Mountain Pastures Chieam

Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures
Proceeding of the 15th Meeting of the FAO CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network
October, 7-9, 2009, Les Diablerets, Switzerland
Edited by Agroscope Changins-Wdenswil Research Station ACW, Switzerland
Organizing Committee Eric Mosimann, Marco Meisser, Bernard Jeangros and Raphal Charles, Agroscope ACW Christian Flury, Agroscope ART Alain Peeters, FAO-CIHEAM Network on Pastures and Fodder Crops Scientific Committee Florian Leiber, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich, Switzerland Giampiero Lombardi, Universit degli Studi di Torino, Dept. Agroselviter, Grugliasco, Italy Bruno Martin, INRA Herbivore Research Unit, Saint Gens Champanelle, France Ann Noderhaug, Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental research, Stjrda, Norway Alain Peeters, Resources, Human Environment and Agronomy, Gentinnes, Belgium Erich Ptsch, Agricultural Research and Education Centre Raumberg-Gumpenstein, Irdning, Austria Ian Richardson, University of Bristol, United Kingdom Maria Speranza, University of Bologna, Faculty of Agriculture, Italy Maria Yakoulaki, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Secretariat Susanne Bossy, KeKo Razzano, Monique Schwarz, La Tallon and Kaspar Jaegger, Agroscope ACW Technical staff Marielle Demenga, Stphane Chapuis, Luc Stvenin and Christophe Theintz, Agroscope ACW
With support of the following organizations
FOREWORD
Welcome to the 15th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Sub-Network in Les Diablerets. Dairy producers are now demonstrating for better labour remuneration. Consumers worry about their health. Governments are concerned about environment safety and banks are disquieted about their new consciousness. 70 research fellows from 19 different countries are reunited to exchange knowledge and to identify new challenges for the society during these next three days. Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures is a large topic that needs to be focussed. Papers presented in these proceedings confirm the great diversity of mountain agriculture. Each region has animal breeders that maintain the landscape and drive the local economy. Like many farmers in other areas, those in mountains face relevant challenges to improve, or even maintain their competitiveness. Agronomists and zoo technicians of the Mountain Pastures Network have contributed to develop best practices in general and in grassland management and grazing systems in particular, for over 45 years. The Network currently includes specialists from various disciplines such as ecology, sociology, economy, chemistry and processing. The whole supply chain from grassland to healthy food is covered. A major objective of this meeting is to share results and methods that contribute to prove the high level of quality of mountainous dairy and meat products. Moreover, the linkages between herd management, biodiversity and landscape preservation are to be clarified and made more explicit. This should positively influence consumers choices towards mountainous products. This meeting has been organised with the Swiss Research Station Agroscope ChangingWdenswil. The programme includes three sessions that cover the following topics: 1. Transnational and multidisciplinary research programmes 2. Fodder production adapted to the local environment 3. High quality animal products and landscapes 20 oral communications and 43 posters will be presented. On behalf of the organisers, I would like to thank all the authors for their contribution. I also thank the members of the scientific committee for making the proceedings possible. The support of local partners and the Swiss Government have allowed a smooth organisation of the meeting. The workshops to be held on October 8th aim to formulate a new proposal to be submitted to COST by spring 2010. The chosen topics are prospection areas, analytical methods, system monitoring and young scientists involvement. Participants of the workshops are kindly asked to submit their suggestions and proposals. I wish you a wonderful stay in our beautiful Swiss Alps! I hope you will enjoy reading the proceedings and take pleasure in outlining solutions for the challenges faced by farmers in the Swiss Alps and the other mountainous areas. Eric Mosimann Coordinator of Mountain Pastures Sub-Network Nyon, September 23rd, 2009.
CONTENTS
Switzerlands experience in promoting mountain areas .........................................................13 Pythoud F.* ...............................................................................................................................13 AgriMontana Agricultures Contribution to Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas .......................................................................................................................................................15 Flury C.*, Pfefferli S. ................................................................................................................15 COST as a tool for facilitating collaborative research.............................................................19 Williams J.*...............................................................................................................................19 Interregional analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of policies, institutions and processes for SARD in mountain regions..................................................................................21 Gault J.* ....................................................................................................................................21 Presentation of Geomatics in the Assessment and Sustainable Management of Mediterranean Rangelands (GeoRange)-EU-project results..................................................25 Yiakoulaki M.D.*, Papanastasis V.P. .......................................................................................25 Semi-natural grassland as a source of biodiversity..................................................................29 Ptsch E.M.*, Krautzer B..........................................................................................................29 Interdisciplinary project PASTO: How to transfer sustainable and acceptable practices. .33 Miville-Ott V.1*, Meisser M.2, Chassot A.3 ..............................................................................33 Sustainable development and eco-orientation of Bulgarian fodder production Ecoinnovations in forage production a step to sustainable agriculture in Bulgaria. ...............39 Stoykova M. V.*.........................................................................................................................39 Structure evolution and perspectives for the development of agricultural holdings in Bulgaria ........................................................................................................................................41 Stoykova M. V.*.........................................................................................................................41 Economy of dairy farming on mountain pastures....................................................................43 Asheim L.J.1*, Lunnan T.2, Paulsen S.K.1 .................................................................................43 Economic results of mountain organic farms in Poland..........................................................45 Jankowska-Huflejt H.*, Prokopowicz J. ...................................................................................45 A modelling approach to evaluate the ability of dairy cow systems in mountain area to balance animal production and sustainable grassland utilization..........................................47 Jacquot A.L.1,2,3*, Baumont R.2, Brunschwig G.1,3 ....................................................................47 Pastoral system of the goat in the arid Tunisian ......................................................................51 Gaddour A.*, Najari S...............................................................................................................51
AlpFUTUR an inter- and transdisciplinary research program on the future of summer pastures in Switzerland .............................................................................................................. 53 Herzog F.1)*, Bni R. 2), Lauber S. 2), Schneider M. 1), Seidl I. 2) ............................................... 53 PRAMIG: Improving grassland in the South of Switzerland................................................. 55 Galbusera G.*, Galbusera U., Bertossa M., Dadda G., Garzoli D......................................... 55 Evaluation of the Austrian agri-environmental program PUL in terms of biodiversity .. 57 Ptsch E.M.1*, Schwaiger E.2 ................................................................................................... 57 Possibilities of organic beef fattening in Pyrenees of Lleida ................................................... 59 Villalba D.1*, Cubil D.1, Fanlo R.2, Tor M.1, Serra R.3, Descombes C.A.3, Molina E.1 ......... 59 Sustainability of livestock farms in the Aosta Valley .............................................................. 63 Francesia C.*, Madormo F., Vernetti L. ................................................................................. 63 Pro-Alpe: a system project for management of pastoral resources and valorization of Italian typical alpine dairy productions.................................................................................... 65 Piano E., Gremigni P., Paoletti R.*.......................................................................................... 65 Dairy industry and its development in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, Switzerland .................................................................................................................................. 67 Hofstetter P.* ............................................................................................................................ 67 Links between forage systems, practices and biodiversity: an approach in a PDO cheese area in French mountains. ......................................................................................................... 71 Orth D.1*, Gueringer A.2, Balay C.1, Landre F.2 ...................................................................... 71 Role of the between-plot plant functional diversity in uplandsdairy farms .......................... 75 Theau J.P.1*, Piquet M.2, Baumont B.3, Chabalier C.4, Delmas B.5, Lacour C 3, Hulin S.6, Farruggia A.7, Carrre P.2 ....................................................................................................... 75 Productivity and plant diversity are related to a community functional signature in mountain grasslands ................................................................................................................... 79 Bedia J.*, Cabaas S., Busqu J............................................................................................... 79 Approaches on the biodiversity changes of undergrazed permanent grassland from Semenic Mountains (Cara-Severin County, western Romania) ........................................... 83 Sreanu V.*, Moisuc A., Butnariu M., Samfira I. .................................................................. 83 Integrated research about the role of liming of subalpine pastures in Carpathians Mountains .................................................................................................................................... 87 Marusca T.*, Mocanu V., Blaj V.A., Hermenean I., Oprea G. ................................................. 87 Carrying capacity of Brachypodium genuense-dominated pastures of Monti Sibillini assessed by different methods .................................................................................................... 91 DOttavio P.*, Facchi J., Taffetani F., Santilocchi R............................................................... 91
Forage quality of Nardus stricta pasture from two Pyrenean valleys in Andorra.................95 Fanlo R.1*, Domenech M.2, Esteban P.2 , Bou M. 1 ...................................................................95 Activity patterns and diet selection of beef cows on Mediterranean mountain forest pastures ........................................................................................................................................99 Casass I.1*, Blanco M.1, Revilla R.2 ........................................................................................99 Long term effects of organic fertilisation and differentiated management practices on the meadows of a mountain farm...................................................................................................101 Jeangros B.*, Troxler J. ..........................................................................................................101 Heterogeneity of botanical composition in mountain pastures: an overlooked quality of biodiversity.................................................................................................................................103 Schneider M.*, Nagel R., Weyermann I., Lscher A...............................................................103 The quality of forages from grasslands in organic farms in Poland ...................................105 Jankowska-Huflejt H.*, Wrbel B...........................................................................................105 Agronomic characterisation and chemical composition of a collection of sainfoin entries (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) ....................................................................................................107 Demdoum S.*, Delgado I., Muoz F. ......................................................................................107 Semi natural grassland: floristic diversity and plant traits...................................................109 Ferroni L.*, Bolzan A., Vecchiettini M., Speranza M. ............................................................109 The utilisation of grasses functional types and of the cumulated sum of temperatures to evaluate permanent grassland digestibility in PDO cheese farms of the Massif Central in France.........................................................................................................................................111 Baumont R.1*, Delmas B.2, Violleau S.3, Zapata J.4, Chabalier C.5, Picard F.1, Louault F.6, Andueza A.1, Farruggia A.1 .....................................................................................................111 Plant biodiversity and pastoral value of two permanent grasslands from arcului Mountains (Cara-Severin County, western Romania).........................................................113 Sreanu V.*, Moisuc A., Butnariu M., Cotuna O.................................................................113 Effects of mineral and organic fertilisers on herbage production and quality at seminatural grassland ....................................................................................................................................115 underlk J.*, Ondrek L., Kizekov M. ..............................................................................115 Intake of sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble in Northern Greece ...........................117 Yiakoulaki M.D.*, Papanastasis V.P. .....................................................................................117 The impact of the management practices on the botanical composition and biodiversity of some half-natural grassland from the Surducului Hills (Western Romania)......................119 Duru C. C.*, Moisuc A., Sreanu V. ..................................................................................119 Nutritional value of some vetch forage grown under Mediterranean conditions. ..............121
Abdouli H.1, Gasmi-Boubaker A.2*, Hassen H.3, Hedhly A.2, Mosquera-Losada R.4, RigueiroRodriguez A.4. ......................................................................................................................... 121 Nutritive value of vetch (vicia) seeds from different cultivars grown under Mediterranean conditions ................................................................................................................................... 123 Gasmi-Boubaker A.1*; Abdouli H.2; Mosquera Losada R.3; Hassen H.4, Hedhly A.2, RigueiroRodriguez A.3 .......................................................................................................................... 123 Seed Yield from Birdsfoot Trefoil treated with some herbicides ......................................... 125 Chourkova B.* ........................................................................................................................ 125 Evolution of an alpine pasture following the introduction of night and day grazing......... 129 Bassignana M.*, Barmaz A., Turille E., Turille G.................................................................. 129 Improvement of Degraded Pastures from Mountain Pine Layer Invaded by Hillocks ..... 131 Mocanu V.*, Hermenean I., Marusca T.................................................................................. 131 Innovations for agro pastoral system improvement in the high semi-arid zones of Algeria ..................................................................................................................................................... 133 Abbas K.*, Madani T., Laouar Mr, Mhamedi Bouzina Mr, Abdelguerfi A., Makhlouf M., Tedjari N. ................................................................................................................................ 133 Evaluation of a forage farming system of Nebrodi Mountains............................................. 135 Testa G.*, Cosentino A.D., Copani V. .................................................................................... 135 First application of the Radiation Use Effiecincy (RUE) model for pastures of the Nebrodi Mountains .................................................................................................................................. 137 Bocchi S.1*, Testa G. 2, Cosentino A.D. 2, Copani V2.............................................................. 137 Effect of small nitrogen rate on dry matter and protein yield of red clover, italian ryegrass and their mixtures..................................................................................................................... 139 Alibegovic-Grbic S.*, Bezdrob M, Civic H............................................................................. 139 Different grassland types for high quality Asiago mountain cheese in the Upland of Seven Communes (North East Venetia)............................................................................................ 141 Paoletti R.*, Gremigni P., Aceto P., Piano E. ........................................................................ 141 Effect of feeding system on growing lamb performance, on meat macronutrients, tocopherol and fatty acid content ............................................................................................ 145 Spada S., Fiori M., Addis M.*, Fois N., Sitzia M.................................................................... 145 Cheese textural properties and fatty acids composition of milk from cows fed hay-based diet and mountain pasture managed under continuous or rotational grazing ................... 149 Coppa M.1-2*, Ferlay A.2, Monsallier F.3, Pradel P.4, Farruggia A.2, Lombardi G.1, Martin B.2 ................................................................................................................................................. 149 Comparing quality characteristics of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese from traditional and intensive production systems ............................................................................................ 153
Tornamb G.1*, Di Grigoli A.1, Alicata M.-L.1, De Pasquale C.2, Bonanno A.1 ....................153 Landscape qualities as a potential for alpine agriculture......................................................157 Bele B.1*, Sickel H.1,4, Lunnan T.1, Norderhaug A.1, sterlie M.2, Abrahamsen R.K.3, Nilsen L.S.1, Ohlson M.4 .....................................................................................................................157 Differences in spatial grazing behaviour of sheep and goats in a heterogeneous high alpine environment ...............................................................................................................................161 Leiber F.1*, Kaulfers C.2, Schmid S.1, Kreuzer M.1, Liesegang A.2 ........................................161 Milk fatty acid profile in relation to botanical and chemical composition of Alpine pastures .....................................................................................................................................................165 Falchero L.1*, Coppa M.1, Lonati M.1, Odoardi M.2, Lombardi G.1 ......................................165 Salt as management tool for unguarded livestock in mountain pastures ............................167 Eliceits P.*, Ruiz R., Mandaluniz N. .......................................................................................167 Ruminal fatty acid transformation in cattle caused by high alpine pasturing ....................169 Khiaosa-ard R., Soliva C.R., Kreuzer M., Leiber F.* .............................................................169 How does grazing management and vegetation type influence selection and foraging behaviour of dairy cows on upland pastures? ........................................................................171 Coppa M.1-2*, Farruggia A.2, Pradel P.3, Lombardi G.1, Martin B.2 .....................................171 Production of beef in mountain areas and fatty acid composition of the muscle longissimus dorsi in the Herens breed. Prospects for traceability ............................................................175 Dufey P.-A.*, Collomb M. .......................................................................................................175 Contagious mastitis control in mountain pasture as a means to increase its sustainability .....................................................................................................................................................179 Zecconi A.1, Pecile A.2*, Chiappin P.2, Partel E.2, Clauser G.2 , Giovanelli P.2, Stroppa L.2, Mazzilli M.1, Zanini L.3 ...........................................................................................................179 PASTO: animal performance and economical results...........................................................181 Chassot A.1, Deslandes K.A.2 ..................................................................................................181 Fatty acid composition and shelf life of beef raised on biodiverse pastures ........................183 Richardson R.I.*, Whittington F.M., Wood J.D. .....................................................................183 Differences in feed intake of Galloway and Hinterwaelder suckler cows in pastures with Colchicum autumnale ................................................................................................................185 Elsaesser M.*, Goyert C. ........................................................................................................185 Index of authors.........................................................................................................................187
15th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures
Switzerlands experience in promoting mountain areas

Pythoud F.* Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG, 3003 Berne, Switzerland * franois.pythoud@blw.admin.ch Due to a number of given factors, in Switzerland there is a high awareness for the need to valorise public and private goods generated in mountain areas. Next to the countrys topography featuring 60% of mountainous territory, a major reason is to be found in the Swiss political system (federalism) that favours a high degree of inclusion and participation of peripheral areas in decision-making processes. Also, the role of agriculture is defined in a specific article anchored in the Swiss constitution. It enshrines the obligation to promote a decentralised settlement (including mountain areas), the secure food supply of the population as well as the conservation of natural resources and the maintenance of rural landscapes. These goals are to be achieved by means of a sustainable, market-oriented agricultural production. Based on this constitutional mandate, the Swiss government has set up a number of instruments aimed specifically at ensuring a continued supply of public and private goods generated in mountain areas. Sustainable land management is incentivised through a system of direct payments linked to the fulfilment of ecological requirements. In order to promote structural improvements in disadvantaged areas, investment aid tools have been developed. Also, regional development projects can benefit from government support in the form of expert assistance. Finally, targeted quality and sales promotion policies are a further key strategy adopted by Switzerland to ensure agricultural mountain goods (milk, cheese, meat) find their way to appreciative consumers. For this purpose, a system of protected product designations has been established. Switzerland also supports efforts at the international level to promote sustainable agricultural development in mountain areas worldwide. The SARD-M project in particular, initiated and supported by the governments of Switzerland and France in cooperation with FAO, seeks to develop a toolbox allowing the set-up of remuneration systems for public and private goods generated in mountain areas.
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AgriMontana Agricultures Contribution to Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas

