from the assigned modeling attributes

Roads are created as toolpaths for the FDM system. Creating roads allows the operator to view where the heads will begin and end each layer of material on the computer screen before sending the file to the FDM System. If the roads need to be changed. The operator can either edit the road values of sets, redistribute slice curves into other sets, or both. Roads then are recreated to see the effect of the changes. Once the roads are satisfactory, the operator can save them by writing the SML file. There are two main road types perimeter and fill. A "perimeter road follows the shape of a slice curve. The centre of the road is usually offset slightly in from the slice curve to maintain the outer dimension of the original design. The amount of offset depends upon the road width. "Fill" roads fill the solid areas inside the part. The types of fill patterns available are raster, contour, or a combination of both.

4. Save SML file

A SML file is saved and then sent to the FDM system. A SML file contains a list of instruction for the FDM system to perform the actions necessary to build the 3D model. Included in these instructions are FDM head movements, tip selection, material flow rates, and wait statements.

191

Modems
Overview
Modems convert between digital serial signal from a computer and analog signal suitable for transmission over standard phone lines. There are generally three ways to configure a modem:

Dial out only: Use the modem to connect from the local machine to remote machines. Dial in only: Allow others to connect from their machines to the local system through the modem. Bidirectional: Use the modem for both purposes.

There are a wide variety of applications that make use of modems, such as SLIP, PPP, and UUCP. This section will not cover specific applications in depth , but rather give a broad understanding of connecting and configuring modems. There are a multitude of modems on the market for a very large price range. Choosing one can often be a difficult undertaking. Generally, you get what you pay for. Cheap modems are often just that ... cheap. Money saved by buying a cheap modem, is often spent in the extra time it takes to get it working. One factor that increases price is the vendor. The more respected and established the modem vendor, the higher the price. However, these vendors have earned their reputations. Don't skimp! One of the best ways to judge a modem is through experience. Ask colleagues about their experiences with different modems and vendors, how long it took them to get their modem running and how difficult a time they had. Testimonials from other people are a very good tool in choosing a modem. Also, it is a good idea to check your system for compatibility. Many Unix vendors support specific modems for specific duties. Very often many other modems will work, but the vendor may not offer any support for those other modems. Look through the system's manuals for mention of supported modems, or contact the vendor directly.

When evaluating and purchasing a modem, there are four background areas to understand:
Modulation protocol Error correction protocol Data compression protocol Hardware flow control

MODULATION PROTOCOLS
The modulation protocol determines the transmission rate, or speed, of the modem. When talking about transmission rates, it is important to be clear about the measurement of those rates. There are two terms that have long been incorrectly used interchangeably.

BAUD

VS.

BPS

The baud rate of a modem is the measure of how many times per second a modem's signal changes. Because of limitations in standard phone lines, it is hard to get baud rates higher than 2,400. Most high speed modems run at 2,400 baud. The bps rate of a modem is the measure of how many bits per second the modem transmits. Current modems can sometimes transmit up to 115,200 bits per second.

192

It is the bits per second that matter most when talking about modem speeds. Unfortunately, people (including vendors!) often incorrectly use the term baud instead of bps, saying for instance that their modem transmits at 28,800 baud, when they mean 28,800 bps. This confusion stems from the fact that older modem's baud rates and bps rates were the same: they encoded one bit per baud. However, today's modems encode more than one bit per baud, thus achieving bps rates greater than their baud rates. For example, a modem transmitting at 28,800 bps sends 12 bits per baud. When purchasing a modem, buy the fastest one possible. Today's high speed modems rapidly become tomorrow's low speed modems. Also, look for a modem that can run at split speeds. The modem should be able to work at a fixed speed between the Unix system and the modem, but at a negotiated speed between modems, independent of the computer to modem speed.

ERROR CORRECTION PROTOCOLS Line noise can cause significant errors in modem connections. The high speeds of modern modems
exacerbate this problem. While a moment of line noise at 300 bps can create several junk characters, that same moment of noise at 28,800 bps can fill the screen with garbage. Error correction protocols combat the line noise problem by packetizing the data and providing checksums to help determine if the data has been corrupted in transmission. Several protocols have been developed, the two most popular being MNP-4 and CCITT V.42 LAP-M. Which error correction protocol a modem uses is typically determined by the data compression protocol used.

DATA COMPRESSION PROTOCOLS

In the never ending quest to increase transmission rates, several data compression protocols have been developed for serial transmissions. Data compression protocols shrink the data that must be transmitted over a connection, thereby increasing the transmission rate. The two most popular data compression protocols for modems are MNP-5, with a maximum compression ratio of 2 to 1, and CCITT V.42bis, with a maximum compression rate of 4 to 1. Note, however, that these data compression protocols only help with compressible data. It is possible to decrease the transmission rate using a data compression protocol with already compressed data. In general, though, a data compression protocol certainly helps more than it hinders.

HARDWARE FLOW CONTROL

Hardware flow control is a must for high-speed modems, and it is also useful for printers. The RTS and CTS pins are used to make sure that the receiving end of the connection has enough resources to process the data that is being sent to it. For example, if you are talking to a remote site through a modem, and your connection from the modem to the remote site is slower than your connection from the local computer to the modem (as is often the case), it is likely that the modem will begin to run out of space in its buffer. RTS/CTS flow control allows the modem to tell the computer to stop talking while it sends its data over the slow link and its buffer drains. Most terminals ignore RTS and CTS signals.

Connecting the Modem

As with terminals, the first steps in setting up a modem are connecting it to a free serial port, with the appropriate cable, and determining the appropriate device file to access that port. Since a computer to modem connection is DTE (data terminal equipment) to DCE (data communications equipment), it requires a straight-through serial cable. Again, the names of the device files vary from system to system. In addition, many systems use different device files when using a serial port connected to a modem, than when connected to a terminal. Using these different files enables certain properties for the port that are useful when using a modem. Although these files are named differently, it is not their names that make the difference, it is the their major and minor device numbers. Table 6 (a plain text version is also available) shows the different device files for use with modems.