Flury C.*, Pfefferli S. Research Station Agroscope Reckenholz-Tnikon ART, 8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland * christian.flury@art.admin.ch Agroscope's research programme AgriMontana deals with the sustainable development of mountain regions and the contribution of agriculture to this development. The aim of this programme is to develop strategies for agriculture and for the sectors upstream and downstream of it. As a basis for this, the factors relevant to development are recorded, and the core interrelationships between already-existing and new exploitation strategies in agriculture and regarding the development of mountain regions are determined and assessed in terms of their sustainability.
Background Mountain regions are subject to constant change. At the same time, the agricultural sector is faced with various challenges stemming from previous development and future general conditions. On the one hand, this complex set of challenges calls into question the aim of sustainable development, while on the other hand multifunctional services of agriculture as required by the local population and society and its contribution to the development of mountain regions are questioned. Constantly changing economical, social, political, and environmental conditions reduce the economic importance of agriculture and make it more difficult for it to provide its multifunctional services. The topographical, structural and climatical disadvantages of mountain regions limit the economical opportunities in the mountain agriculture. Due to the fact that the general conditions are constantly changing, mountain regions and in particular agriculture are faced with increasing difficulties, which will undermine the economical, ecological and social stability in the future. At the same time, many peripheral and structurally weak regions are currently standing at a watershed in terms of social perception and policy support, and consequently also regarding their regional orientation. This concerns not only the need for action arising from the basic economical and policy conditions, but rather also the challenge of recognising and making enterprising use of opportunities. Like the previous development, these prospects lead to the question of the sustainability of the mountain regions. Aim of the Research Programme AgriMontana AgriMontana is based on the idea that sustainable development is feasible in mountain areas and that these regions can meet the demands of the local population and society at large. The aim of the research programme AgriMontana is to develop and implement strategies for mountain agriculture and for the sectors upstream and downstream of it. For this, the factors relevant to development are recorded, and the core interrelationships between already-existing and new agricultural exploitation strategies and the development of mountain regions are determined and assessed regarding their sustainability. By focusing on the sustainable development, agricultural strategies are developed for typical study regions in the mountain area. In terms of decision support, the research programme AgriMontana contributes to a coordinated regional and agricultural policy. Structure and Core Themes of the Research Programme AgriMontana is designed as an inter- and transdisciplinary research programme, and is geared towards a common synthesis. Disciplinary projects identify the determinants of agricultural development and design land use strategies. Within disciplinary projects and an interdisciplinary network, the impact of existing and new land use strategies is assessed regarding their sustainability. The integration of the disciplinary projects and the cooperation within a network enables the compilation of know-how and the transfer of knowledge resulting in the sustainable development of the mountain regions in Switzerland. AgriMontana contributes to the mountain-agriculture research in the fields of Best Practices for Mountain Agriculture, Best Policies for the Mountain Regions, and Development Strategies for Typical Regions. Within these fields, the programme concentrates on various core themes:
Agricultural Production Methods and Systems: In the past, the use of both agricultural and grass land changed significantly. Nevertheless, it seems likely that there is still some potential left for improving the economical and in particular the ecological sustainability of agricultural production systems. Considering the ongoing pressure for economical rationalisation, the intensity of grassland use, the abandoned land of marginal-yield sites and the progressive segregation of utilisation intensities
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should be highlighted. Changes in the use of agricultural land can be explained inter alia by the structural change in agriculture and the adaptations in animal husbandry. The changes in agricultural production systems simultaneously influence the multifunctional services performed by agriculture in terms of their quality and quantity, and affect the sustainability of the mountain regions. Alternative Farm Sectors: Regarding the liberalization of agricultural markets in Switzerland, alternative farming sectors are gaining importance as sources of revenue for mountain farms. In addition to para-agricultural sectors such as agrotourism or social green care, the cultivation of special crops like berries or medicinal plants is likely to represent an alternative worth considering, especially in combination with regional processing and marketing. For animal-husbandry farms, the question needs to be answered whether or not there could be combination options with the remaining (traditional) farming sectors, besides of production-engineering and economical aspects. Value Chains with Regional Processing and Marketing: Over the past few years and particularly in the mountain regions investments in local processing establishments were made in a number of instances with the aim of promoting regional development. By incorporating value chains in the regional economy, an attempt is made to contribute to economical development in the mountain regions by using regional processing and marketing as tools to maintain or promote value-added and employment in this region. In addition to the market and production potential, another criteria for the assessment of processing and marketing initiatives of this nature are the economical profitability and stability of the farms, ecological efficiency, and the social sustainability of the players involved.
Embedded in the spatial and temporal context, the results of the different research projects form the basis for compiling mountain-farm and regional development strategies, as well as for deriving recommendations for policy makers. For farms in the mountain regions, and by looking towards the general future conditions, the question arises as to the choice of the optimal site-, market-, farm- and farm-manager-oriented production systems. Regarding the backdrop of competitiveness, environmental impacts, eco-efficiency and social repercussions, the aspect of a future-oriented form of farming concepts and cooperation is especially critical. For the mountain area, depending on the region or type of region, different strategies or combinations of strategies are possible. Depending on the strategy and regional environment, the contributions of agriculture to value-added and to the sustainable development of mountain regions vary. Based on the individual-farm strategies, the development of new or adapted strategies for mountain regions encompasses production-engineering, ecological and economic aspects on a sector level. At the same time, sustainable development of mountain regions demands new or adapted policy measures for shaping and steering the use strategies.
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SESSION 1 Transnational and multidisciplinary research programmes
COST as a tool for facilitating collaborative research

Williams J.* INRA PHASE Division, Tours Research centre, 37380 Nouzilly, France *john.williams@tours.inra.fr
Abstract Applying for a COST Action is relatively easy and the success rate is good. A COST Action sets up a network for collaborative research with a strong European base, but which can include partners from any country in the world. COST does not finance research but does fund collaborative tools such as small to medium-sized meetings and workshops, publications and short-term scientific exchange visits for scientific collaboration and training. COST Actions normally last four years and have an excellent record for building capacity. Several consortia originating in COST have managed successful applications to the EUs framework programme and achieved better recognition for their teams and their institutions. Keywords: research, collaboration, Europe, capacity building Introduction COST was founded in 1971 by an initiative of the European Council of Ministers. It was the first initiative in the field of research by the then European Economic Community and it is still in operation today, making it the forerunner of European research that is often better epitomised by the European Commissions Framework Programme that started later, in 1986. COST has undertaken a major reform over the past five years and this has changed the method of evaluating proposals, but the basis of COST scientific collaboration remains intact. In this paper, the major features of COST are discussed and the application and selection processes are explained with the object of encouraging young scientists to apply for a COST Action and so launch their European careers! Materials and methods You need a computer linked to the internet, a printer and a telephone. For the tools, go to the COST website at http://www.cost.esf.org/. You need to click on the Open Call button. This takes you to the page that deals with how to submit an application to COST. There are two collection dates annually, the next one is clearly stated on this web page. There is also a FAQ that will give you all the important information, and you can download the key document, Guidelines for Assessment, Monitoring, Evaluation and Dissemination of Results of COST Actions (COST doc. 205/08) . There are buttons on the left of this page Join an Action, Open Call (thats where you are), and Guidelines. Go to Join an Action and there you will find all sorts of extra information, and most importantly the links to identify your COST National Coordinator. You will need that later, and your colleagues will too. You also need a minimum of four other colleagues in a minimum of four COST countries other than your own. Make a list of these people to add to the annex of your application (country, name, institutional address with email address, telephone and fax numbers). If successful, your COST National Coordinator and his/her colleagues in the countries your colleagues work in will use this information to nominate you for the new COST Action). Read the documentation and then write your application! Remember to look at the evaluation form as it lists the criteria that are used to score the proposal in the first round (Right for COST? Science; Innovation; Impact; Presentation). This is a short application, and the general aim is to convey a new idea for something that you cant do on your own, but could if a bunch of you were to do it together. COST is about cooperation. Get someone to read your proposal and mark it as if they were an evaluator. This person does not have to be a specialist in your discipline, but should have a good understanding of the food & agriculture field. The proposal will be ranked by people appointed to the COST Domain Committee for Food & Agriculture (or of whatever other domain you may have preferred). The names and CVs of these people can be downloaded from the COST website, so you can get an idea of just who your judges are. Feedback from a dummy reviewer helps before you submit. Also, try to get an English native speaker to read the final draft (and do not be tempted to introduce new text after, it may do more harm than good). Go on line and submit your application.
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If you are selected to go to the second stage of your application, follow the same method. At stage 2, the application is longer and more detailed. Again, look at the guidelines as the criteria are different and are subdivided. At this stage, you will be judged by a panel of external experts (i.e. independent of COST) and at least one will be a recognized specialist in the field of your proposal, so be precise, and be scientific. If your proposal is not rejected by the expert panel, you will have to present it orally before the Domain Committee almost invariably as a PowerPoint presentation. The rule here is make it concise, make it clear, and keep it simple. Project your idea and your enthusiasm for COST. If selected, there are more than nine chances out of ten that you will be running a new COST Action, and the committee tend to form and idea of how likely you are to succeed based on your oral performance.
Results and discussion The results are normally sent be the COST office about two months after the closing date. This result tells you if you have bee rejected or selected to go to stage two. Figures vary, but roughly 80% of the proposals get filtered out at this stage. If you are successful in stage two (normally from one third to one half of the proposals) you get to the final hurdle. The COST Domain Committees rank all of the proposals that are presented orally, and they are selected in order of ranking according to the available budget. COST has deliberately applied a harsh filter at the first stage. The reason behind this is that there is a high selection pressure, and it is better to apply it to a short document that does not take too much time to write than to a longer document that demands a far greater time investment on the part of both proponent and external reviewers. If you are successful, the COST office will guide you through the final stages and assist you by convening the first meeting of the Management Committee of your Action. Explaining the arcane reasons for this is beyond the scope of this paper, but it is not an unpleasant process and the, you are on your own. Well, no, not quite. You have a lot of European colleagues with you, some of whom will have applied to join the Action after it was approved. You see, COST is open cooperation, and any country that is not on the list you supplied in the annex to your proposal will automatically receive an invitation to nominate a representative. Life is full of surprises! Conclusions Writing a proposal for a COST Action is an easy and even enjoyable exercise done in collaboration with colleagues you probably know and with whom you would like to collaborate further. It does not require a great time investment in the first instance, but at the second stage it becomes more demanding. This is compensated by the fact that your chances of success are better than in one-stage selection processes. If you succeed, you will have up to four years to develop your cooperation by way of meetings, workshops and scientific exchanges. You can team up and run these along established meetings (as satellite meetings, for example) or hold solo events. Combined meetings with other COST Actions are another possibility. Overall, COST allows tremendous freedom and flexibility for you and your colleagues to invest the COST coordination funds in the manner best suited to the Action you have founded. COST is good at capacity building. Many successful applications to FP6 and FP7 are made by consortia that met up and formed in a COST Action. The knowledge that they jointly developed by working together over the years produced the plus needed to make the step to the next stage in European research, the jointly funded cooperative research project. References
The references needed to write a COST application can all be found on the COST website. No URLs are given here as the COST website uses a dynamic addressing system and the URLs may change over time.
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Interregional analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of policies, institutions and processes for SARD in mountain regions
Gault J.* Coordinator of the project SARD in Mountain Regions Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome *jean.gault@fao.org
Introduction The first priority and major activity of the Project (20052007) for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Mountain Regions (SARD-M) has been to assess the strengths and weaknesses of mountain policies, including social, economic, institutional and environmental aspects, in relation to sustainable agriculture and rural development principles. The Implementation of the project has been realized in partnership with the SARD-M Project Regional Focal Points and other implementing partners. This paper provides an interregional analysis of the major findings of rapid SARD-M policy assessments and outlines principal areas of concern that need to be addressed. It also identifies key issues that will be important to address in the future. General approach of the SARD-M rapid policy assessments The overall purpose is to stimulate thought and actions of all concerned stakeholders at the country and regional levels to improve policy, institutions and processes for SARD-M. SARD-M rapid policy assessments provide an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of various policies related to SARD in mountain regions, recommendations and proposals for follow-up activities that can help to improve the existing situation. The assessments do not aim to conduct an in-depth analysis of policies in a specific sector, but to try to provide more of a crosssectoral understanding. As the subject area of SARD is vast and that the SARD-M policy assessments were to be conducted in a variety of countries and contexts, it was deemed important to develop a general framework that would ensure that each of the assessments examined a common set of issues. Key characteristics of the SARD-M policy approach and assessments include:
Sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD): Agriculture and rural development are sustainable when they are ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just and culturally appropriate. SARD addresses not only agriculture but also natural resources, the environment, health, as well as social, institutional and economic sectors. Policies, institutions, and processes: The SARD-M policy assessments place a particular emphasis on examining the processes and institutions that are involved in the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies. Mountain specificities: Mountain regions have specificities that provide potentials for products and activities that have a comparative advantage. The assessments examine how the various potentialities and diversities can be harnessed to promote sustainable development. Participatory and qualitative approach: The analyses are qualitative in nature and utilize a participatory approach at every step of the process. Multi-stakeholder workshops at decentralised and/or national levels are also held to gather information and opinions. Based on the outputs of the country assessments, regional workshops are organized.
The SARD-M policy assessments also examine the relevant economic, social, environmental and institutional policies related to the entry point and to other related issues to bring about a crosssectoral understanding.
Main interregional commonalities of SARD-M policy assessment findings The main commonalities regarding policies, institutions and processes for SARD-M that were mentioned in the regional syntheses are listed below.
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Policies Lack of strategies for sustainable development in mountain regions The development of policies for sustainable development requires a long-term vision and a holistic approach. For the most part, policies tend to be developed on a short-term basis and there is a general lack of strategies and integrated approach to policies. Even when policy frameworks for sustainable development or SARD exist, specific strategies or approaches for mountain regions have not been developed. Political stability was also mentioned as an issue in a couple of regions. If a country experiences frequent changes in government, it is difficult to have coherent policies as the vision and priorities of government plans and programmes can change. Little consideration of mountain specificities in policies for SARD partly due to low awareness of the importance of mountains
The specificities of mountains are often not taken into consideration during the design and implementation of policies. The failure to take into account mountain specificities in policies can be associated with the low level of awareness of policy and decision makers regarding the importance and significance of mountain regions, its people and to its neighbours. At the same time, there is a general lack of awareness by local people, civil society and decision-makers of existing policies affecting mountain resources. The key question to be addressed in the countries is whether it is necessary to have a specific policy for mountains or whether important aspects of them should be incorporated into present and future policies of relevance to SARD-M. There is a greater tendency to try to incorporate mountain issues into national policies.
Policies supporting value-added production and services in mountain regions essential for sustainable agriculture and rural development Policies were criticized for their weak focus on mountain livelihood issues. A strong need was felt for policies that promoted diversification and integration of economic activities, such as ecotourism, mountain quality products, value-added production, etc. Such activities can also contribute to the valorisation of the cultural heritage of mountain populations. However, upland areas which are typically difficult to access have a harder time in accessing markets in lowland and urban areas. Improved access to markets and services found in these areas as well as the promotion of public-private partnerships were seen to be important to improve the socio-economic condition of mountain populations.
Institutions Inadequate institutional capacities for participatory SARD-M policy formulation and implementation The issue of capacity building was something that came out strongly. This issue is particularly important for institutions in mountainous regions, which tend to be more isolated and marginalized from the national development and policy processes. Weak coordination of institutions at the national level Better coordination is needed to achieve a greater complementarity and coherence between policies developed in various sectors related to SARD-M. Need for cooperation at the transnational level Mountain ranges often act as natural borders and are therefore typically shared between countries. The need to strengthen transnational institutional coordination is thus an issue of concern. Processes Inadequate knowledge management, exchange of information and networking regarding mountain regions One of the major problems identified regarding policy processes for SARD-M is that there is a lack of basic information and data about mountains. While socio-economic data exists at the national level, it is often not aggregated to take into account mountain regions. Having access to better organization of data and creation of databases to facilitate access to information is seen as important to help policymakers make informed decisions taking into account mountain specificities. Better communication of mountain areas data can also contribute to raise awareness of the issues facing the people of these regions and facilitate advocacy and lobbying by civil society.
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Limited participation in policy formulation The formulation of policies tends to be conducted in a top-down manner with a weak participation of local populations and diverse stakeholders at all levels. Mountain populations tend to be less aware of their rights and have weaker capacities of advocacy and skills to participate in policy formulation. Weak monitoring and evaluation of policies Weaknesses in the monitoring and evaluation of the impacts that policies have in mountain regions and of the policy implementation processes are a general issue of concern. While this issue can be seen as a problem for SARD policies in general, the issue becomes more problematic in mountain regions. Policies which are poorly adapted to the bio-physical conditions of mountain areas can have highly negative impacts on the environment and livelihoods of mountain populations.
Key principles for improved policy packages and institutional processes for SARD in mountain regions Based on the interregional commonalities, the following key interrelated and interdependent principles can be identified as being important for the development of improved policy packages and institutional processes for SARD-M.
Policies Development of sustainable agriculture and rural development strategies which integrates into policies the specificities of mountain regions Raising awareness of mountain specificities Development of policies that support value-added production and services in mountain regions essential for sustainable mountain development Institutions Adaptation of institutional capacities to facilitate participatory SARD-M policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation Coordination of institutions at the national level through appropriate institutional arrangements Cooperation at the transnational level through appropriate institutional arrangements Processes Knowledge management, exchange of information and networking regarding mountain regions Participation in policy formulation Monitoring and evaluation of policies
The recommendations and key messages on policies, institutions and processes for SARD in mountain regions included in the Statement of the Adelboden Group released on 3 October 20077 highly converge with the above principles.
Key issues for the future The following outlines key issues of importance identified in the SARD-M policy assessment reports and discussions during regional workshops that mountain stakeholders feel are important to address in more detail in the future. Valorisation of positive externalities, such as environmental externalities (Andes; Carpathians) Sustainable development of mountain areas ensures adequate supplies of water, environmental stability, conservation of biodiversity, rural-urban population balance, specific products and culture, etc. The goods and services that mountains provide are often not taken into account by the market and are known as positive externalities. External economic and environmental pressures will lead to radical change in the distinctive characteristics and values of mountains unless appropriate policies are in place to ensure the continued supply of externalities. Positive externalities can help communities survive; without communities many of the positive externalities will not survive. The valorisation of positive externalities, through mechanisms such as payments for environmental services, is thus an issue that requires further examination and actions. Rural-urban migration (Mediterranean region; Hindu Kush-Himalayas) Most people have an idea of what the positive externalities of mountain economies are, though they may not use economic language to describe them. Clean water, nature, places to enjoy hiking, traditional communities and ways of life - these are some of the most widely recognised. While ruralurban migration has the negative effects outlined below, migration can also have positive effects for sustainable mountain development by alleviating population pressures on the land and resources and provide an opportunity for mountain households to earn income through employment in urban areas. The controlling of rural-urban
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migration is thus a policy issue of importance as it affects the overall sustainable development of the country. Pressures on urban areas As the number of people who migrate increase, pressures are placed on urban infrastructure and can lead to chaotic urban sprawl. This will create increasing major challenges regarding urban poverty and unemployment. Abandonment of rural mountain areas As young and working age people tend to migrate to urban areas to find employment, the women, children and elderly tend to be left behind. This leads to the feminization of agriculture and hollowization of rural areas.
Gender and equity issues (Hindu Kush Himalaya; Mediterranean region) In theory SARD-M policies should take gender and equity issues into consideration, but they tend to get sidetracked partly due to narrow growth-oriented focus of the interventions. Mountain populations in general tend to have a weaker voice and capacities which can marginalize them from development and policy processes, thus generating or reinforcing inequity In particular, it has been highlighted that few policies were sensitive to gender issues despite the fact that women play a significant role in mountain societies by maintaining mountain families, lands and livelihoods. Specific attention needs to be paid to strengthening their ideas, talents and knowledge, to help them at improving their life conditions and social status and thus promote gender equity among mountain people. Cultural heritage of mountain regions (Andes; Hindu Kush-Himalaya; Mediterranean region) With contemporary globalization, distinct patterns of change are today visible in the mountain regions. This results in a rapid transformation in social values and traditional perceptions that threatens the diverse and unique cultural heritage of mountains. Indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage refer to a whole way of life from which a social order is communicated. Their traditional knowledge, systems and practices are well-adapted to mountain environments and can serve as an appropriate basis for sustainable natural resources management. They have potentials to achieve SARD in mountain regions through activities such as the production of handicrafts, maintenance of remarkable sites and landscapes that can be the basis for economic valorisation.
See the full document in the SARD-M Project website: http://www.fao.org/sard/en/sardm/about/651/index.html
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Presentation of Geomatics in the Assessment and Sustainable Management of Mediterranean Rangelands (GeoRange)-EUproject results
Yiakoulaki M.D.*, Papanastasis V.P. Department of Range Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece *yiak@for.auth.gr
Abstract The GeoRange approach based on conceptual research and specific field studies embraced topics such as the assessment of range condition of Mediterranean rangelands, the retrospective analysis of range development under previous management activities, the efficient organisation, integration, visualization and distribution of spatial and non spatial data through a customised Geographic Information System (GIS) environment, the synthesis of site specific scenarios for sustainable development of rangelands and also the development of data processing and environmental analysis for monitoring the impact of new management strategies. AUTH contribution was related to the analysis of range management histories, the evaluation of rangeland condition the analysis of the production system of small ruminants (sheep and goats) and the investigation of the animals grazing behaviour and intake throughout the year. Keywords: Rangeland management, animal production system, animal grazing behaviour Introduction Within the Fifth Framework Programme of the European Commission a research project entitled Geomatics in the assessment and sustainable management of Mediterranean rangelands was implemented under the acronym GeoRange from January 2001 to March 2005. The project was coordinated by Prof. Joachim Hill of the University of Trier (Germany) and involved research teams from Greece, Spain and Italy as well as the Joint Research Centre of the EU at Ispra (Italy). In addition, stakeholders on rangeland management from the three countries were also involved. GeoRange used Geomatics, the science and technology of gathering, analyzing, interpreting, distributing and using geographical information, in order to study the multifunctionality of Mediterranean rangelands by integrating specialists from different fields. Based on conceptual research and specific field studies, GeoRange aimed at creating an efficient documentation, management and decision support environment involving three phases as shown on figure 1.
Figure1: Thematic and temporal structure of the GeoRange Project (http://www.georange.org)
The general objectives of GeoRange were the following (Hill et al., 2001): The assessment of the current range condition and range condition by establishing a rule-base incorporating state variables and related indicators to be derived in the project. The efficient organization, integration, visualization and distribution of spatial and non-spatial data through a customized GIS-environment and an internet-based interface.
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The synthesis of the accumulated expertise on driving factors and past developments resulting in site specific scenarios for sustainable management of rangelands aiming at a reconciliation between ecological and economical interests. The development of a dedicated Data Processing and Analysis Environment enabling end- users to monitor the impact of new management strategies and continually revise scheme by updating their spatial databases with recent data.
Three study sites were included in the project: Ayora, located in Valencia (Spain) and characterized by marginal lands affected by wildfires; the island of Sardinia (Italy) dominated by rangelands; and Lagadas county in Macedonia (northern Greece). The main objectives for the Lagadas study site were the following: a) To evaluate the diachronic impact of grazing by domestic animals on rangelands. b) To evaluate the small ruminants production system. c) To evaluate and describe rangelands by the use of rangelands health indicators both at the community and landscape levels. d) To investigate the animals grazing behaviour through the year. In this paper only the results obtained at the Lagadas site by the AUTH research team are presented and discussed.
Material and methods Lagadas study area (206,059.9 ha) is located in central Macedonia, northern Greece (ca. 40 47N, 23 12E). Almost 15.420 ha of this area is occupied by the freshwater lake of Koronia, and the adjacent lake of Volvi. Five types of vegetation have been recognized over the entire area (Platis et al., 1999) among which the most extensive ones are those of evergreen shrublands, grasslands, deciduous shrublands, open woodlands and, partly, abandoned fields. The climate is semi-arid Mediterranean with cold winters, resulting in at least 4 months-long hot and dry summer period. Soils are acid and have derived mainly from metamorphic rocks. The grazing system is communal with supplemental feed provided during winter and movement of flocks to upper altitudes in summer. During the last years subsidies by the European Community for animal husbandry have favoured an increase in animal number and consequently heavier grazing. The degradation of rangelands has also contributed to the problem of reduction of water capacity of the two lakes. According to the National Statistical Service of Greece (2001) the population of the county amounts to 68 016 inhabitants living in 55 Municipal Departments (M.D.). In order to achieve objective a, the 55 M.D. of Lagadas county were studied during the period 19612002. The M.D. were classified into three zones according to their elevation. Twenty M.D. were included in the lower zone (<200 m), 28 M.D in the middle zone (200-600 m) and 7 M.D. in the upper zone (6001000 m). Diachronic rangeland and livestock data were collected over a period of 40 years and stocking rate was determined in each M.D. based on the number of grazing animals and the rangeland area for the years 1961, 1971, 1991 and 2002. With regard to objective b, the livestock husbandry system was investigated during 2002 with the help of questionnaires that were addressed to all farmers of the area in eight M.D. of the county, situated at the three different altitude zones (lower, middle and upper). The questions dealt with the grazing period in each altitude zone, the grazing time, the other resources used besides rangelands and the seasonal use of feedstuffs. With regard to objective c, thirteen indicators were used for the range condition assessment in grasslands that explained over 90% of the total accounted variation while for the range condition assessment of shrublands, eighteen indicators were used that explained over 80% of the total variation. With regard to objective d, the direct observation and simulation method (Altman, 1974) was used to determine the behaviour of sheep and goats grazing in the two zones (lower and upper) and to obtain representative samples. The bite count technique was also used to determine intake. Results and discussion The scientific results were the following:
a) Stocking Rate Evolution The number of animals and the rangeland area considerably changed during the period 1961-2002 across the entire county (Table 1). The number of goats increased vs that of sheep between 1971 and 2002, whereas the total number of animals (sheep and goats) decreased by almost 5.7% from 1961 to 2002, indicating a gradual abandonment of animal husbandry by farmers, apparently due to the socio-
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economic changes occurred during this period. This increase of goats probably reflects the policy for subsiding livestock numbers since 1981, when Greece became a member of the EU. Total rangeland area decreased between 1961 and 2002 and the reduction was greater in the lower and middle zones in comparison to the upper one. Table 1. Diachronic data of rangelands (ha) and livestock number during the period 1961-2001.
Rangelands (ha) Year 1961 1971 1991 2001 Lower zone 34150 32690 29352 29320 Middle zone 37440 31610 33140 33140 Upper zone 24360 24220 22550 22550 Total 95950 88520 85042 85010 Lower zone Sheep Goats 61657 46503 40984 39742 37286 44759 43149 50869 Livestock number Middle zone Upper zone Sheep Goats Sheep Goats 41258 39437 23627 17961 32943 32611 21149 13202 30352 41893 15705 22114 30518 49090 16600 27100 Total Sheep Goats 126542 103901 95076 85555 83343 108766 90267 127059
(Source NSSG, 2001, Direction of Agriculture Report 2002).
High and very high grazing pressures were applied in the majority of M.D. during 1961-2002. The number of M.D., where low and optimum grazing was applied, increased between 1961 and 2002, while it decreased in those where high and very high grazing pressures were applied (Figure 1). The majority of M.D. located in the lowlands, close to lake Koronia and Volvi, remained overgrazed throughout the study period.
40 N m e o M n i ait sD tn t u b r f u icp l ie isi cs 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Low Optimum High Very high Graz ing pressure 1961 1971 1991 2002
Figure 1. Distribution of the Municipal Departments of Lagadas County in low, optimum, high and very high grazing pressures.
b) Small ruminants production system evaluation Data processing from the questionnaires addressed to farmers indicated that the majority of the animals remain at the municipal districts all year round, whereas only 4.7% of them move out during summer practicing transhumance. The production system is mainly based on rangeland utilization, complemented by temporary paddocks during winter-early spring and cereal stubble fields after crop harvesting during summer-early autumn. The latter provides a satisfactory diet to both sheep and goats (Yiakoulaki and Papanastasis, 2005). This production system is considered semi-intensive c) Assessing range health Based on the mean values of the two basic indicators, two grasslands were assigned in the good range condition category, four in the fair and two in the poor one. All types of grasslands were of high ecological integrity while meeting at the same time the management objectives such as high animal herbage production and high relative palatability factor of the dominant species (Vrachnakis and Papanastasis, 2008). d) Animals grazing behaviour. Herbaceous species (forbs and grasses) were the main component of sheep diet in the lower and upper elevation zones in spring and autumn (Fig. 2) while their contribution was higher in goats diet in the lower zone. In the upper zone goats selected more woody species than in the lower one.
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90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Sheep Woody Sheep Grass Sheep Forbs Goats woody Goats Grass Goats Forbs Spring Autumn Spring Autumn Litter Low zone High Zone
Fig. 2. Percentage of grasses, forbs and woody species (%) in sheep and goats diet.
Intake (g dry matter/day) of sheep and goats was not different between the lower and the upper zones. Sheep consumed lower amounts of forage in the high zone during autumn (Fig. 3). Probably, this was a result of the lower grazing time of the animals in this zone.
Fig. 3. Intake of sheep and goats in two elevation zones.
Sheep
1200 1000 g/day 800 600 400 200 0 Spring Autumn Spring Autumn
Goats
Low zone
High Zone
Intake
Conclusions The majority of the M.D. located in the lowlands, close to the lakes Koronia and Volvi, remained overgrazed throughout the study period. On the contrary, the grazing pressure was lower in the rangelands located in uplands. That suggests that in the long run a more even distribution of grazing animals at the M.D. of the county could be implemented. Rangelands are important feed to livestock and should be properly managed so that they acquire a more balanced species composition. References
Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behaviour : sampling methods. Behaviour, 49: 227-267. Hill, J.R., Tsiourlis, G.M., Sommer,.S., Mehl, W., Papanastasis, V. et al. 2001. Geomatics in the assessment and sustainable management of Mediterranean rangelands-The Georange approach. Proceedings of the International Conference: Forest Research: A challenge for an integrated European approach. Vol. 1, p. 147-152. National Statistical Service of Greece-NSSG (2001). Catalogue of statistical publications. Athens (in Greek). Greek Ministry of Agriculture (1992). Results of First National Forest Inventory (in Greek). Platis P., Meliadis J., Papanastasis V.P. 1999.Inventory, classification and evaluation of rangelands in the drainage area of Migdonia. Geotechnical Scientific Matters, volume 9 (4): 71-80 (In Greek with English summary). Vrachnakis, M.S. and Papanastasis V.P. (2008). From range condition to rangeland health: new perspectives in the th qualitative assessment of Mediterranean grasslands. In Proc. of the 6 Panhellenic Rangeland Congress, Leonidio, Greece. p. 161-166. Yiakoulaki M.D. and Papanastasis V.P. (2005). Diet selection of sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble in Northern Greece. In: E. Molina Alcaide, H. Ben Salem, K. Biala, P. Morand-Fehr (eds). Sustainable grazing, Nutritional Utilization and quality of sheep and goat products. Options Mediterranennes, Serie A, No 67: 225-250, Zaragoza, Spain.
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Semi-natural grassland as a source of biodiversity

Ptsch E.M.*, Krautzer B. Agricultural- and Education Centre Raumberg-Gumpenstein, Raumberg 38, 8952 Irdning, Austria *erich.poetsch@raumberg-gumpenstein.at
Abstract Biodiversity has become a special concern of agrarian- and environmental policy and of general public. Extensively managed semi-natural grasslands are the most important type of High Nature Value Farmland (HNVF) and can be regarded as an important source of biodiversity. Most semi-natural grasslands are rich of native species and for this reason can be harvested to obtain valuable propagation material for ecological restoration projects. In recent years, a large number of different harvesting methods and application techniques have been developed for exploitation and application of site specific seed or plant material. Within the INTERREG project SALVERE ("Semi-natural grassland as a source of biodiversity improvement) important questions are worked on to develop seed harvesting methods for semi-natural grasslands and use appropriate near-natural re-vegetation methods for creating new HNV areas. Keywords: High Nature Value Farmland, floristic diversity, seed production, restoration Introduction Grasslands cover more than 40 % of the earths surface and are found in nearly every region of the world (FAO, 2005). In EU-27 there are various types of grasslands covering 56 million hectares, which is more than a third of the agricultural area. The most important types of grasslands in Europe are a) natural grasslands, b) semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland, c) sclerophillous grazed forests, d) seminatural tall-herb humid meadows and e) mesophilous grasslands. Total grassland area in the EU declined by nearly 13 % from 1990 to 2003. There is an increasing pressure on more productive grassland by conversion to arable land driven by higher profitability of arable farming and by the rising production of biofuels. On the other hand, extensively used grasslands are endangered both by abandonment and reforestation. The use of semi-natural grasslands as an important source of biodiversity for ecological restoration projects can therefore be seen as an additional option both to maintain and preserve these valuable areas. Functionality, development and use of semi-natural grassland Although semi-natural grasslands are human-influenced habitats, they provide cultural, aesthetical, functional, economical and biological values (EMANUELSSON, 2008). When semi-natural grasslands are managed with traditional farming methods they support more diverse plant and animal communities and are also important for birds and invertebrates. The preservation and monitoring of semi-natural grasslands has therefore a high priority in conservation in the European Union. Extensively managed semi-natural grasslands are the most important type of HNVF that has been nominated an objective-related baseline indicator according to the EU Common Monitoring and Evaluation Framework for the rural development programmes of the EC. The estimation of HNVF distribution in Europe on the basis of CORINE land cover makes clear that they occur mostly in less productive areas, for example in southern Europe and mountain regions. HNVF is unevenly distributed and makes up about 15-25 % of the utilised agricultural area (UAA) in Europe (EEA, 2004). In most European countries a dramatic decrease in the number of farms with grazing animals could be noticed in recent decades as the traditional agricultural use of semi-natural grasslands seems to be no longer competitive. Milk and meat production, the traditional and productive land-use systems for many generations, are increasingly given up and grassland abandonment is occurring in many mountainous regions (PEETERS, 2008). In alpine and mountain regions of Europe the increasing loss of semi-natural grasslands is a very serious threat to rural development resulting in negative consequences for ecology, economy and society. Alternative land use concepts must be tested and developed in future to counteract this trend. There are different options including productive agricultural land use and new forms of cooperative management. Productive, non-agricultural land-use systems (e.g. grassland-based biogas production, hay) can also contribute to keep the landscape open and to avoid the development of forest (PTSCH et al., 2009). The use of semi-natural grasslands as a source of biodiversity can be an additional option both maintaining and conserving HNVF and fulfilling the requirements of ecological restoration by providing valuable plant and seed material (KRAUTZER and PTSCH, 2009).
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Semi-natural grassland as donor sites for restoration All over Europe thousands of hectares are restored each year following infrastructural intervention such as road building, flood protection, construction of torrent- and avalanche barriers or as a part of compensation measures (CIPRA, 2001; KIRMER and TISCHEW, 2006; KRAUTZER and WITTMANN, 2006). But also other areas like roughs on golf courses (BURGIN and WOTHERSPOON 2008), sporting fields, brown fields, railway reserves and educational facilities would be interesting open space that could be used to provide offsets for biodiversity. Even if the requirements for restoration and/or reforestation in the affected countries are different, it is still common to use seed- or plant materials for restoration that are composed of cultivated varieties used in agriculture or also those of non-local provenance. The result is that in practice restoration measures are very often undertaken to adapt the given site conditions to the needs of the species being contained in the restoration mixture. This leads, in road building for example, to the spreading of massive layers of humus on roadside banks, which results in an unwanted intensive growth of biomass with high costs for the following cultivation measures. Site-specific ecotypes are well adapted to local conditions. With the proper selection of species, erosionstable and often high-quality nature-conservation plant stands can be performed even under extreme site conditions. The positive ecological and economic effects of such site-specific restoration could already be proved in the course of a great number of trials (SCOTTON et al. 2005; KIEHL et al. 2006; DONATH et al. 2007; JONGEPIEROVA et al 2007; KRAUTZER and KLUG, 2009; SCHMIEDE et al. 2009). Exploitation of site specific seed and plant material Several methods to collect seed- and plant material for site-specific restoration processes have developed above all in the English- and German-speaking world recently. The following methods for the recovery of restoration material from donor sites are regularly used in practice: hand collection, fresh cutting, hay mulching, threshing, mulch mowing and extraction by suction (vacuum harvesting), seed stripping, seed brushing, salvaging donor soil and plants from a native plant community Restoration material can also derive from local/regional production of local plants or regional seeds from seed growers: a method that is meanwhile practiced in several countries is the cultivation of seed of suitable species with the aid of agricultural techniques. Above all, species used often and in larger amounts can be produced at comparatively reasonable costs and used on appropriately large project areas (KRAUTZER et al., 2006). Restoration of semi-natural grassland The stability and durability of restoration is most likely to be achieved when the similarity of the site origin and the sowing site of the plants are as large as possible (e.g. adaptation to climate, special site characteristics). Essential parameters to be observed in planning are the substrate and, if necessary, the instructions for cultivation. With respect to site types, possible types of target vegetation and possible erosion risk, the suitable restoration methods can be very different. However, every planning of ecological restoration measures has to follow some important steps that guarantee the selection of the most suitable method under the given conditions (time span, area, site conditions, availability of site specific seed and plant material, risk of immigration of neophytes, costs, budget etc.). The most suitable restoration methods for the most common vegetation types are: simple dry seeding, wet seeding or hydro-seeding, slot seeding, harrowing and over-sowing, hay-mulch seeding, hay transfer, threshed-hay seeding, topsoil transfer, restoration with plant material, combined seed-sward process, Planting of individual species or pre-cultivated plant elements Varieties of wild plants changed through cultivation should not be used. The plant species set out must have no negative influences on the plant stands in the vicinity and not confuse the natural distribution pattern of a small variety of plants. The compilation of the mixtures should be taken from the succession procedures in nature, which lead from short-lived plant species to the establishment of enduring species.
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In respect of the prevailing regulations of nature conservation, the use of seed for site-specific restoration is to be controlled by the individual countries. Thus in most nature-conservation laws the implementation of plants of non-local provenance into open terrain without permission given by the nature-conservation authorities is forbidden, whereby there are usually rules of exception for normal agriculture and forestry. A problem in the use of site-specific seed material for nature-conservation improvement of existing grassland areas or the new construction of HNVF is given by the limitations of the national seed laws as an EU skeleton law. Accordingly, within the sphere of the agricultural use of areas, with seeding the use of varieties of the species is prescribed and laid down in seed law. The use of threshed materials from a donor area for the construction of new HNVF areas is in most cases not permitted.
Conclusions Twenty years ago, restoration identical to nature was considered impossible but in the meantime several excellent examples of ecological restoration from wetlands to opencast mining areas up to high zones have been realized. The only available resource of seed- or plant material, which can fulfil the demands of nature conservation, regional aspects and site-specificity, is semi-natural grassland. In recent years a large number of methods for the winning and reproduction and use of this valuable material have been developed. To guarantee the use of site specific plant or seed material, approved certification procedures for such material have to be developed. Unfortunately the latest technological developments for site-specific restoration are defined very differently in various European countries and the knowledge of special restoration methods is insufficiently available. The legal sphere dedicated to extensive restoration methods also lacks uniformity. What is common in some countries is strictly forbidden in others. Although in almost all of the affected countries nature-protection permission for building projects are obligatory, realisation of the laws are not or less than strictly controlled. From an overall European perspective it would be urgently necessary to work on a uniform definition of terms and an efficient distribution of the latest technological developments in site-specific restoration processes. References
CIPRA (2001) 2. Alpenreport, Daten, Fakten, Probleme, Lsungsanstze. Internationale Artenschutzkommission, Schaan, Frstentum Lichtenstein, 434 pp. Donath T.-W., Bissels S., Hlzel N. and Otte A. (2007) Large scale application of diaspore transfer with plant material in restoration practice - Impact of seed and microsite limitation. Biological Conservation 138, 224-234. EEA (2004) High nature value farmland characteristics, trends and policy challenges. Report No 1/2004, 27 pp. Emanuelsson U. (2008) Semi-natural grasslands in Europe today. Grassland Science in Europe, Vol. 13, 3-8. FAO (2005) Grasslands of the World, editors: Suttie J.M., Reynolds S.G. and BATELLO C. Rome, 514 pp. INTERREG-Project SALVERE - Semi-natural grassland as a source of biodiversity improvement. http://www.salvereproject.eu/ Jongepierova I., Mitchley J. and Tzanopoulos J. (2007) A field experiment to recreate species rich hay meadows using regional seed mixtures. Biological Conservation 139, 297-305. Kiehl K., Thormann A. and Pfadenhauer J. (2006) Evaluation of Initial Restoration Measures during the Restoration of Calcareous Grasslands on Former Arable Fields. Society for Ecological Restoration International. Volume 14 Issue 1, 148-156. Kirmer A. und Tischew S. (2006) Handbuch naturnahe Begrnung von Rohbden. Wiesbaden: Teubner B.G., 195 pp. Krautzer B., Wittmann H., Peratoner G., Graiss W., Partl C., Parente G., Venerus S., Rixen C. and Streit M. (2006) Site-specific high zone restoration in the Alpine region, The current technological development, Federal Research and Education Centre (HBLFA) Raumberg-Gumpenstein Irdning, no.46, 135 pp. Krautzer B. and Wittmann H. (2006) Restoration of alpine ecosystems, Restoration Ecology, The new Frontier, Blackwell Publishing, edited by Jelte van Andel and James Aronson, 208-220. Krautzer B. und Klug B. (2009) Renaturierung von subalpinen und alpinen kosystemen, In: Zerbe S. und Wiegleb G. (Hrsg.), Renaturierung von kosystemen in Mitteleuropa. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 209-234. Krautzer B. and Potsch E.M. (2009): The use of semi-natural grassland as donor sites for the restoration of high th nature value areas. Proceedings of the 15 EGF-Symposium Alternative Functions of Grassland, Brno, Czech Republic in print Peeters A. (2008) Challenges for grasslands, grassland-based systems and their production potential in Europe. Proceedings of the 22nd General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation, Uppsala, Sweden in: Grassland Science in Europe, Vol. 13, 9-24.
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15th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures Potsch E.M., Buchgraber K., Resch R., Hausler J., Ringdorfer F., Pollinger A., Rathbauer J. and Amon T. (2009) Extensively used grassland as a basis of low input livestock systems and as a resource of energy and raw materials. th 15 EGF-Symposium 2009 Alternative functions of grassland, Brno, in press. Schmiede, R., Donath T.-W. and Otte A. (2009) Seed bank development after the restoration of alluvial grassland via transfer of seed-containing plant material. Biological Conservation, Volume 142, Issue 2, 404-413. Scotton M., Sancin F. and Piccinin L. (2005) Evolution of species richness in anti-erosion revegetation in NorthEastern Italy, 10th EGF-Symposium Integrating Efficient Grassland Farming and Biodiversity, Tartu, 289-293.
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Interdisciplinary project PASTO: How to transfer sustainable and acceptable practices.