193

Table 6 Serial device files for use with modems

System Device files Description X is the number representing the card instance and N is the number modem.

/dev/ttydXpN representing the port. Used for incoming connections, e.g. dialing in on a
X is the number representing the card instance and N is the number representing the port. Used for outgoing connections, e.g. dialing out on a modem. X is the number representing the card instance and N is the number representing the port. Used for direct connections, e.g. when debugging a modem connection. N is the number representing the port. Used for low speed modems. N is the number representing the port. Used for high speed modems, hardware flow control is enabled. The N is the number representing the port. Used for incoming connections, e.g. dialing in on a modem. The N is the number representing the port. Used for outgoing connections, e.g. dialing out on a modem. A is the letter representing the port. Used for incoming connections, e.g. dialing in on a modem. The A is the number representing the port. Used for outgoing connections, e.g. dialing out on a modem.

HP-UX /dev/culXpN

/dev/cuaXpN /dev/ttymN IRIX /dev/ttyfN /dev/ttySN Linux /dev/cuaN /dev/term/A Solaris /dev/cua/A

Configuring the Software

The software configuration for a dial-in modem is much like that for configuring a hardwired terminal. Edit the /etc/inittab to create an entry which runs a getty process on the modem port to accept incoming connections. Dial-out modem configuration usually deals with configuring files and using programs that are typically associated with UUCP. It may be necessary to install UUCP related software packages in order to set up a dial-out modem.

For operating system specific configuration information see the following essential pages:
HP-UX IRIX Linux Solaris

194

Modem tutorial - what is a modem?

Modem tutorial to explain how modems enable remote equipment to communicate over PSTN, GSM and GPRS networks.

This modem tutorial explains what a modem is and how they are typically used for enabling remote devices to communicate with central locations.

10% off Modem starter kits when purchased from our online shop With the advent of the Internet, modems are becoming more intelligent. Find out more about inteligent TCP/IP modems through our IP modem tutorial. MODEMS FOR
MACHINES

Modems are traditionally associated with PC's in the form of box/PC modems, however this technology is not suited to non-PC equipment or "machines", which have specialised needs: Size

- there is little space within many embedded devices for a modem box
Power consumption - some devices are battery powered and need low power modems Environment - machines can be deployed and need wide temperature range. Integration - modems need to be integrated within the machine and not external
TUTORIAL

MODEM

- WHAT IS A MODEM?

Modems provide access to field-based equipment A modem provides the communication interface. It transports device protocols transparently over the network through a serial inteface. A modem adapts the machine to communicate over various networks in order to gain access to the machine including: -

195


MODEM

PSTN - a wireline dial-up network GSM - a wireless dial-up network GPRS - a wireless "always on" network
TUTORIAL

- WHY USE

MODEMS?

Modems provide remote access to machines in the field to eliminate unnecessary site visits and provide fast access to information in the machine. However, integrating modems

Modems are "black art" products, surrounded by complex compliance and regulatory issues.

Designing your own modem solutions requires specialised skills. Using off-the-shelf modems enables designers to focus on their core application strengths, and not be drawn into solving issues that are not related to core competency yielding potentially unreliable products.

MODEM TUTORIAL - TYPICAL

MODEM USE

comtech offer interchangability between PSTN, GSM and GPRS modem modules M2M Modems are embedded with the machine and transport higher level protocols between the machine and central location via the network.

Point to Point "polled" networks where proprietary or industry specific protocols to

communicate with central servers.

TCP/IP enabled remote machines such as Embedded PC's, where modems provide the physical

Front Channel - definition

Front Channel - This refers to the actual broadcast between the TV content provider and the TV viewer (end-user.) Its one-way in nature. In non-ITV systems, the front channel is the only channel as the signal is only going to the viewer, not the viewer back to the content provider. But in ITV, a separate Back Channel is also needed for the return flow of data from the end-user (viewer.)

2 Command Line Interface

A Command Line Interface or CLI is a method of interacting with an operating system using a

command line interpreter. This command line interpreter may be a text terminal, terminal emulator, or remote shell client such as PuTTY. The concept of the CLI originated when teletype machines (TTY) were connected to computers in the 1950s, and offered results on demand, compared to 'batch' oriented mechanical punch card input technology. Dedicated text-based CRT terminals followed, with faster interaction and more information visible at one time, then graphical terminals enriched the visual display of information. Currently personal computers encapsulate both functions in software.

The CLI continues to coevolve with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) like those provided by Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and the X Window System. In some applications, such as MATLAB, a CLI is integrated with the GUI, with the benefits of both.

196

What is telnet)
A standard Internet protocol for accessing remote systems.

Telnet FAQ
TELNET FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

What is telnet? What can I use telnet for? How can I connect to a telnet address? What is tn3270 and how do I connect? Can I transfer files through a telnet connection? How do I configure telnet software with Netscape or MSIE?

What is telnet?

Telnet and its close cousins rlogin and tn3270 are methods of connecting to a remote computer over the Internet that let you use programs and data just as if you were using the computer locally. Do not confuse telnet with Telenet, the old name for Sprintnet. Telnet is a text-only protocol. At one time it was one of the most common ways to connect to other sites. Now with the growth of the web, it is hardly used. There are still a few sites and resources that can only be reached through telnet.

What can I use telnet for?

If you are a gamer, there are a number of text based games still available through telnet. See Yahoo's page on MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons). Outside of games, unless you already know of a particular use, such as connecting to a particular government database, you probably have no use for it. For years, many library catalogs were only reachable through telnet. Many early community resources, called free-nets, were reachable through telnet. You would have trouble finding any of these now.

Delphi's Internet service, the first nationwide Internet service available to the public, closed its telnet access on April 30, 2001.