Miville-Ott V.1*, Meisser M.2, Chassot A.3 AGRIDEA-Lausanne, 1000 Lausanne 6, Switzerland 2 Federal Research Station Agroscope Changins-Wdenswil, 1260 Nyon 1, Switzerland 3 Federal Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux, 1725 Posieux, Switzerland *valerie.mieville@agridea.ch
1
Abstract The Pasto project aimed at testing and developing a new set of farming practices based on Hrens suckler cows with two main objectives: optimising beef production and upkeeping mountain landscapes. The herds were kept exclusively under mountain conditions on a base farm in the Jura chain and on bushy alpine pastures in central Valais during summering. In addition to many scientific and disciplinary results, much was also learnt about managing an interdisciplinary project. Team working was developed in order to better compare and enrich the results and to assess them on a global and transversal level. Concerning this latter point, different scenarios were constructed and evaluated and by doing so, results were fully integrated. Taking into account agronomic, zootechnic, sociological and economic constraints, it was possible to adapt experimental practices to the reality of local conditions and thus foster a realistic and socially acceptable transfer. Keywords: extensive production systems, suckler cows, local breed, landscape upkeep, zootechnical performances, interdisciplinary approach. Introduction Mountain agriculture faces numerous challenges: a diminishing number of farms and animals, natural reforestation (secondary succession), the search for viable economic alternatives, as well as various social demands such as the upkeep of landscape, the preservation of biodiversity and the offer of local quality products. Within this context, the PASTO project1 developed and tested new farming practices based on Hrens suckler cows. The objective was to create added value for the local economy while contributing to landscape conservation. The project developed an interdisciplinary partnership and an integrated approach which allowed an assessment of the tested practices on different axes: agronomic, zoological, economic, environmental and social. Lastly, the project also enabled evaluation of how to adapt and transfer the tested practices. The different disciplinary results were therefore integrated in the construction of scenarios. Material and methods An innovative livestock farming system with a dual function (S2Fo) meat production and landscape upkeep was compared to a system with a single function of meat production (S1Fo). Both systems involved Hrens suckler cows. The tests took place over a three year period (20052007) at two locations in the Swiss mountains: a base farm at La Frtaz at an altitude of 1200 m in the Jura chain, and a second site on a summering pasture (Le Larzey). This second site is a partially abandoned pasture located between 1400 and 2000 m in central Valais. The data, concerning pasture management, calf rearing and vegetation dynamics, were collected through observations on both experimental sites. However, the socio economic data were collected through various inquiries among different local stakeholders (farmers, butchers, consumers, local inhabitants, municipalities, tourists, etc.).
Pasture management and plant selection2 The observations related to this discipline were carried out on a pasture of 2.9 ha located on a northern slope of Larzey, at an altitude of about 1800 m. This part of the pasture is densely covered by green alder (Alnus viridis). Four cows were monitored by Global Positioning System (GPS) for a period of 3 to 5 days during each rotation (three in total). By combining the animal GPS movements with vegetation maps using a Geographical Information System (GIS), it was possible to determine the Presence Index (PI: ratio between the occupation time in a vegetation unit and its surface). Four main vegetation types were described: tall herb community, open pastures, half-open pastures and shrubby areas dominated by
1 2
See Miville-Ott et al., 2009(a). See Meisser et al., 2009.
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Alnus viridis. The same four cows were also monitored in order to assess the quality of the consumed herbage. Two observers followed the animals and collected plant samples so as to mimic animal intake. Zootechnics3 La Frtaz was divided into two independent units corresponding to both production systems. The intensity of S2Fo was slightly lower than for S1Fo. In winter, both herds were housed separately. During the summer period, S1Fo-animals stayed at La Frtaz whereas S2Fo-animals were allocated to two subgroups. In the first group, the calves were summered with their mother and weaned after leaving the summering pasture (S2Fo-late weaning). In the second group, they were weaned before going to the summering pasture and were kept at La Frtaz, without supplements (S2Fo-early weaning). A rotational grazing system was practised in both locations. Nine cow-calf pairs were used in each of the three systems or subsystems. Landscape preferences4 Three different questions were addressed: What does a well-kept landscape mean? Is a well-kept landscape necessarily appreciated? What are the prospective demands concerning the evolution of the mountain landscape? Thirty qualitative interviews were conducted among various sociological profiles (experts, local inhabitants, municipalities, farmers, environmentalists, etc.) and 284 surveys were collected in order to identify landscape preferences and the expectations of the population in central Valais. Social motivations of the breeders5 The main objective of this approach was to analyse the different breeding systems, to identify the social representation of breeders and the values that underlie them and to assess their compatibility with the tested practices. The central question was what was the likelihood of the tested practices being adopted by breeders and under what conditions. Firstly, a statistical analysis of cattle breeders (number, LU, AA) was made. Then, 40 interviews with farmers and alpine pasture managers were conducted to analyse their social functions with regards to their jobs, their relationships with Hrens cattle, their social identity, etc. The method of the sociological semi-directive interviews according to Blanchet and Gotman (2007) was chosen. Potential of the Hrens meat market6 Fifteen butchers and four representatives of slaughterhouses were interviewed to analyse the market offer. Market demands were analysed through a survey of 258 consumers in three locations (supermarkets, markets and restaurants) and among 30 restaurant keepers of central Valais. Three prospective organisations (at local, cantonal and national levels) for the marketing of the meat were evaluated.
Results
Pasture management and plant selection The GPS monitoring of cattle showed that the animals roamed all areas of the plot, even the most closed zones. The vegetation types known to be of low forage value were heavily visited by cows in the early season. Observations showed that the selection by animals is important: as long as the supply of grass is not limited, the nutritive value of the ration remains relatively constant throughout the season (Fig. 1). At the end of season, the grass offer diminishes so that the selection per se of the animals was not able to cover their needs in terms of protein and energy. Animals consume a large spectrum of herbaceous plants, as well as young branches of green alder. The repeated cropping of small green alder trees (height < 1.5 m) had a major impact on the growth of these plants, which was halted, as well on their canopy area (decrease of 20%). Nevertheless, when the bushes attain more than 2 m height and form a dense cover, it becomes very difficult to stop the dynamic of reforestation.
3 4
See Chassot et Deslandes, 2009. See Frelchoux et al., 2009. 5 See Hermier et Miville-Ott, 2009. 6 See Roque et Miville-Ott, 2009.
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250
200 Hc_R1 CP (g/kg DM) 150 Hc_R2 Hc_R3 Ha_R1 100 Ha_R3 Alnus 50
0 0 100 200 ADF (g/kg DM) 300 400
Fig. 1. Nutrient content of herbage consumed (Hc) and available (Ha) during the different rotations (R1R3). CP = crude protein; ADF = Acid detergent fiber (lignocellulose). Alnus = Green alder.
Zootechnics The body condition score of the cows and the weight of the calves remained at a low level throughout each of the three production cycles in the S2Fo-late weaning system where the weight according to the function of upkeep of the landscape within the system was at a maximum (Fig. 2). At no time was the feeding intensity sufficient to allow the cows to recover. Even though this can have a negative effect on the longevity of the cows, the culling rate did not differ between the systems after three complete production cycles.
600
S1Fo S2Fo early weaning S2Fo late weaning
Liveweight (kg) Body condition score (1-5)
550 500 450 400 350 3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Cycle 1
Cycle 2
Cycle 3
Months after calving
Fig 2. Liveweight and body condition score of Hrens suckler cows during three production cycles in different livestock farming systems.
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The rate of calf growth was relatively high during the first four to five months of life which corresponds to the winter feeding period. Then, during the first three months of grazing, it remained similar in groups S1Fo and S2Fo-late weaning by decreasing only after the eighth month of life, i.e. towards the end of July (Fig. 3). In contrast, the daily weight gain of the S2Fo calves weaned in spring (S2Fo-early weaning) decreased constantly from spring until to autumn. On the one hand, these results show the importance of milk contribution by the mother and, on the other hand, the good forage quality in early summer of bushy mountain pastures. However this calf performance was obtained partly to the detriment of the body condition of the cows.
300
S1Fo S2Fo early weaning S2Fo late weaning
Liveweight (kg) Average daily growth rate (g)
250 200 150 100 50 0 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0
10
Age (months)
Fig 3. Liveweight and average daily growth rate of the calves of Hrens suckler cows as a function of age in different livestock farming systems.
Landscape preferences Generally speaking, the surveyed population prefers readable, safe and accessible landscapes that show various elements, both human and natural. The acceptability of very closed landscapes (countryside with a dense and tall vegetation cover), or on the contrary, very open grassy landscapes, is much contrasted. More closed landscapes are appreciated by biologists who see them as favourable for biodiversity (if not totally closed) while more open landscapes are appreciated particularly by farmers and local inhabitants for their human aspects. But the more consensual landscape is the result of an intermediary, momentary state of vegetation dynamics. Maintaining the countryside in this state requires voluntary interventions otherwise the forest will take over more or less quickly and the debate as to who will provide the means dedicated to this purpose municipalities or other public actors is open. Social motivations of the breeders The great majority of cattle breeders work part time (70%). Two thirds of the breeders have less than 10 LU for an agricultural area of about 10 ha. This unique structural situation has consequences on the social function of a farmers job. Indeed, analysis of the different breeding systems and identification of the social values that underlie them brought to light a clear difference in agricultural practices and social representations between part time breeders and professional ones. The former group confers great weight in their farming activities on the participation in cows fighting (combats de reine), related to social prestige. Economic objectives are of much less importance. Professional breeders cannot give equal importance to participation in cows fighting and prioritise strong economic objectives. Strong social and prestige goals are clearly brakes to adopting new farming practices, especially when they are
36
incompatible with the ideal fighting cow. Breeders most susceptible to making changes in their farming system are professional ones with strong economic objectives. Potential of the Hrens meat market The Hrens meat market presents a situation of high demand and insufficient supply. Nearly half the volume produced is used for home consumption by farmers or is sold through direct sales, whilst the survey shows that consumer demand and willingness to pay are high for this product. Investigations among 258 consumers in central Valais indicate that 35% are willing to buy and pay a higher price (15% or more) for this meat. The potential for market growth thus exists. To achieve this, the involvement of different actors in the market must be stimulated and strengthened. A supply chain organised at cantonal level could fulfil this role.
Discussion The different results show that certain goals are very difficult to conciliate, especially those of landscape upkeep and meat production. It seems, however, possible to conciliate these two objectives by increasing the feeding intensity during certain stages of the fattening. But rather than work on single and absolute objectives, a relative and transversal objective had to be taken into consideration. The different aspects of the system were weighed up in order to define a global system that would be feasible, profitable and socially acceptable. With this goal in mind, a realistic scenario was constructed and assessed, based on the key disciplinary results and taking into account local, structural and socially identified constraints.
Construction of a realistic scenario The objective of the scenario7 was to design a set of technical and organisational practices which would be realistic and socially acceptable in order (i) to improve the local added value of beef production and (ii) to prevent forest extension. (i) To reach the first goal, it was necessary to define the volume of meat that can be marketed through an identified chain. Thanks to the inquiries among the butchers, slaughterhouse keepers and farmers, the different Hrens meat flows were analysed and the potential volume of the market was evaluated at around 300 t carcasses8, the majority represented by young calves that leave the canton of Valais very early (aged under 1 month) and are fattened outside the area. Supposing that these young calves stay in Valais, who can rear and fatten them? Sociological analysis of breeders profiles show that part time breeders are less interested in changing their working practices and have more structural constraints regarding building and forage than professional breeders. The scenario must take this analysis into account. It is for this reason that organisation of production is proposed around a strong kernel of professional fatteners, complemented by part time breeders, who could keep 2-3 calves each. The duration of the fattening period is another key point which needs defining. A long period (22 to 24 months) was chosen in order to optimise cattle impact on vegetation. However, this choice implies stabling the calves for two winters, which is not always possible for part time breeders. Therefore, most of the calves should be sold at the end of the first summering period to professional farmers. Concerning marketing of the product, a labelled chain is necessary to obtain better prices. A chain at the cantonal level9 seems to be the best solution for coordination of demand and offer, organisation of marketing and advertising and as a warrant of traceability. Various arrangements have to be negotiated into this collective chain organisation: agreements between farmers and butchers about prices, standards of quality, type of cattle, duration of the fattening, etc. (ii) In order to improve the impact on landscape upkeep, it is important to define how this supplementary livestock has to be managed. The results of the pasture management analysis show that a pressure of 80 LUhaday is sufficient to stop shrub development. To reach this value, and given that there is a majority of part time breeders, it is preferable to manage the calves by groups of 15 animals per ha and for a minimum duration of 3-4 weeks. Central to the construction of our scenario is the issue of the complementarities between the different breeders profiles. These complementarities must be considered not only from a technical point of view but also and perhaps more importantly from a sociological and symbolic point of view.
See Miville-Ott et al., 2009(b). See Miville-Ott et al., 2009(b). 9 A cantonal Hrens meat association has been created after several meetings organised in the frame of the Pasto project with the different local stakeholders and with the strong support of the cantonal agricultural administration (http://www.racedherens.ch/E/viande_status.php).
8
37
Part time breeders, with a strong patrimonial identity, are able to provide the meat chain with yearlings. But perhaps the greatest contribution of these breeders is that of anchoring the product vividly to a wellidentified territory thanks to their proximity selling networks. A very specific image of Hrens meat, attractive to the consumer, is thus conveyed. Professional breeders are essential to secure a sufficient and regular offer. More present in the lowland, they are able to fatten up the cattle more efficiently than part time breeders.
Conclusions The present project attempted to develop a new farming method enabling the production of bovine meat on summer pastures while upkeeping the landscape. The results showed that it is difficult to conciliate these two objectives. One way of conciliating the two goals is to obtain a higher price for this kind of meat. It appears that this higher price could be linked to intrinsic properties (gustatory and sensory quality) of the meat, but more so to the way in which it is produced: the consumers willingness to pay should firstly be based on the support of a certain image of agriculture and the importance given to landscape upkeep. Beyond these considerations, the development of a realistic scenario taking into account all aspects of the project enabled efficient team work by integrating all results. The transfer of realistic and sustainable practices will be greatly eased by using this tool. In that sense, the development of an integrative scenario has to be considered as one of the most important results of this study. References
Blanchet A. et Gotman A., 2007 (2e dition). Lenqute et ses mthodes: lentretien. Armand Colin, Paris, 128 p. Chassot A. et Deslandes K. A., 2009. PASTO: rsultats zootechniques et conomiques. Revue suisse Agric. 41 (2): 237-243. Frelchoux F., Viret M., Kermisch E., Linder-Berrebi Y. et Miville-Ott, 2009. PASTO: dynamique de la vgtation et attentes paysagres de la population. Revue suisse Agric. A paratre. Hermier R. et Miville-Ott V. 2009. Approche sociologique de lacceptabilit de nouvelles pratiques par les leveurs. Revue suisse Agric. 41 (2): 131-136. Meisser M., Tarery M., Chassot A. et Frelchoux F., 2009. PASTO: gestion de la pture et comportement des bovins dans un milieu fortement embroussaill ltage subalpin. Revue suisse Agric. A paratre. Miville-Ott V., Meisser M., Chassot A. et Frelchoux F., 2009(a). PASTO: un systme de pratiques agricoles innovant pour les rgions de montagne. Revue suisse Agric. 41 (2): 125-129. Miville-Ott V. Meisser M. et Chassot A., 2009(b). PASTO : mise en commun des rsultats et construction de scnarios. Revue suisse Agric. A paratre. Roque O. et Miville-Ott V., 2009. March de la viande de la race dHrens en Valais, Perspectives dorganisation en filire. Revue suisse Agric. 41 (3): 191-195.
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Sustainable development and eco-orientation of Bulgarian fodder production Eco-innovations in forage production a step to sustainable agriculture in Bulgaria.
Stoykova M. V.* Institute of Forage Crops, 5800 Pleven, Bulgaria *mayast6@yahoo.com
Abstract The concept of sustainable fodder production implies three main criteria: economic advisability, social significance and ecologic efficiency. Production of cheap and high-quality forages is at the basis of competitive animal production and its achievement in farm holdings is a guarantee of good economic and social results. The decrease of production costs and the reduction of pollution can be achieved by the implementation of ecologically friendly technologies for forage production, elaborated at the Institute of Forage Crop, Pleven. The incorporation of adequate practices and technologies in the management of natural resources used in fodder production is an option for future sustainable development compared to former agricultural practices. The assumptions that ecological technologies and good agricultural practices for fodder production involve a decrease of production, is not confirmed. At the opposite, the question referred to eco-innovations in forage production reviewed in this work show their high economic and ecologic profitability. Supersedes of some mechanical trails, weed control and sowing of cover crops by hand and others manual practices, characterizing eco forage production, means more employment and so bring positive social effect. Thus eco-production of forages can become one of the tools for the sustainable development of the agricultural sector. The development of Bulgarian fodder production must thus take into account ecological criteria. A nature friendly fodder production can improve farmers life conditions and increase human welfare. This study considers the alternative for Bulgarian fodder production and provides solutions for sustainable development of the branch via presentation of some more effective eco-innovations elaborated for implementation into the practice. Keywords: eco-innovations, forage production, sustainable agriculture. Introduction The concept of sustainable fodder production as common concept of sustainable development implies three main criteria: economic advisability, social significance and ecologic efficiency. Production of cheap and high-quality forages is at the basis of competitive animal production and its achievement in farm holdings is a guarantee for good economic and social results. The interaction between fodder production and the protection of the environment is often affected by economic and social priorities. The study focused on the possibility to adopt eco-innovations in Bulgarian fodder production without economic compromises by the use of some tested technological links and technologies. Material and methods On the basis of statistical reports (National Statistics Institute, 2003 2005) and some scientific publications, mentioned below a review of the state and problems of fodder production in Bulgaria has been carried out. A summary technological study on fodder seeds and forage production conducted at the Institute of Forage Crops, Pleven during the period 1998-2008 assessing different technological decisions grounded on detailed normative costs and actualized prices of inputs (materials, fertilizers and etc.) was used (Stoykova et al. 1998). With the help of qualitative and quantitative indices based on a methodology for the assessment of economic, ecological and social efficiency of the production, the profitability of fodder production was settled out (M. Stoykova 2005-Methodology for complex assessment of agricultural production, Contract N336/ 1.09.2005, Sofia). On the basis of the same methodological approach income of the forageanimal production chain was determined in terms of milk, lambs and calves produced. Results and discussion The results from the study show that there are a number of new technological solutions (eco-innovations) for increasing the sustainability of Bulgarian fodder production. Alternatives to chemical weed control are existing as for example sowing new forages under a wheat cover crop or in a mixed cereallegumes stand (Stoykova and Vasilev, 2003, Dimitrova and Stoykova, 2000 ; Stoykova 2006). In this system (cereal-legume mixtures), the profitability increases by 12 to 30% (Dimitrova and Stoykova, 1999; Stoykova and Vasilev, 2007). In the case of seed production of lucerne variety Dara and depending on choice of different inter-row spacing at the time of stand establishment, nitrogen fixation is about 245
39
kg/h which induces a cost reduction of 234 euros per ha and high ecologic profitability of about 84% (Stoykova and Kertikova, 2008). These benfits can be reinforced by a diversification of farm activities by agro-tourism and craft which could give new pattern of the underdeveloped in the transition period rural areas and landscape. The other interesting practices tested at the institute are including of eco forage productions innovations mentioned above in the chain fodder animals products (Stoykova et al. 2003). Then after comparison of the different farm activities the most effective is replacement of commodity of forages with their inclusion into the cattle breeding. When following up the transfer of income along the chain of lucerne eco-forage production - animal output and expressing the net income per unit area through milk and offspring produced per hectare in cattle and sheep breeding, economically the most efficient alternative decision was to replace commodity production of lucerne forage by its inclusion in cattle breeding: from the 387 euro/h put in to provide minimum yields of 6000 kg/ha forage a net income of 2489 euro/h was obtained at a cost price of hay of 0.07 euro/g and 86.54% profitability The inclusion of the produced quantity of eco forage in the internal cycle of consumption in sheep breeding gave a net income of 625 euro/h and 61.76% profitability. (Stoykova and Kirilov, 2008). Applying of these and other similar eco-oriented practices of fodder production elaborated at the Institute of Forage Crops will contribute to more effective use of natural resources at the farms and will improve their cost effectiveness as well as will increase sustainability of the forage production and agriculture in Bulgaria as a whole.(Stoykova, 2009).
Conclusions The review of technological links and technologies for sustainable forage production, mainly elaborated at the Institute of Forage Crop, shows that there are still unused possibilities for eco-innovations in Bulgaria. In the area of seed forage production there are still no certificated producers of organic seeds. This is a limitation for a mass dissemination of organic forage production practices. Despite the existence of efficient eco-oriented weed control practices, chemical weed control is still widespread for the production of forages. The use of mixed (with legumes) perennial grasses stands as biological tools for weed control are still not widely adopted despite on their high economic efficiency. There are still many alternative fodder production techniques reviewed above as well as many possibilities for forage use in stockbreeding systems which are not known by farmers. This lack of knowledge must be filled out by a close collaboration between science and practice which will increase the sustainability of fodder production in Bulgaria. References
M. Stoykova et al. (1998) Technologies for growing and harvesting of the forage crops and mixed grasses, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Sofia M. Stoykova, E. Vasilev (2003) Comparative economical and ecological effect from growing of pure and mixed with perennial grasses Lucerne stands, 6-7 June, Proceeding of papers of the conference of the Union of Bulgarian Scientists, Vol.1, Part 2, pp.162-165 M. Stoykova (2005) Final report of the project Assessment of economic, ecologic and social efficiency of production at conventional and organic sheep farms Methodology for complex assessment of agricultural production, Contract N336/ 1.09.2005, Sofia M. Stoykova, E. Vasilev (2007) Economic efficiency of some alternative regimes of use of the Lucerne stands, Economic and management of agriculture, Vol.4, 52, pp. 53-57 M. Stoykova, D. Kertikova (2008) Economic and ecological efficiency of a seed production stand of lucerne variety Dara at different inter-row spacings, Journal of mountain agriculture on the Balkans, Vol. 11, N2, 296-309 M. Stoykova, (2009) Sustainable development of agriculture in the conditions of economic and ecologic crisis, Journal of mountain agriculture on the Balkans, Vol. 12, N2, pp. 304 318 Stoykova, M., A. Kirilov, T. Zhelyazkov (2003) Economic efficiency of dairy sheep production based on the forage system used., In: Grassland Science in Europe, Vol. 8, pp. 503-506 Stoykova, M.V (2006) Economic efficiency of some non-chemical methods of weed control in Lucerne, Proceeding of st the 21 general meeting of the European Grassland federation, Badajoz, Spain, pp. 279-281 Tz. Dimitrova, M. Stoykova (1999) Economic efficiency of some alternatives to the chemical method of weed control in production of hay of Lucerne, Economic and management of agriculture, Vol. 5, pp. 25-29 Tz. Dimitrova, M. Stoykova (2000) Economically efficient and ecological friendly methods of weed control in Lucerne forage production, Agrarian University of Plovdiv, Agro-eco Proceeding, XLIV, Vol.2, pp. 169-176
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Structure evolution and perspectives for the development of agricultural holdings in Bulgaria
Stoykova M. V.* Institute of Forage Crops, 5800 Pleven, Bulgaria *mayast6@yahoo.com
Abstract The paper is a review of the state of agricultural holdings in Bulgaria during the 2005 2007 periods. The aim of the survey is to outline the main characteristics of agricultural production systems and actual changes in farm number, size and techno-economic purpose as well as the perspectives of their development. The characteristics observed are adapted to the requirements of the European Commission Regulation 2139/2004/EC that were adopted in the Bulgarian Farm Structure Survey in 2005 and 2007. The final results of the 2007 Structure inquiry of the Agro-statistics Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food of Bulgaria are used in this publication. On the basis of this inquiry, there were 493 133 agricultural structures which match the definition of agricultural holding (set by the Law on Agricultural Census in the Republic of Bulgaria in 2003: SG, issue 17 dated 21 February 2003), in 2007. The more important structural changes in the characteristics of agricultural production systems in Bulgaria between 2005 and 2007 can be summarized as follow: restructuring of agricultural holdings lead to a decrease of their number but as a whole, the number of holdings with own Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA) increased as well as its size. The number of farms growing the main agricultural crops (wheat, wheat-corn and industrial crops) decreased but their average area increased. The number of livestock farms increased but the total number of animals continued to decrease. The labour force in agriculture followed a descending trend. The small economic size of farm specialized mainly in grazing livestock breeding and mixed cropping and breeding type predominated. These characteristics of agricultural holdings listed above induce low economic output of the sector. It can be concluded that the development of agricultural production systems in Bulgaria continues to adapt progressively to the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. Keywords: structure, agricultural holdings, changes, perspectives Introduction Despite the fact that the economy of Bulgaria is characterized by stability and growth of the main macro economic indices during the first year of its European membership, Bulgarian agriculture passes through a very difficult period. Gross added value created in the agricultural sector is 1482 million euro which is a drop by 29.7% compared to 2006. The problem of the development of agriculture is reflected in the quantitative and qualitative changes of farm characteristics. In spite of the dynamic of the process, the structure of Bulgarian agricultural holdings remains relatively stable which induces a low efficiency and economic results compared with other European farms (Stoykova, 2008). The aim of the survey is to outline the main characteristics of agricultural production systems and ongoing changes in their number, size and techno-economic purpose as well as the perspectives of their development. Material and methods The characteristics observed in the study were adapted to the requirements of the European Commission Regulation 2139/2004/EC that were adopted in the Bulgarian Farm Structure Survey in 2005 and 2007. The final results from the 2007 Structure inquiry of the Agro-statistics Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food of Bulgaria are used in this publication (Agrarian report, 2008). To make conclusion about main agricultural holding characteristics, the methods of data analysis including descriptive statistics tools for classifications and generalization of data, cluster and Meta analysis as well as the method of statistical deduction were used Results and discussion In 2006/2007, about 477 thousand agricultural structures met the agricultural holding definition. In 2007, there were 493 thousand farms while in 2005 they were 535 thousand. Farm numbers are decreasing by 11% per year due to the fact that lot of them are below the profitability threshold characterizing them as holdings. The main characteristics of product destination of Bulgarian agricultural holdings are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1 Holdings by destination of their agricultural production for the 2006/2007 year
Type of holdings Holdings where more than 50% of the value of the final agricultural production is consumed by the household of the holder Holdings where less than 50% of the value of the final agricultural production is consumed by the household of the holder Holdings which agricultural production is not used for self consumption Total Number of holdings 344 063 132 553 16 517 493 133 % of total number 69.8 26.9 3.3 100
This high importance of self-consumption of the agricultural production is a sign of under development. The While rented agricultural land increased by 16.3% the proportion of owned land decreased by 2.4%. It could be a positive sign which could reflect a decrease of uncultivated land which still occupy a large part of agricultural land in Bulgaria. The number of holdings which manage their own land reaches 481 920 and the average UAA increased by 1.1 ha compared to 2005. The UAA increased by 11.85 ha which is a positive effect due to European subsidies. There is clear dynamic in the restructuring of holdings status: despite that the number of cooperatives decreased by 23% and their UAA by 19% they continue to use 24% of UAA of the country. During the 2006/2007 year, 418 160 agricultural holdings reared animals (including birds) and this number decreased by 10% compared to 2005 but the number of animals at the remained farms increased. As a whole, despite of enlarged animal farm capacity the decrease of livestock number from all types is established. According to their size, 54.6% of farms are in the Ist class (economic size under 2 economic units). The part of the biggest farms of size of 10 economic units is only 0.1% but they are produced the highest standard difference by 172852 euro. The largest percentage of farms (18.4%) is recorded for the holdings specialized in ruminants breeding and for mixed farming holdings (arable crops and livestock) (17%). Agriculture is the main source of income for about 342 883 farm managers (20% are women) but 150 250 of them work in another sector of the economy. The vast majority of farmers (95.2%) have no specialized agricultural training (only practical experience) and they are old (62 years old in average). As a result, the rate of implementation of agricultural innovations and structural and techno-economic changes are still slow.
Conclusions It can be concluded that there is a high importance of self-consumption of the agricultural production which is a sign of under development. The on-going restructuring of agricultural holdings lead to a decrease of their number compared to the beginning of the reference period of the survey but as a whole, the number of holdings with own UAA at the functioning farms increased as well as its size. The number of farms growing the dominant agricultural crops decreased but their average area increased. The number of livestock farms increased but in 2007 the total number of animals continued to decrease. The labour force in agriculture followed a descending trend. In Bulgarian agriculture predominated farms with small economic size, specialized mainly in grazing livestock breeding or mixed cropping and breeding type.. These characteristics of agricultural holdings are inducing low economic performances of the sector. The only perspective for improving of this situation is European funding but it has to be advisable and strong controlled because of the some corrupted procedures observed. References
Agrarian report (2008) Ministry of agriculture and food, Bulgaria, Sofia M. Stoykova (2008) Final report of the project Some socio-economic aspects of Agro-Food Systems in Rural areas of Spain, Contract with MES of Bulgaria, Sofia
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Economy of dairy farming on mountain pastures