How can I connect to a telnet address of my choosing? If your Internet provider supports telnet (not all do), you can connect to a telnet address in one of two ways:

Recent versions of Windows include a command line telnet. Begin at Start/Run and type command. On the next screen, type your telnet command. From a SLIP or PPP or ethernet connected account: type a telnet URL into the location window of your browser. To do this, your browser must be configured with a supporting version of telnet software. Two good ones, better than the built-in command line telnet for Windows, are NetTerm and CRT. Check our Internet Software Guide, whatever your platform and operating system. If you are using Windows95, make sure you get a version that supports Win95's 32-bit stack. Although Win95 comes with a version of telnet.exe, it is a bare bones version with no zmodem transfers, and there are much better ones available. A telnet URL takes this form: telnet://some.address:port-number. Most of the time, the port number will be the default 23. If so, it can be omitted. From a unix shell account or other account that lets you type telnet commands, you can issue a command like this: telnet some.address port-number

197

What is tn3270? How can I connect to a tn3270 site? TN3270 is a special type of telnet that is sometimes needed to connect to IBM mainframe sites.
Regular telnet will often work, but if you have trouble with keypresses and commands, you may need to get a tn3270 client to add to your software. Can I transfer files through a telnet connection using zmodem or other methods? It depends on the version of telnet you are using. Some support zmodem, kermit, etc., and some do not. If you do have a version of telnet that supports these transfer methods, it still depends on whether you are using a SLIP or PPP or ethernet account where you run the software or you are using a shell account and using the shell account's software. SLIP, PPP, and networked accounts should have no problem, but shell accounts are not always configured to support binary transfers. Transferring binary files through a shell account requires the remote site to be operating in 8-bit mode, and many shell sites do not. In special circumstances, if you have enough knowledge of the configuration and operating system of the remote site, for example unix, you may be able to reset the mode.

How do I configure telnet software for Netscape or MSIE?

You configure telnet in Netscape 4.0 by selecting Edit/Preferences/Applications and scroll down to "URL: Telnet Protocol". Highlight it and click on the Edit button. Browse for the new software to complete the setup. Then when you enter a Telnet URL in the Netsite window, it will call up the application and launch it.

Netscape 3.0 is configured by selecting Options/General Preferences, selecting the Apps tab, and filling in the Telnet Applications window. To set MSIE for your preferred telnet application, load Windows Explorer (not MSIE), click on View/Options/FileTypes. Scroll down to URL: Telnet Protocol, highlight, click Edit and Browse for the software.

For tn3270 configuration with either version of Netscape or MSIE, follow the same steps, but select tn3270 in place of telnet.

Go to Top

Go to Learning Tree

. What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources across a network. It was developed by a community of researchers centered around the ARPAnet. Certainly the ARPAnet is the best- known TCP/IP network. However as of June, 87, at least 130 different vendors had products that support TCP/IP, and thousands of networks of all kinds use it

The Internet is a collection of networks, including the Arpanet, NSFnet, regional networks such as NYsernet, local networks at a number of University and research institutions, and a number of military networks. The term "Internet" applies to this entire set of networks.

Whatever it is called, TCP/IP is a family of protocols. A few provide "low- level" functions needed for many applications. These include IP, TCP, and UDP. (These will be described in a bit more detail later.)

198

Others are protocols for doing specific tasks, e.g. transferring files between computers, sending mail, or finding out who is logged in on another computer. Initially TCP/IP was used mostly between minicomputers or mainframes. These machines had their own disks, and generally were self- contained. Thus the most important "traditional" TCP/IP services are:

file transfer. The file transfer protocol (FTP) allows a user on any computer to get files
from another computer, or to send files to another computer. Security is handled by requiring the user to specify a user name and password for the other computer. Provisions are made for handling file transfer between machines with different character set, end of line conventions, etc. This is not quite the same thing as more recent "network file system" or "netbios" protocols, which will be described below. Rather, FTP is a utility that you run any time you want to access a file on another system. You use it to copy the file to your own system. You then work with the local copy. (See RFC 959 for specifications for FTP.) remote login. The network terminal protocol (TELNET) allows a user to log in on any other computer on the network. You start a remote session by specifying a computer to connect to. From that time until you finish the session, anything you type is sent to the other computer. Note that you are really still talking to your own computer. But the telnet program effectively makes your computer invisible while it is running. Every character you type is sent directly to the other system. Generally, the connection to the remote computer behaves much like a dialup connection. That is, the remote system will ask you to log in and give a password, in whatever manner it would normally ask a user who had just dialed it up. When you log off of the other computer, the telnet program exits, and you will find yourself talking to your own computer. Microcomputer implementations of telnet generally include a terminal emulator for some common type of terminal. (See RFC's 854 and 855 for specifications for telnet. By the way, the telnet protocol should not be confused with Telenet, a vendor of commercial network services.) computer mail. This allows you to send messages to users on other computers. Originally, people tended to use only one or two specific computers. They would maintain "mail files" on those machines. The computer mail system is simply a way for you to add a message to another user's mail file. There are some problems with this in an environment where microcomputers are used. The most serious is that a micro is not well suited to receive computer mail. When you send mail, the mail software expects to be able to open a connection to the addressee's computer, in order to send the mail. If this is a microcomputer, it may be turned off, or it may be running an application other than the mail system. For this reason, mail is normally handled by a larger system, where it is practical to have a mail server running all the time. Microcomputer mail software then becomes a user interface that retrieves mail from th e mail server. (See RFC 821 and 822 for specifications for computer mail. See RFC 937 for a protocol designed for microcomputers to use in reading mail from a mail server.)

ABOUT IP 1. What is IP?

Internet Protocol (IP) is the central, unifying protocol in the TCP/IP suite. It provides the basic delivery mechanism for packets of data sent between all systems on an internet, regardless of whether the systems are in the same room or on opposite sides of the world. All other protocols in the TCP/IP suite depend on IP to carry out the fundamental function of moving packets across the internet.

ABOUT TCP
1. What is TCP? Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a reliable byte-stream transfer service between two endpoints on an internet. TCP depends on IP to move packets around the network on its behalf. IP is inherently unreliable, so TCP protects against data loss, data corruption, packet reordering and data duplication by adding checksums and sequence numbers to transmitted data and, on the receiving side, sending back packets that acknowledge the receipt of data.

199

Before sending data across the network, TCP establishes a connection with the destination via an exchange of management packets. The connection is destroyed, again via an exchange of management packets, when the application that was using TCP indicates that no more data will be transferred. In OSI terms, TCP is a Connection-Oriented Acknowledged Transport protocol.

TCP has a multi-stage flow-control mechanism which continuously adjusts the sender's data

rate in an attempt to achieve maximum data throughput while avoiding congestion and subsequent packet losses in the network. It also attempts to make the best use of network resources by packing as much data as possible into a single IP packet, although this behaviour can be overridden by applications that demand immediate data transfer and don't care about the inefficiencies of small network packets. The fundamentals of TCP are defined in RFC 793, and later RFC's refine the protocol. RFC 1122 catalogues these refinements as of October 1989 and summarises the requirements that a TCP implementation must meet. TCP is still being developed. For instance, RFC 1323 introduces a TCP option that can be useful when traffic is being carried over high-capacity links. It is important that such developments are backwards-compatible. That is, a TCP implementation that supports a new feature must continue to work with older TCP implementations that do not support that feature.

ABOUT UDP 1. What is UDP?

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides an unreliable packetized data transfer service between endpoints on an internet. UDP depends on IP to move packets around the network on its behalf. UDP does not guarantee to actually deliver the data to the destination, nor does it guarantee that data packets will be delivered to the destination in the order in which they were sent by the source, nor does it guarantee that only one copy of the data will be delivered to the destination. UDP does guarantee data integrity, and it does this by adding a checksum to the data before transmission. (Some machines run with UDP checksum generation disabled, in which case data corruption or truncation can go undetected. Very few people think this is a good idea.) The fundamentals of UDP are defined in RFC 768. RFC 1122 summarises the requirements that a UDP implementation must meet.

200

Ethernet Frame Structure

201

202

Selection
Also called a decision, one of the three basic logic structures in computer programming. The other two logic structures are sequence and loop. In a selection structure, a question is asked, and depending on the answer, the program takes one of two courses of action, after which the program moves on to the next event.

This structure is sometimes referred to as an if-then-else because it directs the program to perform
in this way: If Condition A is True then perform Action X else perform Action Y. All logic problems in programming can be solved by forming algorithms using only the three logic structures, and they can be combined in an infinite number of ways. The more complex the computing need, the more complex the combination of structures.

H
HEADER
A part of the file structure that contains information required by an application to decompress and render the content. The header in a protected file also contains information required to get a license.

HTTP
See definition for: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP) The Internet protocol used to deliver information over the World Wide Web.

203

->

home > glossary > c

CAI (Common Air Interface) The CT2 international mobile communications standard which allows any compliant equipment to be used on any network of the same type. CAI compliant telepoint handsets from different vendors may therefore be used on a telepoint network. Vendors with CAI compliant systems include Northern Telecom and GPT. CAT3 Category 3 balanced cable CAT4 Category 4 balanced cable CAT5 Category 5 balanced cable CATV (Cable TeleVision) Cable system covering defined areas, such as the U K's franchises to install and operate a cable system granted by the Cable Authority and Department of Trade & Industry, offering TV channel output and, increasingly, local loop digital telephony services The Cable Television Association is the CATV industry's representative organization. Call processing __The system and process that sets up the intended connection in a switching system. A system scans the trunk and station ports for any requests for service. It then checks the stored instructions and look-up tables and sets the connection up accordingly.

CASM UCA (TM) Common Application Service Model (Get, Set, Reporting, Logging, Control, ...) Carrier signal _The underlying frequency or frequencies that are to carry information. They are modulated through one or more modulation techniques to impose information on the signal. Category 3 cable __Standard for UTP voice grade cabling specified by the EIA/TIA 568 standard for use at speeds up to I0Mbit/s including 10BaseT Ethernet. Category 4 Cabling standard specified by EIA/TIA 568 for use at speeds up to 20Mbit/s including 16Mbit/s Token Ring. Category 5 Cabling standard specified by ElA/TIA 568 for use t speeds up to 100Mbit/s including FDDI (TP PMD), 100BaseT and 100BaseVG-AnyLan, and potentially ATM at 155Mbit/s. CCITT (The International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) __Former name for the ITU-TS (International Telecommunications Union), a Specialized Agency of the United Nations. CCITT Study Groups __The ITU-TS (formerly the CCITT) operates as a series of groups considering specialist areas. There are key study groups applicable to networking and communications such as Study Group VII responsible for data communications networks and the X series Recommendations and Study Group XVIII covering digital networks including ISDN. CCTA Central Computer & Telecommunications Agency - the Government Center for Information Systems. Cell Relay __Generic term for a protocol based on small fixed packet sizes capable of supporting voice, video and data at very high speeds. Information is handled in fixed length cells of 53 octets.

Centronics interface____ A parallel interface with 36 pins that will transmit eight data bits simultaneously. The interface originates from the Centronics Company, a printer manufacturer. It has become widely used as a parallel interface standard.

CEPT The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations. An association of European Telecommunications service providers. It in turn participates in relevant areas of the work of Cen/Cenelec. Formerly extremely powerful and was originally responsible for the Net standards, but these

204

have subsequently been passed on to Etsi.

Character Interleaving- A form of TDM used for asynchronous protocols. This can be used either with extra channels, or by carrying RS232-C control signals.