Asheim L.J.1*, Lunnan T.2, Paulsen S.K.1 Norwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute, P. O. Box 8024, 0030 Oslo, Norway 2 Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Volbu, 2940 Heggenes, Norway *leif-jarle.asheim@nilf.no
1
Abstract Overall forage intake on Norwegian rangelands declined during the last part of the 20th century. The grazing period became shorter and the number of dairy cows and goats decreased. As the sheep are not milked, more grazing takes place further away from the mountain milking stall and hut. Altered utilization is likely more important than climate change for the current re-foresting taking place in mountain pasture areas. This farm account study indicates that the governmental payment for seasonal mountain dairy farming is sufficient to compensate for the extra costs compared to keeping the cows on the farm, but that farmers might opt for autumn calving. Milk from mountain pastures has a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and carotene however the challenge is to developing economic viable mountain dairy production systems. Key words: seasonal, mountain, landscape, pasture, dairy farming, farm records, economy. Introduction Seasonal mountain farming is an integrated part of dairy farms in Mid-Norway located in valleys at 400700 m altitude. Cows graze mountain pastures at 700-1,000 m for about 60-70 days from the end of June. The period is sometimes extended by extra feeding and the animals may be kept on fertilized pastures during the nights. The cows also graze on farmland in the valley for about three weeks before and one month after the mountain period. The system has a long tradition and for farms with limited resources of farmland it was more profitable than keeping the cows at the farm year round. However, if possible hiring additional land in the valley would be more profitable even when maintenance of the mountain hut and milking stall was disregarded (Norum, 1966). The value of the feeding resources from Norwegian rangeland amounted to 95 million in 2004. Rangeland forage intake declined during the last part of the 20th century as the grazing period was shortened and the number of dairy cows and goats decreased (Asheim and Hegrenes, 2006). Altered utilization is assumed to be more important than climate change for the current re-foresting taking place in mountain pasture areas (Skarstad et al., 2008). To obtain support for preserving mountain pasture landscapes the period in mountain area has to be at least eight weeks and the cows or goats have to graze outfield pastures for at least four weeks. Under the payment scheme at least half of the farm milk production in the period has to be delivered from the mountain unless it is processed locally. Material and methods In this study average recorded results from dairy farms with (group 1) and without (group 2) seasonal mountain production have been compared. The farms are located in the same municipalities and the records were drawn from the Farm Account statistics (NILF, 2007, 2008). Results and discussion The two groups of farms had 17 cows with an average annual milk yield of 6 600 kg per cow. Lower income from milk was compensated with more other animal income for group 1. The subsidies were 1,542 higher in this group due to the extra support for seasonal mountain dairy farming and this lead to higher farm profit and labour income per hour (Table 1). Milk price, farm yields, and labour input were about the same in the groups. Mountain dairy farms (group 1) were split into two subgroups with calving period either in the autumn or spread over winter and spring. The profit per cow was highest for the autumn calving subgroup, particularly due to lower fixed costs. These farms also had less labour input in spite of three more cows. The milk yield was 200 l higher with autumn calving, but the farmers purchased for 89 more in concentrate feed per cow. Farmers with winter or springtime calving can take advantage of higher milk prices during the summer period. However, lower protein content in milk from mountain pastures may lead to price deductions. The average milk price was quite equal among the two subgroups.
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Table 1. Annual farm results, average for 2006 and 2007, for seasonal mountain grazing farms of group 1 compared with farms of group 2 (grazing on the farm only).
Group 1 Farm numbers Dairy cows numbers per farm Sale of milk, per farm Animal products in total, per farm Subsidies and premiums, per farm Variable and fixed costs, per farm Farm profit, per farm Labour income, per h 31 17 45,047 67,283 47,344 70,588 36,643 10.6 Group 2 36 17 45,984 67,284 45,802 70,707 34,724 9.6 Difference 5 0 -937 -1 1,542 -119 1,919 1.0
Both Norum (1966) and Asheim (1985) found that calving in the fall was more profitable with seasonal mountain dairy farming, but Asheim (1985) added that competent managers might compete, even with springtime calving. Tuv (2002) concluded that calving around January 1 gave the highest income.
Preliminary conclusions With restructuring towards larger dairy farms and dairy farming co-operatives, seasonal mountain grazing and use of rangeland will likely become less important in the future unless governmental payments are granted. The study indicates that the governmental payment ( 3,400/farm) is sufficient to encourage farmers to continue mountain farming although there is plenty of land available in the valley in many communities. However, the payments do not encourage extensive investments in mountain production facilities and farmers may opt for minimum solutions like using mainly dry cows. Data for another year will be added before final conclusions are drawn. Milk from mountain pastures has a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants and carotene (Skarstad et al., 2008), and these attributes can be utilized in production and marketing of special mountain pasture based dairy products. Some farmers have developed profitable production systems obtaining a higher price for products manufactured in the mountain. In the future focus should be on mountain cheese making, and alternative business (e. g. sheep milk) and market development by entrepreneurs or by co-operatives, to ensure survival of the seasonal dairy production system. References
Asheim, L. J. 1985. Economic Analyses of Forage Production in Mountainous Areas. Report no F-319-85. Norwegian Agricultural Economics Institute, Oslo. (In Norwegian, English summary). Asheim, L. J. and Hegrenes, A. 2006. Outfield resources for feed and food production. Note no15. Norwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute (NILF), Oslo. (In Norwegian, English summary). NILF, 2007; 2008. Farm account results in Agriculture and forestry. Annual publication. Oslo. Norum, L., 1966. Area and farming systems on family farms. Report no 40, Norwegian Agricultural Economics Institute, Oslo. (In Norwegian). Skarstad, H., Daugstad, K., Lunnan, T. and Sickel, H., 2008. Conditions and efforts to maintain dairy farms within and outside a landscape conservation area. Bioforsk report no 3(174). (In Norwegian). Tuv, K.H., 2002. Viable seasonal mountain dairy farms. Project end report. Det kongelige Selskap for Norges Vel. Oslo. (In Norwegian).
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Economic results of mountain organic farms in Poland

Jankowska-Huflejt H.*, Prokopowicz J. Institute for Land Reclamation and Grassland Farming, Department of Meadows and Pastures 05-090 Raszyn, Poland *H.Jankowska@imuz.edu.pl
Abstract Questionnaire studies were carried out in 2004-2008 in 9 grassland-based organic farms situated in mountain and sub-mountain areas and in 36 lowland farms. Their economic results (gross margin GM together with subsidies) were compared with regard to biological, agricultural and economic characteristics. Low to medium level of farm investments in capital assets, low level of direct costs of production (including labour costs) and medium to low incomes were found. Despite higher subsidies for mountain farms (58.8% GM) their results were worse than those of lowland farms (35.1% GM) calculated both per ha of agricultural area (AA)and per capita. In both groups of farms, gross margin increased with subsidies. Keywords: grassland-based farms, herd size, milk production, gross margin, subsidies Introduction Natural conditions in Poland favour organic farming (Jankowska-Huflejt et al., 2005), which has recently developed rather rapidly. There were nearly 12 000 organic farms in the year 2007 but their number does not exceed 1% of all farms while in old EU member countries this figure approaches 9.0%. An incentive to organic production should be higher prices of products and subsidies to organic food production. This study was aimed at assessing economic results of mountain grassland-based organic farms compared with lorganic lowland farms and the country mean. Material and methods Questionnaire studies were performed in the years 2004-2008 in organic farms breeding animals fed by fodder from permanent grasslands which contributed in at least 30% to the total agricultural area (AA). Economic results (Gross Margin) of 9 mountain and sub-mountain farms (Maopolskie and Podkarpackie provinces) were compared with those of 36 lowland farms. The index was analysed against a background of the AA, capital assets value, soil quality index, employment, age of farm owners, herd size and milk production per cow. Results and discussion Studied mountain organic farms were characterised by smaller mean AA (23.15 ha), greater share of permanent grasslands, smaller animal stock, slightly worse index of soil quality, higher value of capital assets (3931.2 euro/ha) and higher employment per 100 ha than the lowland farms (Jankowska-Huflejt et al., 2007) (tab. 1). Mountain farm owners were older (mean 45 years) than the owners of lowland farms (43 years). Annual milk production was higher in mountain farms (3,733 l/cow) though mean number of cows per farm was lower (5.7) than in lowland farms (27.1). Mountain farms achieved on average 73.0% of gross margin per ha and 40.7% per full-time worker and achieved 43.4% index of the effectiveness of capital assets of that of lowland though the share of subsidies in gross margin was 58.8% (i.a. due to NVZ (nitrate volnurable zona) (Jzwiak, 2008)) as opposed to 35.1% in lowland farms. Total costs of fuel, electric energy, hired labour were smaller in organic mountain farms than in lowland farms. In the latter the cost of fuel was 136%, of energy 109% and of hired labour 262% of those of mountain farms. This is an evidence of higher intensity of production in lowland farms (tab.1). Mean gross margin in the years 20042008 was 576.9 and 601.4 euro/ha in mountain and lowland farms, respectively or 5018.7 and 8083.6 when calculated in euro/person (tab. 2). Most economically favourable was the year 2007 (see also Prokopowicz and Jankowska, 2008; Niewgowska, 2009). Generally better economic results were obtained by lowland farms when calculated per ha they amounted 111% in 2004-2006, 160% in 2007 and 137% in 2008 of gross margin of mountain farms. Calculated per person the gross margins constituted 288% in 2004, 150% in 2005, 172% in 2006, 262% in 2007 and 246% those noted in mountain farms in the year 2008. Lowland farms achieved from 50 to 188% better results than mountain farms despite higher share of subsidies in the latter. The main reasons of these differences were better natural and economic conditions of lowland farms and higher employment in mountain farms.
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Table 1. Characteristics of studied meadow organic farms in mountain and lowland areas in 2008.
Analysed parameters Farm area, ha AA (% grasslands) Index of soil quality Animal stock, LU/100 ha AA (cattle nber) Capital assets, euro/ha AA Effectiveness of capital assets in euro of GM per euro of capital assets Employment per 100 ha AA, full-time worker Mean age of farmers, year Mean number of cows per farm (21 farms) Mean annual milk production per cow, l/cow (21 farms with dairy production) Costs of : fuel, euro electric energy, euro hired labour, euro Gross margin euro/ha AA euro/person % of subsidies in gross margin Maopolskie Province (5 farms) 17.88 (86.5) 30.45 56 (28) 5329.2 0.23 12.3 44.6 3 3880 89.7 27.4 2.9 687.1 4319.7 61.5 Podkarpackie Province (4 farms) 29.74 (92.9) 47.94 72 (52) 2183.7 0.23 7.6 45.7 9 3550 43.4 29.5 21.3 490.0 7102.9 55.4 Mean of mountain farms (9 farms) 23.15 (89.7) 38 40 3931.2 0.23 10 45 5.7 3733 69.2 28.3 11.1 599.5 5556.7 58.8 Mean of lowland farms (36 farms) 51.90 (47.5) 41.59 97 (82.4) 2399.4 0.53 6.04 43 21.7 3534 94.0 30.9 29.1 821.1 13655.3 35.1
*Legend. Exchange rate of 1euro = 3.8 PLN was adopted.
Table 2. Gross margin production in mountain and lowland organic farms 2004-08 (A: /ha; B: /person).
Years (N) Maopolskie Province A 366.6 888.9 673.4 838.2 687.1 690.8 B 2804.7 4537.4 4656.3 4489.5 4319.7 4161.6 Podkarpackie Province A 122.4 510.3 502.9 546.3 490.0 434.5 B 1461.1 6695.5 7701.8 7488.7 7102.9 6090.0 Mean of mountain farms A B 258.0 2207.5 720.6 5496.5 597.6 6009.9 708.5 5822.5 599.5 5556.7 576.9 5018.7 Mean of lowland farms A B 287.0 6369.1 801.0 8237.9 660.8 10335.5 1131.3 15239.5 821.1 13655.3 601.4 8083.6
2004 (39) 2005 (34) 2006 (34) 2007 (34) 2008 (45) rednio
N: number of studied farms in a given year; Exchange rate of 1euro = 3.8 PLN
Conclusions Mountain organic farms obtained lower gross margin than lowland farms both per ha and per person. They were characterised by higher share of grasslands, smaller animal stock, larger employment, lower costs of fuel, energy and hired labour and better efficiency of dairy cows. In the study period, the gross margin in most mountain and lowland farms showed a slightly increasing trend during 5 years when calculated both per ha and per full-time worker. Subsidies are an important factor for economic results. Their contribution to gross margin was 35.1% in lowland and 58.8% in mountain farms. Production of organic food is profitable providing sufficient levels of subsidies. References
Badania nad wpywem pasz pochodzenia kowo-pastwiskowego na produkcj zwierzc w gospodarstwach ekologicznych, 2005-2009. Raport naukowy z realizacji projektu badawczego HORre, zleconego przez MRiRW, kierowanego przez dr in. H. Jankowsk-Huflejt Jankowska-Huflejt H., Zastawny J., Wrbel B., Burs W., 2005. Natural and economic conditions for the development of organic farms in Poland. W: Enhancing animal health security and food safety in organic livestock production. Proc. of the 3rd SAFO Workshop 16-18 September 2004, Falenty, Poland. Ed. M.Hovi, J. Zastawny, S. Padel. SAFO Sustaining Animal Health and Food Safety in Organic Farming , s. 101-113. Jzwiak W., 2008. Moliwoci inwestycyjne polskich gospodarstw rolnych na obszarach OSN, Woda rodowisko Obszary Wiejskie (Water-Environment-Rural Areas), t. 8, z. 2b(24), Niewgowska G.: 2009, Kondycja ekonomiczna gospodarstw ekologicznych na tle konwencjonalnych, Referat IERiG z lutego 2009 r. Prokopowicz J., Jankowska-Huflejt H., 2008. Ocena ekonomiczna kierunkw dziaalnoci gospodarstw ekologicznych, mierzona standardow nadwyk bezporedni 2006. Journal of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering Vol.53 (4) s.6 , Jankowska-Huflejt H., Wrbel B., Barszczewski J., 2007. The analysis of grassland management in organic farms in the Polish Carpathians Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the Balkans. Vol. 10 No 4 p. 710-723.
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A modelling approach to evaluate the ability of dairy cow systems in mountain area to balance animal production and sustainable grassland utilization
1
Jacquot A.L.1,2,3*, Baumont R.2, Brunschwig G.1,3 Clermont Universit, Enita Clermont, UR EPR 2008.03.102, 63012 Clermont-Ferrand Cedex 1, France 2 INRA, UR 1213 Herbivores, Theix, 63122 Saint-Gens-Champanelle, France 3 INRA, USC 2005, 63370 Lempdes, France *jacquot@enitac.fr
Abstract Some PDO cheese specifications for dairy cow systems in mountain area such as Massif Central impose forage self-sufficiency at farm-scale. The aim of our project is to evaluate the ability of these systems to achieve self-sufficiency while preserving grassland floristic diversity and milk production. We develop a dynamic model of relationships between dairy cattle, management and resources. The model is based on three sub-systems: i) management with strategic and tactical components, ii) herd with all the different categories of animal and iii) feed resources, including grasslands paddocks, forage and purchased feed. The model will include PDO constraints and specific mountain constraints such as slope, distance between plots and farm facilities Changes in farming management applied to dairy cattle and forage system or climatic hazards will be tested. Impacts of these management changes on the whole production system will be assessed. Keywords: modelling, production system, dairy cows, grasslands, mountain area Introduction Some PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) specifications for dairy cow cheese production have been changed to reinforce the link with the terroir. For example in the new Saint-Nectaire PDO specifications, only forage of the PDO area can be used, but it actually means forage self-sufficiency at the farm-scale. Moreover, the use of fermented forage is forbidden. These changes should not be carried out at the expense of environment (grassland floristic diversity), milk quality and production, or impair the ability of dairy farms to cope with climatic events. Production systems must find the balance between animal production and sustainable grassland use. In order to study these issues, a modelling approach at the farm-scale can help show the impacts of changes on the whole production systems over many years (Andrieu et al., 2007). Our goal is to develop a dynamic model of relationships among dairy cattle, management and resources. This model is based on a bio-technical approach focused on grassland use by animals. This work is focused on two research points. The first goal of our model is to describe and quantify farmscale impacts of production system changes and climatic events. To quantify these impacts, the outputs of the simulator will provide indicators on production performance, such as amount and distribution of milk production, forage and feed self-sufficiency, floristic diversity, and grassland use. On the other hand, this simulation model will provide an estimate of the ability of farmers to change their production system according to PDO specification demands while preserving environmental integrity, milk production and adaptability to climatic events. Material and methods The model making process is based on several sources. First, it is adapted from SEBIEN, a whole-farm system simulation model. SEBIEN simulates the dynamic interactions among management, herd and grassland resources in suckler systems based on permanent pastures (Jouven and Baumont, 2008). Additionally, farm surveys were carried out to depict production systems in mountain areas. Owing to strong relationships between PDO products and dairy productions in mountain areas, the model has to include standard constraints of PDO specifications. Therefore, we have developed generic PDO specifications based on constraints which are inspired by Comt, Beaufort, Saint-Nectaire, Cantal and Laguiole specifications. These generic constraints create additional rules within the farming management component (stocking rate limits, minimum pasture days, bought feed limits).
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Once the simulator has been built, additional farm surveys and data from experimental farms will be used to set up the model, especially the sub-system herd (definition of reproduction parameters, relationships between grass intakes and dairy production). These data surveys will also help us better define possible scenarios which will be tested. The coherence between results and reality will enable to validate the simulator.
Results and discussion At this stage of the development, we defined the conceptual model of the simulator. It consists of three sub-systems: management, animal and resource.
PRODUCTIONSYSTEM
Mountainconstraints(Slope, distancehousingandplots) PDOconstraints(Stockingrate limits,concentratelimits) Selfsuffiency rate(feed, products/inputs) environmentalimpacts (biodiversityindicator)
WEATHER
Climaticdata
influence
influence
FARMER
Strategy Tacticalrules Foragecalendar
HERD
Composition Initialbodycondition Reproductionparameters Intakesdynamics weight,averagebody condition Animalproduction(milk: quantityetquality,sold animals,meat)
evolve feed
PLOTS
manages
Surface,swardcomposition Fertility,soilwaterreserve productiondynamics (biomass,age,digestibilityand crudeprotein) Utilizationrate

Store evolve
PURCHASEDFEED
feedvalues(FV,UF,PDI) Boughtfeed&foragekg
STOREDFORAGE
Feedvalues(FV,UF,PDI) Quantityofstoredforage
Figure 1: Representation of model with inputs and outputs
First, there is a farmer management sub-system with strategic and tactical components. Strategic element defines production objectives with designation of grassland uses. They are decided at the beginning of the year. Tactical elements enable to rule the production system over the year. It permits to re-adjust production objectives according to animal conditions, grassland states (lack or excessive production) and climatic events. Tactical components include as well feeding regulations such as pasture rules, fertilization rulesStrategies and tactical rules depend on production system constraints such as mountain and PDO constraints. The animal sub-system is focused on two main categories of animals: the dairy cows and the replacement heifers. Each category is represented by an average animal defined by its age, potential productivity, body condition score and live weight. Reproduction cycle is set up with parameters like replacement rate, culling rate, birth calendar. The model will integrate the recent updated model linking dairy production with the potential dairy production of the cow, the physiological stage, the body condition score and the energy balance (Faverdin et al, 2007). The resource sub-system includes all the feed components: grassland paddocks, stored forage and purchased feed (forage and concentrates). Grassland dynamic will be modelled according the functional types and the four compartments (green and dry vegetative tissues; green and dry reproductive tissues) defined in Jouven et al, 2006. Effect of fertilization and the crude protein dynamics in the grass will be added.
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Conclusions This simulating model is adapted to mountain PDO cheese systems. On the first hand, it will enable to assess the ability of these farming systems to cope with climatic events over several years. On the other hand, changes in farming management applied to dairy cattle (calving period, production parameters) and forage system (fertilization, cutting and grazing periods, utilization rates) or climatic hazards such as drought or rainy during haymaking periods will be tested. Impacts of these management changes on floristic diversity, dairy production and feed self-sufficiency will be assessed. References
Andrieu N., Poix C., Josien E., Duru M., 2007. Simulation of land use strategies taking into account the diversity of the farmland. Example of livestock dairy farms in Auvergne, Electronic and Computers in Agriculture, 55, 36-48. Jouven M., Baumont R., 2008. Simulating grassland utilization in beef suckler systems to investigate the trade-offs between production and floristic diversity, Agricultural Systems, 96, 260-272. Jouven M., Carrre P., Baumont R., 2006, Model predicting dynamics of biomass, structure and digestibility of herbage in managed permanent pastures. 1. Model description. Grass and Forage Science, 61, 112-124 Faverdin P., Delagarde R., Delaby L., Meschy F., 2007. Alimentation des vaches laitires, Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins Besoins des animaux Valeurs des aliments, Tables INRA 2007, 23-55.
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50
Pastoral system of the goat in the arid Tunisian

Gaddour A.*, Najari S. Arid Lands Institute, Medenine, Tunisia *gaddour.omar@yahoo.fr / amor.gaddour@ira.agrinet.tn
Abstract In the arid Tunisian goat has always existed to meet the needs of farmers through the production of meat, milk, hair and skin, through the exploitation of pastoral resources. These areas are home alone about 60% of the national goat population. The pastoral system is practiced in major routes Dhahards, ElOuara and the desert plain Kebili. Herds, large sizes, are on transhumant routes in the land.
Key words: Breeding mode; rangelands; small ruminant.

Introduction The national goat herd of Tunisia is estimated approximately at 1.5 million heads in reproduction of which more than half are kept in the south of the country (Najari, 2005). The concentration of goats in the southern region illustrates the capacity of adaptation of this species to the harsh conditions of extensive production. Indeed, goat breeding remains one of the rare activities able to valorize the wide communal rangelands (Gaddour et al., 2008). The last drought (1999-2003) reduced considerably the number of the various livestock species of the pastoral area; but the decrease was felt for goat with respect to sheep number decreasing (Najari, 2005). So, a typological study of farming systems seems an indispensable step to ensure the sustainable development of small ruminant by adapting the improvement plans to each breeding mode characteristics and resources. Material and methods Data were collected from the arid region of Tunisia as ecologically defined by Najari (2005). The climate is arid Mediterranean, very hard and precarious. With an annual average of 140 mm, precipitation presents a large spatial and seasonal variation. The arid zone is actually the most important of rangelands of the country, and is mainly used for extensive camel and small ruminants grazing (Najari, 2005). Data used in this study issued from about 200 surveys of herds raised in the area. The questions interest the social and the technical aspects related to the herd and the animal managing. The survey had two parts; the first regroups the socioeconomic aspects and the second focuses the herd management data. The farming systems have been built by applying a factor analysis of correspondence (AFC). Each line in the data file represents a farmer, while each column, each represents a variable or answer to any questions. In total, 148 quantitative and qualitative variables were identified and described for each herd. For the execution of multidimensional analysis, and due to the quality of the information required by this type of statistical analysis, data from surveys only 157 were selected. Results and discussion
1. Small ruminants breeding systems The livestock population affected by the survey was about 26351 heads of which 12063 head of goats and 14288 head of sheep. After the factorial axes establishing, all active and supplementary variables and modalities were projected on factorials plans built by apposing the orthogonal axes. The factorial analysis (AFC) discriminated mainly three breeding systems differentiated by the structural and the technical characteristics as defined in analysis data: pastoral system, sedentary system and oasian system. The sedentary system around villages and cities of the south, goat herds browse and valorize the vacant areas uncultivated by cereals and especially olive groves. Indeed, the privatization of the communal lands was massively followed by the expansion of olives plantation and the rain barley crop. The oasian system in southern Tunisia is well known by its oases zones where the crops are centered on the irrigation of the reduced areas. In this system, the goat breeding is semi intensive. In this management mode, rather than kids, small herds have to product milk to meet the family needs.
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2. Pastoral system The pastoral system practiced on the large rangeland of the Dhahar, El Ouara and the desert valley of Kebili. The herds, with big sizes, are transhumant in the wide rangelands areas. The low productive costs, the mobility and the great herd size may lead to a positive cash flow when natural conditions are favorable (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Pastoral breeding mode on rangelands in southern Tunisia
3. Problems of the goat breeding in the southern Tunisia The sedentarization of the population added to the installation of new cultural and economic tendencies radically modified the goat breeding modes. The direct repercussions are mainly expressed by the decrease of rangelands, human resources both in quality and quantity and also, the regression of the herd role with respect to new concurrent economic activities. The livestock does not represent any more one destiny of the population imposed by the natural conditions but rather, a choice which is justified only by its contribution to the family income and the resources valorization.
Conclusion Local animal resources allowed optimising the pastoral production through their adaptation to technical and environmental conditions. The genetic potentialities acquired by the local goat limits the energetic expensive performances as an adaptation criterion and prevent the risks of desertification by ensuring the group genetic continuity and the economic viability of the system of production. References
Gaddour A., Najari S. 2008. Adjustment of the kid's growth curve in pure goat breeds and crosses under southern Tunisian conditions. Journal of Applied Animal Research. Vol. 32, N 2: 117-120. Najari S. 2005. Livestock and genetic characterization of a goat population. Cases of the local goat population in arid Tunisian Ph.D. Thesis State, 214 pp.
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AlpFUTUR an inter- and transdisciplinary research program on the future of summer pastures in Switzerland
2)
Herzog F.1)*, Bni R. 2), Lauber S. 2), Schneider M. 1), Seidl I. 2) Federal Research Station Agroscope Reckenholz-Tnikon, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland * felix.herzog@art.admin.ch
1)
Abstract Alpine summer pastures are a distinctive feature of the cultural landscape of many European countries. In Switzerland, they make up about one third of the agriculturally used land. Available data indicate that land use of alpine pastures continues to develop in two contrasting ways, with both intensification and either extensification or abandonment. How the use of Alpine pastures will develop in future and what the consequences are for, e.g. the prevention of natural hazards or the diversity of cultural landscapes and species will be investigated in the inter- and transdisciplinary research programme AlpFUTUR. AlpFUTUR consists of 18 coordinated research projects which investigate socio-economic as well as agronomic and biological research issues with a scientific approach. At the same time, research findings will be translated into practical recommendations useful for policy makers, mountain farmers and NGOs. See www.alpfutur.ch for more information. Keywords: Sustainable mountain farming, alpine grassland, herding Introduction Alpine summer pastures are a distinctive feature of the cultural landscape of many European countries (Herzog et al. 2005). In Switzerland, 400,000 cattle and 200,000 sheep graze 550,000 hectares of summer pastures (about one third of the agriculturally used land). They spend about three months on 7,600 summer farms before farmers and herders take them back to the permanent settlements (BLW, 2008). Traditionally, three main vertical migration stages can be distinguished as shown in Figure 1: 1. The farm in the valley with surrounding fields and meadows, where winter is spent, 2. the intermediate stage, the so-called Maiensss, which is located in the lower mountain area and is normally occupied from mid-may until summertime, when the herdsmen/farmer family migrate to 3. the alpine pastures, the highest stage, where they stay for about three months, before they return to stage 2 and stage 1 in autumn. Available data indicate that use of Alpine pastures by livestock decreased during the 20th century as a result of the decreased number of grazing ruminants (Figure 2). This becomes most evident when looking at the spontaneous forest re-growth on marginal land in the Swiss mountains (Figure 3). Subsidies for summer pasturing since 1980 have slowed the decrease in the number of livestock grazing on Alpine pastures. However, land use continues to develop in two contrasting ways, with both intensification of accessible and productive sites and either extensification or abandonment of marginal areas (Baur et al. 2007). How the use of Alpine pastures will develop in future and what the consequences are for, e.g. the prevention of natural hazards or the diversity of cultural landscapes and species, are just a few out of numerous questions identified in stakeholder interviews (Lauber et al. 2008). Material and methods To address these questions, we conceived the inter- and transdisciplinary research programme AlpFUTUR. AlpFUTUR consists of 18 coordinated research projects which investigate:
the role of summer pasturing, herding systems and management intensity in preserving cultural landscapes and biodiversity whilst producing high-quality fodder; the effects of climate change on summer pasturing, on biodiversity and on natural hazards; the profitability of summer pasturing in the context of mountain farming, depending on the size of summer farms, productivity and (novel) products and production innovation; the effectiveness of policies and the importance of the regional economic context for the future feasibility of summer farming; the demands of society at large and requirements of the local population including herders.
The projects will be coordinated and collaborate in six test regions, which cover the major geographical and socio-economic regions of summer pasturing in Switzerland (Figure 4).
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450'000 400'000 350'000 300'000 GVE, NST LU, SLU 250'000 200'000 150'000 100'000 50'000 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05
100 90 80
1993:: berfhrung 1993 Administrative der 'angrenzenden re-classification of Weiden' in die LN adjacent pastures
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Mio. Fr.
summering livestock (LU) gesmmerte Tiere (GVE)
summering livestock (SLU) gesmmerte Tiere (NST)
subsidies (Mio. SFr.) Smmerungsbeitrge (Mio. Fr.)
Figure 1: Schematic representation of transhumance between the farm residence (valley bottom), the intermediate Maiensss and the summer farm (according to Burri 1995, Dreier et al. 2004).
35000 30000 25000 20000 (ha) 15000 10000 5000 0 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% Zunahme der bestockten Increase of forested Flche gemss Landesareas (ha) forstinventar (ha)
Figure 2: Evolution of the total amount of ruminants on Alpine summer pastures (expressed as livestock units LU until 1999 and summering livestock units SLU since 2000) and of the related subsidies. Source: Baur et al. 2007.
Share of potential Anteil waldfhige Zone, die forest area with signs verbuscht oder wieder of forest re-growth (%) bewaldet (%)
er gz on en
ai nt ou M
B
er gz
on
w Lo
zo
s ne
n ai nt ou
B
s ne zo p Al
Figure 3: Increase of forested areas from 1983/85 to 1993/95, differentiated according to altitude. Source: Baur et al. 2007.
en III S +I V m m er un gs ge bi et
Ta lz on en
g el zo n
nd la
ll hi ot Fo
e
I+ II
I I&
III
I &V
e in
m su
p er
s re tu as
Figure 4: Test regions of AlpFUTUR: 1 Western Alpine region; 2 Bernese Alps; 3 Valais, Visp region; 4 Central Alpine Region; 5 Southern Alps; 6 Eastern Alpine region. www.alpfutur.ch and Geodata Swisstopo.
Results and discussion AlpFUTUR is still in the making. Up to now, we have been able to secure funding for eight research projects; they will start operating in 2009. Research partners will meet twice every year in order to coordinate ongoing activities, to develop common scenarios and to exchange results. One of the annual meetings will be accompanied by stakeholders. This stakeholder advisory board consists of 20 representatives of major players associated with mountain farming: administrators, representatives of nature protection NGOs, farmer and herder representatives, marketing and tourism bodies, etc. The stakeholders will be involved in the generation and interpretation of scenarios and will help to publicise the findings of AlpFUTUR. AlpFUTUR will come to a close in 2013. Based on the findings of the individual projects, a synthesis will be derived and published as a book. In a film, the major findings will be made available for a larger public. Practical results will be elaborated in individual projects, such as recommendations for improving the quality of cheese, best practice examples for the introduction of new products from alpine summer farms. Policy analysis and recommendations will be made available directly to the local and national administration. References
Baur P., Mller P., Herzog F. (2007) Alpweiden im Wandel. Agrarforschung 14(6), 254 259. BLW 2008. Agrarbericht. Berne, Swiss Federal Office for Agriculture. Dreier S., Ramsauer M., Herzog F. (2004) Alpine summer farms in Switzerland. Bunce R. G. H., Prez-Soba M., Jongman R. H. G., Gmez Sal A., Herzog F., Austad I. (eds.) (2004) Transhumance and biodiversity in European mountains. Report of the EU-FP5 project TRANSHUMOUNT. IALE Publication Series Nr. 1, 191 207. Herzog F., Bunce R. G. H., Prez-Soba M., Jongman R. H. G., Gmez Sal A., Austad I. (2005) Policy options to support transhumance and biodiversity in European mountains. Mountain Research and Development 25(1), 82 84. Lauber S., Seidl I., Bni R., Herzog F. (2008) Smmerungsgebiet vor vielfltigen Herausforderungen. Agrarforschung 15(11-12), 548 553.
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PRAMIG: Improving grassland in the South of Switzerland