Cheapernet Thin wire Ethernet. Circuit switching___The transmission technique in which a physical circuit is established between sender and receiver before transmission takes place. When the transmission is complete, the circuit is freed.

CLI (Calling Line Identification) A service available on digital phone networks that tells the person being called which number is calling them. The central office equipment identifies the phone number of the caller, enabling information about the caller to be sent along with the call itself. Synonymous with ANI (Automatic Number Identification).

Client/server computing -The division of an application into two parts; a front end client and a back end server. It allows multiple front ends running on a PC or Unix workstation (client) to access the same SQL

based server database at the same time over the LAN. The aim is to off-load as much processing as possible to the intelligent desktop leaving only the shared information and the software for managing it at the central server. An application that is running in such a fashion with client and server linked by a LAN is termed a bifurcated application.

Cluster controller An IBM device that allows multiple 3270 terminals to be linked directly to a host computer, or into a SNA network through the use of a communications controller. A cluster controller is a Control Unit in IBM speak.

CMIP/CMIS (Common Management Information Protocol/CMI Services) ISO OSI connection oriented network management protocol and set of services. Well accepted in the WAN and telecommunications world, they have not yet been widely adopted for LAN management.

CMIS common management information service as defined in ISO/IEC 9595: 1991 CMOS complimentary metal oxide semiconductor CMOT (CMIP/CMIS over TCP) The use of SO CMIP/CMIS network management protocols to manage gateways in a TCP/IP Internet. CMOT is a co-recommended standard with SNMP.

Co-axial cable A cable comprising a central wire surrounded by a second tubular screening of fine wire. Associated with IBM for linking terminals and other devices needing high-speed links, coax is used in Ethernet.

205

It

is difficult to add or remove devices from a coaxial LAN as the cable is unwieldy and thick so is

being superseded by UTP.

Collision- The result of two devices on a shared transmission medium, like Ethernet, transmitting simultaneously. Data is corrupted and both devices must retry their transmissions. Adelay mechanism used by both senders drastically reduces the chances of another collision. Collision detection _Devices at each end of a link are designed to detect collisions instantly and attempt to resend. This is the principle on which CSMA/CD is based and the access control method for Ethernet. An alternative is to resend if there is no acknowledgment of receipt from the remote device.

Communications Controller -A switching unit central to the implementation of host-based IBM S NA networks. Typically the network is built around a backbone of interlinked communications controllers to which host computers and Control Units (CUs) are attached. Communications Manager- An individual often underpaid and invariably overworked, dedicated to providing cost effective, ultimately flexible networking to users.

Communications Networks The UK's leading monthly magazine for networking professionals and decision makers. Communications Server_ A specialized network server that provides access to external networks, communications facilities and hosts that cannot be directly connected to the LAN. Typically it will enable workstation user running appropriate workstation software, such as terminal emulation software, to access asynchronouscommunications links and typically modems attached to the communications server.

Communications Toolbox -An extension of the Apple Macintosh operating system that provides protocol conversion and the drivers needed for communications tasks.

Concentration __A technique used to get the most out of a composite multiplexer link. Usually a statistical multiplexer, or concentrator, is used to focus channel inputs on to the composite ink by removing the portions of the transmission carrying no data.

Concentrator____ A central chassis into which various modules, such as bridging, supervisory, 10BaseT and other peripheral cards are plugged.

Connection-oriented service- The transport of packets of information from one network node to a destination node following an established network connection.

Connectionless Service -The transport of a single datagram or packet of information from one network node to a destination node or multiple nodes without establishing a network connection.

Contention__-The process whereby multiple users make requests for transmission bandwidth across a transmission link but the pool of bandwidth is less than the aggregate amount of bandwidth the users could request between them. Contention is used to resolve which users gain access to the bandwidth. When this s applied

206

to multiplexers, it is concerned with the multiplexer's ability to allow a number of channels to contend for transmission bandwidth that is less than the sum of all the channel rates.

Control point -A program that manages an APPN network node and its resources, enabling communications to

other control points in the network.

Converter- A repeater that also converts from one media type to another, such as from fiber to copper. Often called a media adapter. CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) _Telecommunications- communications equipment, including PBXs and wiring, located in a user's premises. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) -A method of detecting errors in the serial transmission of data. A CRC for a block of data is calculated before it is sent, and is then sent along with the data. A new CRC is calculated on the received data. If the new CRC does not match the one that has been sent along with the data then an error has occurred.

Cross-Connect_ An ATM switch usually comprising three functional areas. System control The central control unit, which also provides the management interface of the system; the ATM "fabric block" providing the system switching capacity; termination groups to provide the external interfaces and the functions of the ATM layer of the network node. Each of these functional system areas is configured according to the specified needs of the respective network node. Each functional area usually has its own monitoring and control units for safeguarding the high availability of the complete system.

Crosstalk ____Unwanted interference from another adjacent communications channel . The signal from the adjacent channel is inserted into the original communications channel. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) _The access method used in Ethernet. All nodes are attached to a single cable and contend equally for access to the transmission medium. if two nodes attempt to send data at the same time, they "sense" each other's signal and immediately stop sending. They will both try to send again after Waiting a random number of microseconds. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) _A method of network access not covered by OSI standards and used in AppleTalk networks.

CSU (Channel Service Unit) (1) In the US, data transmission equipment to repeat the signal from the carrier and ink to CPE. Vendors add value to CSUs by adding performance monitoring and management. (2) In Europe, CSUs are sold for their value features like diagnostics and performance monitoring. The basic repeating function is prd in the NTU (networking terminating unit). CSUs monitor quality on El, E2 or E3 circuits in terms of transmission and line loading. CT1 First generation analog domestic cordless telephone (non-cellular).

207

CT2 Two-way digital cordless telephony technology, particularly relevant to cordless PBXs. In its public guise, it becomes a one way telepoint service now no longer available in the UK but prevalent in the Far East. CT3 Ericsson's proprietary cordless telecommunications system.