Galbusera G.*, Galbusera U., Bertossa M., Dadda G., Garzoli D. Swiss Association for the development of Agriculture and Rural Area (Agridea) ACW Centro di Cadenazzo, 6594 Contone, Switzerland *geo.galbusera@agridea.ch
Abstract During a three year period (2009 2011), the PRAMIG project should transfer on farm the results of research in grassland production in the Southern Alps region of Switzerland (canton Ticino). In 2008 socio-economical and botanical surveys have been carried out in four regions of Ticino. With these informations we could draft a list of priorities for small projects on ten selected farms. The defined research lines not only focus on improving meadow land, but also on a reorganisation of its management that allows a sustainable exploitation of the forage.. The results will be shared through the network of PRAMIG farms. To complete reference data for the Southern Alps region phenology assessments and grass growth measurements have been carried out Keywords: Rural development, fodder production, Alps, participatory research Introduction Conditions for forage production in the South of the Alps (canton Ticino) are not comparable to the rest of Switzerland in terms of climate, soil and socio-economic background (Bertossa 2007). Nevertheless research and development is carried out mainly on the Northern part of the Alps. The lack of funds for research and the significant need to improve forage production led to the project PRAMIG: research should be carried out on-farm, taking not only advantage of the farmers labour but also of his know-how about the general context and the needs for to improve (reality based research). In a further step, results will be discussed within the net of involved farms and diffused to the potential stakeholders. However, for choosing a net of representative farms and defining the most important lines of research activities, we need an overview of the socio-economic context and the condition of the meadows in Ticino. What are the farms principal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that influence decision making in forage production? How does this management increase the degradation of the meadows? Only by answering these questions, PRAMIG will be able to improve forage production in a sustainable way. Material and methods In winter 2008 qualitative surveys have been carried out on 35 grassland based farms in four regions of the canton Ticino. The open interviews covered all aspects of the farms strategy and were evaluated on a forma that allowed a preliminary SWOT-analysis for each farm. On two dates during the vegetative period of 2008 we realised few botanical surveys on ten of the 35 farms using the m ethod described by the Swiss Grassland Society (ADCF, 1996). An over-all analysis of the conclusions from socio-economic and botanical surveys permitted us to draft a list of possibilities to improve forage production in Ticino. Results and discussion
Socio-economic background Cow breeding and marketing have long tradition, especially in the two northern valleys of Ticino. High forage quality is an important feature for herds with high genetic level. As natural grassland doesnt always satisfy these requirements, expenses for complementary fodder are high. Extensive meet production, on the other hand, has become popular on farms with a secondary income mainly situated close to urban agglomerations (typical for the South Ticino). Most Ticino farmers can be considered as individualists with a low acceptance for collaboration, therefore we have in average small farms with relative high mechanization. The forage surfaces are small and often far away from the farm centre. But as pressure on land is high, farmers need to mow them as well.
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Botanical composition of the meadows The botanical surveys point out three main types of problematic meadows, which have been observed in all four controlled regions. They dont only belong to the group of bad meadows according to the farmer appreciation, but also to the satisfying group of plots. Over-fertilized plots, where a more intensive utilisation is not possible. The change of cowshed system in which only liquid manure is produced (with a higher content of available-N) may be a cause of the botanical composition. Under-used plots, where a more intensive utilisation would be possible. The mean purpose can be found in a traditional conviction: A late first harvest provides the quantity that serves as an assurance for the case that summer-drought will prevent a good second harvest. Plots with gaps or gap-filling weeds. The high risk for summer-drought in Ticino and the extensive utilisation of the meadows prevent especially the persistence of ray-grass. Nevertheless farmers often choose the supposedly most performing seed-mixture. Objectives of on-farm projects As a consequence of the problems emerged in both socio-economic and botanical analysis, the following points have been discussed with the involved farmers as objectives of the on-farm projects: Fertilizers management: Nutrient requirements of the different plots and availability of farm-own fertilizer have to be considered as well as distances of the plots and availability of labour over the year to draft a management plan. Graded exploitation of the farm surface:: adjacent and easy-to-use plots could be intensified, whereas more distant and difficult plots may be converted into extensive meadows of ecological value. Management of pasture: Such a change of management implements a change of the traditional conviction that spring grazing damages meadows and livestock. Oversowing-mixtures and -techniques: to improve quality of degraded meadows and especially to prevent weed invasion in gaps caused by draught. Alternatives to ryegrass based mixtures should be tested out, as well as sowing time and techniques. Collaboration: With simple cost/benefit analyses and by convincing the more open minded younger generation, PRAMIG could play a promoting role for any kind of cost reducing collaborations. Other activities: If we want to implement in our on-farm projects tools already developed in the North of the Alps, we need some points of references for the South of the Alps: a phenology survey around the canton Ticino as well as few trial plots for grass growth measurement starting in spring 2009 should deliver the requested data.
Conclusions Considering the socio-economic context and the strategic and personal aims of the farmer families in Ticino, as well as the botanical composition and the traditional management of the meadows, we could define the objectives of on-farm research projects. Many of those concern the whole farm management and have to fit into farmers own practices and mentality. In straight collaboration based on a confidential relationship with the involved families, small projects started on ten farms in spring 2009. References
ADCF, 1996. Apprciation des prairies. Fiche technique 8.1.1. Atlas der Schweiz, 2004. Atlas der Schweiz interaktiv: 3D-Topographie und Statistikkarten [CD-ROM]. Institut fr Kartographie der ETH, Bundesamt fr Landestopographie, Wabern. Bertossa M., 2007. Prsentation du projet PRAMIG* (Prati migliorati). Projektsantrag, nicht publiziert, Agridea, Cadenazzo. Galbusera U., 2008. Herausforderungen an die futterbauliche Forschung und Beratung im Tessin - Situationsanalyse von Betrieben in vier Tlern des Sotto- und Sopraceneris. Schweizerische Hochschule fr Landwirtschaft (SHL), Zollikofen. ISM (Instituto Svizzero di Meteorologia), 1990. Atlante climatologico della Svizzera. Bundesamt fr Topographie, Bern. SRVA (service romand de vulgarisation agricole), 2004. Diagnostique stratgique. Kursordner, Agridea, Lausanne.
*PRAMIG project is promoted by Swiss Association for the Development of Agriculture and Rural Areas (AGRIDEA) and the Swis Grassland Society (ADCF) in cooperation with the Cantonal Office of Agriculture, the Agriculture Institute of Mezzana, the Agroscope Changins-Wdenswil Research Station (ACW) and the Swiss Extension Service for Regions and Communes (SEREC).
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Evaluation of the Austrian agri-environmental program PUL in terms of biodiversity

1
Ptsch E.M.1*, Schwaiger E.2 Agricultural- and Education Centre Raumberg-Gumpenstein, Raumberg 38, 8952 Irdning, Austria 2 Federal Agency of Environment, Spittelauer Lnde 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria *erich.poetsch@raumberg-gumpenstein.at
Abstract In Austria 72 % of all agricultural holdings with 94 % of the total farmland participate in the AgriEnvironmental Program PUL aiming at an environmentally friendly, extensive agricultural land use and at the maintenance of the countryside. Within the evaluation framework positive effects could be identified in terms of the examined subjects (soil, water, biodiversity, diversity of habitats, genetic diversity, landscape, socio-economy). However the evaluation report also indicated some deficits PUL should even be more efficiently according to environmental goals and a transparent and continuous monitoring of the programs and the evaluation of their results are seen to be necessary. Keywords: extensive grassland, mountainous grassland, cultural landscape, agri-environmental schemes Introduction Permanent grassland is the most important land use system in Austria especially in the mountainous regions of the western provinces. Due to harsh climatic conditions and unfavourable site properties most of the Austrian grassland is obligatory grassland. A significant decrease of permanent grasslands of which extensively used grassland has been affected most has to be noticed since 1960. The strongest reduction can be seen for one-cut grassland and extensive pastures but also for alpine meadows and litter meadows which both provide a valuable source of biodiversity and are indispensable elements of cultural landscape. The Austrian Agri-Environmental Program PUL that is highly accepted especially by grassland farmers supports traditional farming systems and contributes to the maintenance of both farms and cultural landscape. Material and methods According to the Common Monitoring & Evaluation Framework (EC, 2006) economic, social and environmental impacts of the 2007-2013 rural development programs have to be evaluated. The agrienvironmental program PUL is part of axis 2 (improvement of environment and landscape) and is evaluated in terms of its effects on soil, water, biodiversity, diversity of habitats, genetic diversity, landscape, socio-economy. Concerning biodiversity a number of specific evaluation projects have been commissioned covering floristic diversity and diversity of (farmland) birds which play an important role in a European point of view (FRHAUF and TEUFELBAUER, 2008). The evaluation was monitored by a committee (PUL advisory board) consisting of representatives of the environmental NGOs, the Federal Ministry of Life and of the agricultural sector and nature conservation officers from the Federal Provinces. Results and discussion In Austria 72 % of all agricultural holdings with 94 % of the total farmland participate in the actual AgriEnvironmental Program PUL 2007 (Figure 1). This programme consists of more than 30 specific measures with interdependent modules, most of which are - as opposed to some other EU countries offered in all parts of Austria. The evaluation analysis (BMLFUW, 2009) indicated a significant shift to higher-level measures such as organic farming, nature-conservation areas, maintenance of orchard grassland and groundwater protection. The measures organic farming and renunciation of yieldincreasing inputs provided clearly positive effects on biodiversity. Due to its high level of acceptance and the extent of area covered by it, the bundle of keeping cultivated landscapes open (meadows on sloping sites) measures as well as alpine pasture and herding, is of enormous importance. It is evident that extensively used grassland provides a high number of different plant species some of which are red list species (PTSCH and BLASCHKA, 2003). In intensively managed grassland areas with high cutting frequency, the floristic diversity is strongly reduced and there is no/little structure of utilization during the vegetation period. Grassland farmers are therefore obliged to reduce the utilization frequency on 5% of the grassland to a maximum number of two cuts per year to provide different species a chance to establish and survive. This obligation is heavily criticised in some intensive grassland regions especially due to its negative impact on forage quality and economy.
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Areas with nature conservation measures have constantly increased and are seen as highly efficient in terms of biodiversity. 70% of these areas are grasslands which comprise valuable vegetation types with rarely plant species and/or provide habitats for protected birds (e.g. corn crake). Due to the stronger cutback of European budget for rural development programs there is an increasing intention to advance measures with a higher positive impact on biodiversity.
100 90 80
area acceptance
farm acceptance
acceptance related to total AA / no. of farms
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
PUL 95 PUL 95 PUL 98 PUL 98 PUL 2000 PUL 2000 PUL 07 PUL 07
programe periods
Figure 1: Acceptance level of agri-environmental programs in Austria from 1995-2008
It is evident that extensively used grassland provides a high number of different plant species some of which are red list species (PTSCH and BLASCHKA, 2003). In intensively managed grassland areas with high cutting frequency, the floristic diversity is strongly reduced and there is no/little structure of utilization during the vegetation period. Grassland farmers are therefore obliged to reduce the utilization frequency on 5% of the grassland to a maximum number of two cuts per year to provide different species a chance to establish and survive. This obligation is heavily criticised in some intensive grassland regions especially due to its negative impact on forage quality and economy. Areas with nature conservation measures have constantly increased and are seen as highly efficient in terms of biodiversity. 70% of these areas are grasslands which comprise valuable vegetation types with rarely plant species and/or provide habitats for protected birds (e.g. corn crake). Due to the stronger cutback of European budget for rural development programs there is an increasing intention to advance measures with a higher positive impact on biodiversity.
Conclusions Aspects of biodiversity have become a special concern of agrarian- and environmental policy and of general public. Agri-environmental schemes as part of rural development programs strongly focus on the maintenance and improvement of biodiversity on a landscape, habitat and species level. The results of the evaluation of the Austrian agri-environmental program PUL indicate both positive impacts on biodiversity but also some deficits concerning the efficiency of several measures which have to be advanced. References
BMLFUW (2009): Evaluierungsbericht 2008. ex-post-Evaluierung des sterreichischen Programms fr die Entwicklung des lndlichen Raums. 273s. EC (2006): Handbook on common monitoring and evaluation framework - Guidance document. DG Agriculture and Rural Development. 15pp. FRHAUF J. und N. TEUFELBAUER (2008): Bereitstellung des Farmland Bird Index fr sterreich Vorstudie. Bird Life sterreich, Wien, 141s PTSCH E.M. und BLASCHKA A. (2003) Abschlussbericht ber die Auswertung von MAB-Daten zur Evaluierung des PUL hinsichtlich Kapitel VI.2.A Artenvielfalt. Gumpenstein, 37 pp.
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Possibilities of organic beef fattening in Pyrenees of Lleida

Villalba D.1*, Cubil D.1, Fanlo R.2, Tor M.1, Serra R.3, Descombes C.A.3, Molina E.1 Departament de Producci Animal, Universitat de Lleida, Avda. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain 2 Departament de Producci Vegetal, Universitat de Lleida, Avda. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain 3 Escola Agraria de Manresa, c/ Ramon dIglsies, 5-7, Manresa, 08242 Barcelona, Spain *dvillalba@prodan.udl.cat
1
Abstract The adaptation of the traditional management of calfs fattening in Spain to the organic regulation is one of the main problems that have the beef farmers enrolled in the organic certificated production. Surface availability of grassland in farms at the mountain areas offer the possibility of different alternatives to the traditional fattening system based on concentrates that is located at the edge of the legal regulation. Two organic calves fattening options has been studied: use of natural meadows with restricted supplementation vs hay and concentrate offered ad libitum. First results on growth and feed intake shows that the use of pastures with restricted supplementation leads to lower growth performance compared with hay and concentrate ad libitum (0.91 vs 1.32 kg/d ; p<0.05). However, the first option meets best the organic legislation on forage and concentrate ratio. Key words: Mountain, calf, growth Introduction The adaptation to the organic regulation of the traditional management of calfs fattening in Spain is one of the main problems that have the beef farmers enrolled in the organic certificated production (Descombes et al., 2006). In a recent survey to farmers from one of the regions with higher number of organic beef farmers, the Pallars Sobir, which located at Pyrenees, only an 11% of the farms fat their calves under the organic production. One of the main reasons for that low rate of fattening was the high price of organic concentrates that usually are coming from the lowlands. Most of the organic farms use the traditional fattening system based on ad libitum offer of concentrates and forages. Surface availability in farms at the mountain areas offers alternative fattening systems based in the use of grasslands and forages produced in the same farm trying to reduce the use of concentrates. These alternatives are technically viable, as has been demonstrated in Spanish mountain conditions (Abidi et al., 2007), economically interesting, reinforcing the link of animal production with the environment, and promoting the self-sufficiency, one of the goals of the European organic regulation. If we consider the two main calving seasons of the farms in this area, spring and autumn, there are two different periods for the fattening calves. The autumn born calves, they are with their dams from autumn to winter, weaned in spring, at 6-8 months of age when they start the fattening period. The spring born calves spend the summer with cows in summer ranges and they are weaned also at 6-8 months of age, when cows go down from the mountains. For these two fattening seasons two main objectives have been defined in the project: a) The characterization of the organic fattening with forage and maximum level of concentrate. This is the system that now is using most of the farmers for both types of fattening season.
e) Study of the possibilities of reducing at minimum concentrate use and maximising direct pasture use. This could be the alternative system for autumn born calves. In this paper we present the first results concerning to animal performance for autumn born calves with the aim of study, at a field level, the viability of calf fattening based principally on grasslands or forages from the own production.
Material and methods The work is financed in part by founds of the University of Lleida and in part by the Organic Production Unity of the Agriculture Department of the Catalonia Government. The work was focused in translating the results described in scientific studies to the organic farmers. Actually, we had focused our project in the Pallars Sobir (Lleida) area which is located in the Pyrenees (Figure 1). The locations of the trials involved in the Project are a cooperative fattening facilities at Sort (4232.165N 00116.555E) and private meadows located at Alins (4232.165N 00116.555E). Both are organic farms included in the Directory of Organic Production of Catalonia (CCPAE, 2009) and animals included were basically from Bruna dels Pirineus autochthonous breed (Jordana and Piedrafita, 1991). In each fattening trial the following parameters will be evaluated: i) animal productive yield (growth rate, feed intake); ii) use
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of pastures (quantity and quality of offer); iii) carcass and meat quality; iv) economic aspects, in the Spanish marked conditions. In this paper we present the results from the first of three designed fattening trials per location. In the Alins location the fattening system tested was the reduction at minimum of concentrate use and maximising direct pasture use (PASTURE). Six calves (243 kg of weight) were placed at the end of may in an 1 ha irrigated organic meadow (972 m.a.s.l). Briefly, the mean botanical composition was 27% Trifolium repens L., 18% Poa pratensis L., 17% Rumex crispus L., 12% Dactylis glomerata L., 8% Taraxacum officinalis L., and 16 % other species under 2% of representation. Herbage quality at the start of grazing was 206 g CP/kg DM and 533 g NDF/kg DM. Calves were supplemented with 2 to 3 kg/d per animal of an organic cereal mixture of barley and maize (50:50). In the Sort location 14 animals (242 kg of weight) were used in the hay and concentrate (HAY&CON) option. Animals had ad libitum access to Lucerne hay (137 g CP/kg DM, 565 g NDF/kg MS) and commercial organic concentrate (124 g CP/Kg DM). All feed offered were from organic production. Calves were weighed at start of trial and thereafter at monthly intervals until slaughter with an electronic balance (0.5 kg precision). Feed intake has been estimated from the amount of feed offered (considering that there is no refuse). For PASTURE trial, grass intake has been estimated using the equations of INRA (2007). Calves will be slaughtered at around 400-420 kg of live weight (between 90 to 120 days after start of fattening).
Figure 1. Project location (Source: http://www.pallarssobira.info/situacio.php)
Results and Discussion Table 1 shows the growth performance of the two organic fattening options. The average daily gain obtained in the HAY&CON option was 18% lower than the data of Bruna dels Pirineus breed under conventional fattening (Piedrafita et al., 2003). Despite of similar initial weights, the PASTURE option has a significantly lower average daily gain than HAY&CON option.
Table 1. Growth performance and feed intake of two organic fattening
Initial live weight (kg) Average daily gain (kg/d) Concentrate intake (kg DM/d) Grass/Hay intake (kg/d) PASTURE 243 a 17 0.908 a 0.065 2.6 4.81 HAY AND CONCENTRATE 242 a 12 1.323 b 0.081 5 2.1
Estimated using INRATION software for the calculation of diets. Means with different letter differ statistically (p<0.05)
We had found relevant differences regarding forage and concentrate intake (Table 1). When calves had concentrate ad libitum (HAY&CON) the ratio forage:concentrate (F:C) was 30:70. In the PASTURE animals concentrate intake was restricted daily obtaining a F:C ratio of 65:35. The restricted concentrate offer seems necessary in order to fulfil the requirements of the organic legislation. Nevertheless it could have the handicap of a high labour cost, and maybe some animals had limited intake due to competence. So, it was necessary to find systems to complement pasture diets with concentrates ad libitum but with some intake restriction. Some options under study are: high levels of salt in feed that reduces intake (Masters et al. 2005), inclusion of forage in the concentrate pellet.
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Once all the animals were slaughtered, the economic balance should shed light on trade offs between the growth performance, cost of concentrates and the costs of pasture utilization. Finally the meat quality analysis will be of interest to check if we can find objective differences between those two types of organic calves fattening.
Conclusions Use of pastures with restricted supplementation leads to lower growth performance compared with hay and concentrate ad libitum. However, the first option meets best the organic legislation on forage and concentrate ratio. References
Abidi, W., Blanco, M., Joy, M., Casass, I. (2007) Efecto de distintas alternativas de cebo sobre los rendimientos tcnico-econmicos de terneros enteros y castrados de raza parda de montaa. Effect of different fattening alternatives on technical-economical performance of bulls and steers from parda de montaa breed ITEA 2007 vol extra n 28 tomo i 330-332 CCPAE. (2009). Directory of Organic Production of Catalonia. Available at http://www.ccpae.org/GD/en/#menu=2_prod-cat=PA&idioma=en&codigo=310000. Descombes, C.A., Madaula, F. Martinez, I., Maynou, M., Perez, X., Pujol, M. (2006) Llibre blanc de la producci agroalimentaria ecolgica a Catalunya. White book of organic production in Catalonia. Jordana J., Piedrafita J. (1996)The "Bruna dels Pirineus" (Pyrinean Brown Breed): a genetic study of a rare cattle breed in Catalonia (Spain). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 24(6), 485-498. Piedrafita, J., R. Quintanilla, C. Saudo, J. Olleta, M. Campo, B. Panea et al. (2003). Carcass quality of 10 beef cattle breeds of the southwest of europe in their typical production systems. Livest. Prod. Sci. 82(1): 1-13. Masters, D. G., Rintoul, A. J., Dynes, R. A., Pearce, K. L., & Norman, H. C. (2005). Feed intake and production in sheep fed diets high in sodium and potassium. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 56(5), 427-434.
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Sustainability of livestock farms in the Aosta Valley