CTI (COMPUTER TELEPHONE INTEGRATION)_ A GENERIC NAME FOR

POWER DIALING,

THE TECHNOLOGY AUTOMATICALLY RELATING COMPUTERS AND

PABXS VIA

APPLICATIONS SUCH AS

ACD,

IVR AND OTHER CUSTOMER FACING

OR AGENT FACING SERVICES.

A SO KNOWN

BY OLDER, PROPRIETARY NAMES

CIT (COMPUTER INTEGRATED

TELEPHONY) AND CSTA (COMPUTER SUPPORTED TELEPHONY APPLICATIONS).

COMPRESSION

A process for removing redundant data from a digital media file or stream to reduce its size or the bandwidth used.

Glossary
To find a term in the glossary, click the letter of the alphabet that is the first letter in the term you want to look up. You can also read glossary terms within the text of Help by clicking the underlined glossary term links. After you click a glossary link, the glossary term and definition appear in a pop-up window. To close the window, click anywhere on the screen. A B N O C P D Q E R F S G T H U I V J K L Y M Z

W X

A
ACCESS CONTROL LIST

(ACL)

A list of security protections that applies to either an entire object, a set of the object's properties, or an individual property of an object.

ACL
See definition for: access control list (ACL)
ANNOUNCEMENT

A Windows Media metafile that gives a player the information needed to receive content. Announcement files contain Extensible Markup Language (XML) scripts.
ATTRIBUTE

A name-value data pair.

AUTHENTICATION

208

The process of verifying that an entity or object is who or what it claims to be. For example, a username and may be used to authenticate a user. See Also: authorization
AUTHORIZATION

password

The process of granting access to protected resources. See Also: authentication

B
BANDWIDTH

The data transfer capacity of a transmission medium. See Also: bit rate
BIT RATE

The number of bits transferred per unit of time, typically expressed in bits per second. See Also: bandwidth , multiple bit rate (MBR)
BROADCAST

A method by which a client receives a stream. During a broadcast connection, clients cannot control the stream. the opposite of an on-demand presentation.

This is

BROADCAST

PUBLISHING POINT

A type of publishing point that streams content to multiple users at once, similar to a television broadcast. Content streamed from a broadcast publishing point can be delivered as a multicast or unicast stream.
BUFFER

An area of memory reserved for temporarily holding data before that data is used by a receiving device or application. Buffering protects against the interruption of data flow.

209

C
CACHE

A temporary data storage location, or the process of storing data temporarily. A cache is typically used for quick data access.
CACHE PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that enables a Windows Media server to provide cache and proxy support for another Windows Media server.
CACHE/PROXY SERVER

A server running Windows Media Services for which a cache/proxy plug-in has been enabled, allowing the server to provide cache and proxy support to another Windows Media server.
CALLBACK

A communication approach between a plug-in and a Windows Media server. When the server requests the plug-in to perform a specific task, the plug-in immediately indicates it will do so by returning S_OK. The real result of the executed task is passed back to the server asynchronously through the callback method.
CAPTION

Text that accompanies images or videos, either as a supplemental description or a transcript of spoken words.
CLIENT

Any computer or program connecting to, or requesting the services of, another computer or program. Client can also refer to the software that enables the computer or program to establish the connection.
COMMAND CONTEXT

Used by the OpCenter to describe a single command issued by the end user. Its lifetime is the same as the command duration. The command context itself contains two contexts, a request context and a response context.
COMPRESSION

210

A process for removing redundant data from a digital media file or stream to reduce its size or the bandwidth used.
CONTENT

Audio, video, images, text, or any other information that is contained in a digital media file or stream. See Also: Windows Media file
CONTENT DESCRIPTION CONTEXT

In Windows Media Services, a context that is used to describe the content requested by a client application.
CONTINUOUS CONTENT

An audio file, video file, or other stream that has a measurable and well-understood duration. For example, a 5second audio clip is continuous content because it has a well-understood duration of 5 seconds.

discrete content
CONTROL PROTOCOL PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that enables a Windows Media server to communicate with clients and other servers through different network protocols.
CUSTOM PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in created by a third-party vendor that is tightly integrated with the Windows Media Services platform architecture. See Also: plug-in D
DATA SOURCE PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that enables a Windows Media server to use different storage systems.
DATA WRITER PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that enables a Windows Media server to deliver content as a unicast stream, as a multicast stream, or to an archive file.

211

DISCRETE CONTENT

An image file, text file, or other file that has no obvious duration. For example, if a file contains a still image, the image can be viewed for any desired length of time. See Also: continuous content
DISTRIBUTION

The process of delivering a stream from one server to another.

DISTRIBUTION SERVER

A server running Windows Media Services that publishes content received from another streaming source, such as an encoder or another Windows Media server.

E
ELEMENT

A fundamental syntactic unit in markup languages, such as HTML or XML. Elements are delimited by start tags and end tags. Empty elements are defined using an empty-element tag.
ENCODE

To convert audio and video content to a specified digital format, usually involving compression technology or encryption technology.
ENCODER

A technology that converts live or prerecorded audio and video content to a specified digital format. Typically, content is compressed during encoding. Windows Media Encoder is an example of an encoder.
EVENT

An action or occurrence to which a program might respond. Examples include state changes, data transfers, key presses, and mouse movements.

FIREWALL
A security solution that segregates one portion of a network from another portion, allowing only authorized

212

network traffic to pass through according to traffic filtering rules.

FRAME

One of many sequential images that make up video.

FRAME RATE

The number of video frames displayed per second. Higher frame rates generally produce smoother movement in t he picture. Back to Top H

HEADER
A part of the file structure that contains information required by an application to decompress and render the content. The header in a protected file also contains information required to get a license.

HTTP
See definition for: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP) The Internet protocol used to deliver information over the World Wide Web.

I
Intelligent streaming
A Type of streaming that detects network conditions and adjusts the properties of a video or audio stream to maximize quality.
INTERSTITIAL ADVERTISEMENT

An advertisement that appears between pieces of content. When one piece of content finishes playing, the ad appears before the next piece of content plays. See Also: wrapper playlist
INTRINSIC DURATION

213

The duration of a referenced item that has no explicit timing markup. Continuous content has an intrinsic duration defined by the media, and discrete content has no intrinsic duration.

L
LATENCY

The delay that occurs while data is processed or delivered.

LOAD BALANCING

A technique used for scaling the performance of a server-based program by distributing client requests across multiple servers.
LOCAL

Close at hand or restricted to a particular area. In communications, a local device is one that can be accessed directly rather than by means of a communications link. In information processing, a local operation is one performed by the computer at hand rather than by a remote computer. For example, the server computer on which Windows Media Services is installed is the local computer with respect to that server.
LOGGING

To record actions that take place on a computer, or the record of those actions.
LOOP

To repeat a stream continuously. M

MBR
See definition for: multiple bit rate (MBR) See Also: bit rate

MEDIA

ELEMENT

A content item that is streamed from a playlist. This can be a file, a stream from an encoder, a remote stream, another playlist file, or a Windows Media file on a Web server.

214

MEDIA PARSER PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that that can read different file formats. See Also:

parse
METADATA
Data about data. Title, subject, author, and size are examples of a file's metadata.

MICROSOFT MEDIA SERVER (MMS) PROTOCOL

A proprietary protocol using UDP or TCP to deliver content as a unicast stream. See Also: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) , User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

MICROSOFT WINDOWS MEDIA PLAYER

A client/control that receives a stream from a Windows Media server or local content for playback. It either can run as a stand-alone client executable program or be embedded in a Web page, C++ program, or a Microsoft Visual Basic program that uses the client ActiveX control.

MMS PROTOCOL
See definition for: Microsoft Media Server (MMS) protocol

MULTICAST
A content delivery method in which a single stream is transmitted from a media server to multiple clients. The clients have no connection with the server. Instead, the server sends a single copy of the stream across the network o multicast-enabled routers, which replicate the data. Clients can then receive the stream by monitoring a specific multicast IP address and port.

MULTICAST-ENABLED

NETWORK

A network that has routers that can interpret Class D IP addresses.

MULTIPLE

BIT RATE

(MBR)

A characteristic of a data stream in which the same content is encoded at several different bit rates in order to optimize

215

content delivery.

O
ON-DEMAND PUBLISHING POINT

A type of publishing point that streams content to clients by request. Content streamed from an on-demand publishing point is always delivered as a unicast stream.

ORIGIN CONTEXT

A context that describes the context for the origin server.

ORIGIN SERVER

A Windows Media server from which content is published.

P PACKET
A unit of information transmitted from one computer or device to another on a network.
PARSE

To break input into smaller chunks so that a program can act upon the information. See Also: media parser plug-in , playlist parser plug-in
PLAYER

A client program or control that receives digital media content streamed from a server or played from local files. Windows Media Player is an example of a player.
PLAY LIST

216

A list of digital media content.

PLAYLIST PARSER PLUG-IN

A type of plug-in that parses system or custom playlist formats and transforms them into SMIL-compliant XML DOM objects supported by Windows Media Services. See Also: parse
PLUG-IN

An auxiliary software component that extends or enhances the features of other software.
PORT

A connection point in a computer through which a peripheral device or another computer can communicate.
PRESENTATION CONTEXT

Describes the instance of the streamed data file, and is different for every streamed file. Contains information such as the URL for the file, a pointer to the DataPath, the play rate, and start and stop

PROTOCOL
A standard set of formats and procedures that enable computers to exchange information. See Also: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) , Microsoft Media Server (MMS) protocol , Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) , Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) , User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
PROTOCOL ROLLOVER

A procedure that enables switching from one protocol to another when a Windows Media server fails to make a connection using a particular protocol.
PROXY SERVER

A server located on a network between client software, such as a Web browser, and another server. It intercepts all

217

requests to the server to determine whether it can fulfill them itself. If not, it forwards the request to another server.
PUBLISHING POINT

An organized memory location that translates a client request for content into the physical path on the server hosting the content. A publishing point essentially acts as a redirector. Q

QOS
See definition for: Quality of Service (QoS)

QUALITY

OF

SERVICE (QOS)

A networking feature that enables system administrators to control the performance properties of a network service, including throughput, transit delay, and priority. R

REAL-TIME STREAMING PROTOCOL (RTSP)

A network protocol, defined in RFC 2326, for controlling one or more digital media streams or a presentation (the aggregate of related media streams).
REDIRECT

To point a client to a different location.

RESOURCE RESERVATION PROTOCOL (RSVP)

An Internet protocol being developed to enable the Internet to support specified Quality of Service (QoS) policies. By using RSVP, a program will be able to reserve resources along a route from source to destination. RSVP-enabled routers will then schedule and prioritize packets to meet the QoS policies.

RSVP
See definition for: Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) RTSP See definition for: Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) S

218

SCOPE

In a multicast transmission, the reach of a stream. The scope of a multicast transmission can be set to reach either an immediate subnetwork only or the entire Internet.
SCRIPT COMMANDS

Named data that is associated with a designated time in Windows Media-based content. The data can be used by players to perform a specific action such as displaying a Web page.

SIPRO LABS ACELP CODEC

A type of codec that provides excellent voice compression at low bit rates. This codec comes with several audio

formats
depending on the network bandwidth you choose.

SMIL
See definition for: Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL)
STREAM

Digital media that is in the process of being delivered in a continuous flow across a network.
STREAM DATA OBJECT

Data that represents an individual data type within a stream, such as a compressed video frame.
STREAM FORMAT

Information about the properties of a stream, such as the codecs used, frame rate, and frame size. A player uses stream format information to decode a stream.
STREAM FORMAT FILE

A file used by a player to decode a multicast stream. See Also: stream format

SYNCHRONIZED MULTIMEDIA INTEGRATION LANGUAGE (SMIL)

An XML-based language being developed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) that would enable Web developers to

219

divide content into separate streams (audio, video, text, and images), send them to a client computer, and then have them displayed as a single stream. This separation reduces the time required for transmission over the Internet.

T TCP
See definition for: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TIME-TO-LIVE

(TTL)

The number of routers through which a multicast stream can pass before a router stops forwarding the stream.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)

The protocol within TCP/IP that governs the breakup of data messages into packets to be sent via IP, and the reassembly and verification of the complete messages from packets received by IP.

TTL
See definition for: time-to-live (TTL)

U
UDP
See definition for: User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP RESEND
An error correction method that allows the client to request that the server retransmit lost data packets.

UNICAST
A method used by media servers for providing content to connected clients in which each client receives a discrete stream. No other client has access to that stream.
UNICAST ROLLOVER

Redirection of a client to a unicast stream in the event the client cannot access the multicast stream.
USER CONTEXT

Contains information about the client.

220

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

A connectionless transport protocol in the TCP/IP protocol stack that is used in cases where some packet loss is acceptable, for example, with digital media streams.

V
VIDEO CAPTURE DEVICE

An add-on device for digitizing video images for use on a computer. W

WINDOWS MANAGEMENT INSTRUMENTATION (WMI)

Needs definition. WINDOWS MEDIA ENCODER A technology that compresses live or prerecorded audio and video into a Windows Media stream, which can either be distributed immediately or saved as a Windows Media file for later distribution. WINDOWS MEDIA FILE A file that contains audio, video, or script data. The content of the file is encoded with one of the Windows Media codecs.

WINDOWS MEDIA FORMAT

The format of a digital media file or stream that was encoded with Windows Media codecs.

WINDOWS MEDIA

METAFILE

In Windows Media technologies, a file that provides information about Windows Media files and their presentation. File name extensions for Windows Media metafiles include .asx, .wax, .wvx, .wmx, and .nsc.

WINDOWS MEDIA SCREEN

CODEC

A codec used to compress and decompress sequences of computer screen images. See Also: Windows Media Video codec

WINDOWS MEDIA

SERVER

A server on which Windows Media Services has been installed.

221

WINDOWS MEDIA VIDEO

CODEC

A codec used to compress and decompress video streams. See Also: Windows Media Screen codec

WMS
Do not use. See Comments.
WRAPPER PLAYLIST

A Windows Media metafile that places additional content at the beginning or end of a stream. Examples of this content include welcome messages, goodbye messages, advertisements, and station branding. See Also: interstitial advertisement Back to Top Previous

What is a modem? A modem allows you to send and receive information over the phone line with your computer. You could send a picture of your dog to a friend, or receive (download) a document sent to you via email.

"Modem" is an acronym that stands for "MOdulator/DEModulator". These are the technical
terms for the way your modem converts information you send from your computer into sounds (the MOdulator part) which a modem on the other end of the phone line can translate back into information (the DEModulator part).

mdem) (n.) Short for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or program that

enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms. Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external modems to computers called RS232. Consequently, any external modem can be attached to any computer that has an RS-232 port, which almost all personal computers have. There are also modems that come as an expansion board

222

that you can insert into a vacant expansion slot. These are sometimes called onboard or internal modems. While the modem interfaces are standardized, a number of different protocols for formatting data to be transmitted over telephone lines exist. Some, like CCITT V.34, are official standards, while others have been developed by private companies. Most modems have built-in support for the more common protocols -- at slow data transmission speeds at least, most modems can communicate with each other. At high transmission speeds, however, the protocols are less standardized. Aside from the transmission protocols that they support, the following characteristics distinguish one modem from another: bps : How fast the modem can transmit and receive data. At slow rates, modems are measured in terms of baud rates. The slowest rate is 300 baud (about 25 cps). At higher speeds, modems are measured in terms of bits per second (bps). The fastest modems run at 57,600 bps, although they can achieve even higher data transfer rates by compressing the data. Obviously, the faster the transmission rate, the faster you can send and receive data. Note, however, that you cannot receive data any faster than it is being sent. If, for example, the device sending data to your computer is sending it at 2,400 bps, you must receive it at 2,400 bps. It does not always pay, therefore, to have a very fast modem. In addition, some telephone lines are unable to transmit data reliably at very high rates. voice/data: Many modems support a switch to change between voice and data modes. In data mode, the modem acts like a regular modem. In voice mode, the modem acts like a regular telephone. Modems that support a voice/data switch have a built-in loudspeaker and microphone for voice communication. auto-answer : An auto-answer modem enables your computer to receive calls in your absence. This is only necessary if you are offering some type of computer service that people can call in to use. data compression : Some modems perform data compression, which enables them to send data at faster rates. However, the modem at the receiving end must be able to decompress the data using the same compression technique. flash memory : Some modems come with flash memory rather than conventional ROM, which means that the communications protocols can be easily updated if necessary. Fax capability: Most modern modems are fax modems, which means that they can send and receive faxes. To get the most out of a modem, you should have a communications software package, a program that simplifies the task of transferring data

Q. What is handshaking? The process by which two devices initiate communication. Handshaking begins when one device sends a message to another device indicating that it wants to establish a communication channel. The two devices then send several messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a communications protocol. Q. What are some of the roles of protocols in a network? o o Data sequencing Data flow control and error control before being sent to final destinations.

o Establishment of connections between communication devices.

o Establishment of data transmission order

223

o Providing data security in a network e.g ensuring that data sent to final destination
is secure and is not read by any person by use of encryption method. o Keeping account of communication task.

224