Francesia C.*, Madormo F., Vernetti L. Institut Agricole Rgional, Aosta (Italy) *f.madorno@iaraosta.it
Abstract This work focuses on the sustainability of dairy farms in the Aosta Valley, (Italy). As occured on the whole Alps chain, the situation of Aosta Valley dairy farms is become critical in the last twenty years Three different areas were taken into account: earning capacity, environmental role and the rural set-up of dairy farms. Keywords: Sustainability, dairy products, economics, environment, social conditions Introduction Aosta Valley is characterized by particular working conditions that have caused in the last twenty years a strong reduction of livestock farms in this special alpine area. Its dairy farm system is now in danger as the negative conditions of market and tourism persist. Material and methods This research focused on the study of 104 dairy farms located in different areas of the region. The farms were selected according to their purpose and location. In 2006 a survey was conducted on the farms taken into account to collect relevant information such as their management and organization. This data was processed using the average balance sheet method. The net farm income is the end result between gross sellable production and costs, inclusive of remuneration for labour supplied by the farmer and his family. Results and discussion The results, according to the aims of the project, consider three areas
Economic results Low productivity and scarce returns were the key outcomes of the economic findings. Income distribution has been divided into three classes based on the annual salary of a hypothetical farm worker. The largest profits were made by those farms which were directly involved in the production and sale of cheese. Low profitability was found to be due to high investment costs and unsuitable exploitation of products, particularly milk and meat: 38.4% of GSP is absorbed by costs regarding machinery and buildings. 83% of the farms sell their milk to a dairy at 0.46 /kg on average (min. 0.36 max. 0.59); 9% of the farms process the milk themselves whilst the remaining 8% either self-consumes the milk or uses it in the farming cycle. If we consider the management conditions, we can find some particularties. Specifically we can remember that 87% of the farms can mechanize their hayfields and 80% of the farms are equipped with mechanized milking facilities, but in spite of this milking is carried out by hand on half of the farms. Others indicators talk about the difficulties of the dairy farms: 16% of farmers, above all young ones subdivide their livestock into 3 or more buildings. Also, 8% of the sample farms still has very old, inadequate structures and there are 1.7 tractors on average per farm, with an average horse power of 105 Environmental results The study can show the important role which livestock farms had, and still have, in keeping the territory well-managed and preserved. 90% of farms access agro-environmental measures and 99% respect good farming practices guidelines. A big part of them works with little or no mechanization, but this nonetheless ensures the management of certain areas which would otherwise be abandoned. As meadows situated in high mountain areas have a reduced productive potential, 42% of farms cannot independently satisfy its forage requirements. These farms subsequently meet with an average supplementary expense of over 4.500 a year spent on buying forage and another 2.000 on feed Social results A lack in ability encountered on livestock farms to ensure continuity concerning their own businesses. The farmers are on average 50 years old; 28% are less than 40 and 60% have a low level of education. 13% of the farms is run by a woman. The amount of labour required is a critical point: only 30% of the farms allows itself a few days holiday per year; part-time work can only be found in 7% of cases; 11% of farms hire help, above all in high mountain pastures.
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Conclusions This work has stressed the positive role which livestock farms play in keeping the territory well-managed and preserved. In addition, it was observed that the areas used for alpine pastures and the ones at the foot of the mountains are well-exploited whilst the ones situated mid-mountain are being gradually left aside together with other places which cannot be easily reached by agricultural machinery. It was also noticed that the lack of forage production independence has negative repercussions on livestock farm management, farm balance sheets and the protection of the territory.
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Pro-Alpe: a system project for management of pastoral resources and valorization of Italian typical alpine dairy productions
Piano E., Gremigni P., Paoletti R.* Research Centre for Fodder Crops and Dairy Productions, CRA-FLC, Lodi, Italy *renato.paoletti@entecra.it
Abstract The Pro-Alpe Research Project (http://proalpe.entecra.it/) aims to define operative models for the characterization and valorization of typical mountain dairy production systems. The systemic approach adopted investigated the main components of the system (pasture resource, dairy cattle, milk production, processing and quality, cheese characteristics) to assess the relationships among them, to build traceability models from pasture to cheese and to obtain technical information to improve the efficiency of alpine production systems. The Project comprises three research work packages and a wide range of research actions. Investigations were conducted on chemical compounds which may be useful as traceability markers of the vegetation-milk-cheese systems. The Project is carried out by nine Research Units, which operate in different locations of the Alps. The whole traceability model is investigated at two sites, each with two contrasting vegetations. They encompasse the production areas of Asiago dAllevo, Toma Piemontese and Bitto PDO cheeses. Keywords: system project, vegetation type, grazing, summer farm cheese, traceability. Introduction The European alpine region comprises 4.5 million hectares of agricultural land, with 6.5 million animals, of which 50% are cattle (CIPRA Info n. 69, 2003). The Italian Alps have approx. a million ha of herbaceous plants-covered land, two thirds of which can only be used only for animal grazing. The 4,000 summer farms (alpeggi) scattered in the Italian Alps represent an important contribution to the conservation and the economy of the whole alpine area, otherwise subjected to environmental degradation. The combination of different ecological conditions and specific management characteristics has resulted in the differentiation of several pasture vegetation types, that have a unique value both in terms of biodiversity and capability to sustain typical dairy productions, valuable per se and because of their high added value. The conservation of the diversity of alpine vegetation types, as well as the ecological and landscape diversity is a pre-requisite for the conservation of agropastoral and livestock production activities and for the development of touristic and recreational activities, as a means to promote the alpine area sustainable development and economy. Particular emphasis has to be put on the improvement of the general efficiency of agropastoral systems, the warranty of adequate commercial return for livestock breeders and cheese producers, the promotion of initiatives that may confer added value to the typical dairy production from well defined terroirs, intended as systems characterized by complex relationships among a well defined physical environment, pastoral vegetation, homogeneous human interventions, and specific agricultural productions. Research activities The main aim of the FISR Pro-Alpe Project The Alps terroirs for the characterization and protection of dairy products from alpine summer farms is on the first hand, to define general and technical guidelines for the valorization of typical dairy productions, through detailed studies which consider the whole system from vegetation types, to milk production and processing. On the other hand, the purpose is to derive cheese productions, to establish a well defined link between products and their production areas. The Pro-Alpe Project developed research activities focusing on different pasture vegetation types and their derived dairy products, with the aims of improving the efficiency and the productivity of alpine pastoral systems and establishing well defined methods for traceability, qualification and certification of typical cheese productions from alpine terroirs. The Project had an original multidisciplinary approach, consistent with the investigated systems and integrating agronomic, pastoral, zootechnical, dairy-milk, microbiological, nutritional and chemical-analytical competencies, which were expressed by the Research Units participating in the Project. A significant part of the system experimental activities was performed in alpine environments characterized by typical cheese productions, i.e. Asiago dAllevo, Toma Piemontese and Bitto, all protected by the PDO label. Research activities involved the setting up of experimental trials in as many as ten alpine dairy summer farms, thanks to fruitful collaborations with local Institutions. The Project involved three multidisciplinary research work packages (WP), with a number of research actions:
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1) models for the traceability and efficiency of the typical cheese from alpine summer farms system; 2) chemical and microbiological characterization of milk and dairy products, to identify potential relationships with their terroirs of production and verify the effects of energy concentrate supplementation; 3) characterization of alpine terroirs in pilot areas of the Alps to promote and identify the origin of typical cheese products. Research activities in WP 1 aimed at: a) expanding knowledge to improve the efficiency of the typical alpine cheese system, with evaluation of quality, quantity and utilization of forage on offer from alpine vegetation, balance of forage production/utilization, animal behaviour and quantification of milk production; b) developing integrated traceability models of this system through the study of the relationships linking pastoral vegetation types, grazing herbivores, milk and derived dairy products. Polyvalent experimental protocols were developed, based on the comparison of contrasting vegetation types at two locations of Eastern and Western Alps, from which the entire production system, from pasture to cheese, was activated. In particular, traceability studies focused on the volatile terpene fraction, the non-volatile hydrocarbon fraction and natural isotopes ratios of the selected vegetation types. Animal metabolic and physiological parameters were also evaluated in other two locations, to improve the alpine cattle summer grazing practice and to study the effects of energy concentrate supplementation on cattle response and on the quality of alpine typical milk and dairy productions. Research activities in WP 2 aimed at: the determination of chemical composition of milk and cheese products derived from the experimental trials performed in WP 1. For example, milk and cheese were characterized by evaluating their acidic fraction (Conjugated Linoleic Acid, CLA), identifying potential biochemical markers and defining their composition in natural isotopes, to establish clear links between the animal feed composition and the derived dairy products. The microbic profile of milk and the microflora of its derived cheeses were also examined, to highlight their relationships with vegetation types characterized by key plant species with different terpene profiles, since some strains of the intestinal lactic bacteria can modify, synthesize and utilize terpenes as carbon source. Finally, the influence of livestock energy supplementation on fatty acids, casein fractions and general rheological characteristics of milk were analysed. Research activities in WP 3 aimed at: characterizing pastoral resources of some alpine terroirs identified in sample areas from which valuable dairy productions derive or may derive, with extended studies on milk quality and links with pasture plants. The activities focused on 1) identification, distribution and characterization of pasture vegetation types to qualify terroirs; 2) geographical, ecological and management data acquisition from the investigated areas; 3) floristic, bromatological and fine chemical characterization of pasture plants of interest; 4) determination of terpene and derived sesquiterpene profiles of vegetation and milk, and potential links with their qualitative characters; 5) progressive implementation of pasture vegetation charts and organization of relevant information into models of Territorial Information Systems (SIT) of the potential terroirs identified. A more general goal of the Pro-Alpe Project was the validation of rapid analytical methods (NIR, Fluorescence, Electronic Nose, etc).
Project potential benefits The new knowledge gained from the Pro-Alpe Project is potentially beneficial for: the improvement of the efficiency and competitiveness of the production systems in alpine summer farm areas; the acquisition of qualification elements for alpine terroirs and derived dairy products, also in relation with their nutritional and nutraceutical characteristics; the improved knowledge of relationships among pasture vegetation types, milk and cheeses, potentially useful to link the products to the area of origin; the availability of clear criteria and models for the valorization and certification of typical productions, commercial promotion, quality label request and protection against frauds; the availability of standard methods and operative models whose application can be extended to different aspects of study and development in the mountain cheese production sector. Further benefits will be related to the valorization of multiuse functions of the territory and the massive improvement of production management and conservation of mountain pastoral resources. Acknowledgements The FISR Pro-Alpe Project is funded by MEF, MIUR, MIPAAF and MATT. General Coordinator E. Piano, CRA FLC Lodi (Italy). Publication n. 29.
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Dairy industry and its development in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, Switzerland
Hofstetter P.* Vocational School for Nature and Food Schuepfheim, Chlosterbueel 28, 6170 Schuepfheim, Switzerland *pius.hofstetter@edulu.ch
Abstract The Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (UBE) is situated in the northern foothills of the Swiss Alps. It consists mainly of grassland used as pastures and designated nature or landscape conservation areas. In 2008 there were 963 mountain farms with an average area of 14.8 ha. The dairy industry plays an important role. The implementation of the project study Entlebucher Milk shows that more milk is processed by fewer cheese factories. The production of milk specialities and the merchandising by the brand Origin Entlebuch is a promising prospect. Bottom-up approaches and participative decision making raise the stakeholders awareness of how they can optimise economic benefits while considering ecological conditions for sustainable development. Keywords: Swiss mountains, dairy industry, food, bottom-up approach, sustainable development Introduction In 2005 31.1% of the 7,819 employees in the UBE were working in the primary sector and 41.8% in the tertiary sector compared to 8.9%,and 64.7% respectively in the canton Lucerne (Lustat, 2009). Fringe regions are particularly challenged (Hofstetter et al., 2007) due to their economic weakness and the development of agricultural policy (BLW, 2009), such as Swiss Agriculture Policy 2011, free trade agreement with the EU and WTO negotiations. Over the past ten years farmers have increasingly changed their livestock systems to beef production and their conservation system from hay to silage. Therefore small cheese factories have got less milk because they have been processing silage-free milk. Their efficiency was lower, so they could not generate a competitive milk price. Some went out of business, jobs were lost in the region and more milk was processed in larger more remote creameries outside of the UBE. In 2004 the project study Entlebucher Milk was initiated with the objective of keeping higher added value agriculture in the UBE. The study advised the small cheese factory cooperatives to merge, to optimise milk logistics, to produce more soft, semi-hard, goat and sheep cheeses or organic products and to merchandise them as branded products. Consumption of such products is increasing whereas consumption of Emmental and Sbrinz AOC is decreasing. Dairy farmers should not abandon the production of silage-free milk and they ought to participate as shareholders in the added value of the cheese dairies. The inevitable question arises of whether the findings of this study have been implemented and if added value has been achieved. Material and methods The UBE is a 394 km2 large area situated in the foothills of the Swiss Alps. Its agriculture (30.2 %) and alpine zone (18 %) consists mainly of grassland used as pastures or designated nature or landscape conservation areas. There were 963 ecological performance certificated (EPC) farms with an average area of 14.8 ha in 2008. The main production systems are dairy farms although beef and cattle rearing farms are increasing. During the vegetation period from April to November, grazing systems in combination with stabling are predominant on lowland farms. Most of the farmers are moving their young cattle to alpine farms for summer grazing. During winter there is indoor feeding with hay or silage. In the main valley, most cheese factories produce traditional hard cheeses from raw bovine milk. The project study Entlebucher Milk (2005) was initiated by the Agriculture Credit Bank and the Bureau for Agriculture and Forest of Lucerne (Lawa) in cooperation with the stakeholders. About 650 dairy farmers, factory steering committees, cheese-makers and representatives of upstream and downstream industries were involved in workshops, focus groups or via feedback questionnaires. Data on agriculture, dairy factories, milk prices, types of milk specialities and consumption of cheese and food were taken from Lawa (2009), LUSTAT (2009), ZMP (2009), Echt Entlebuch (2009), SMP (2008, 2009), GDI (2008) and bioaktuell (2009). Results and discussion In 2007/08 more than 50% of all farms were dairy farms in the UBE. They produced almost 50 million kg milk per annum with a low average quantity per farm and per annum (Table 1). This quantity and the mean area (16.7 ha) per dairy farm were below the Swiss (21.7 ha) and Central-Switzerland average. The milk produced per ha was higher than the Swiss average. In the UBE there were fewer organic farmers (5.3%) compared to the Swiss average (11.9%) because of the high levels of stocking rate in the
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main valley and only few organic milk processing cheese factories. Therefore most organic milk is sold outside the region. In 2004, 23.1 million kg milk were processed in the UBE and 15.1 million kg were sold outside the region. Although the number of cheese factories has decreased, the average amount of milk processed per factory and the total amount increased in 2008, mostly because of tie-ups. A new dairy factory was built in a remote part of the region for processing 10 -12 million kg ensiled feed milk for an Emmentaler big-hole cheese, in order to maintain added value in the region and to reduce the transport costs. In this part of the UBE ensiled feed is predominant. In 2008/09, 58 milk and cheese specialties certificated Origin Entlebuch have been produced apart from the traditional ones and they have been merchandised by new marketing channels. These specialities generate higher added value even though they require more labour input than for traditional hard cheese production. The cheese factories seem to offer significant benefits to dairy farmers by generating a fair milk price anyway although creamery milk prices are decreasing. Table 1. Facts and figures from dairy industry in the UBE from 2004 to 2009.
Some dairy farms from Werthenstein and border region Bern are included. Dairy farms in Switzerland in 2007/08 Dairy farms in Central-Switzerland 2007/08 Dairy farms within the Entlebuch in 2007/08 Cheese factory co-operatives in 2004/05 - producing other cheese specialities Cheese factories in 2007/08 - producing Emmental AOC hard cheese - producing Sbrinz AOC hard cheese - producing milk specialities 2008/2009 Farms or cheese factories [nos.] 29,172 3,973 632 14 8 11 9 2 12 Milk quota or average supply with contract per annum [kg] 105,349 103,382 79,030 23,100,000 1,850,000 28,052,143 17,371,079 3,181,055 ~ 3,000,000 Total milk produced per ha or processed per enterprise [kg] 4,860 6,206 5,340 1,650,000 231,250 2,550,195 1,930,120 1,590,528 partial certificated
Conclusions The Entlebucher Milk study increased the need to look for sustainable solutions because of the inclusion of a comprehensive bottom-up approach and discussion with the broad public. Government and credit banks produced a strategy paper for the optimal allocation of investment loans and grants. By enhancing entrepreneurship, the new cheese dairies seem able to generate competitive milk prices and to merchandise their specialities. They have created new jobs and added value can be derived in the region thus enabling farmers to benefit from the profit of the cheese dairy corporations. As a consequence of the free cheese trade, the abandoning of milk quotas and the political development, the economic pressure on the dairy industry is increasing. Apart from the cheese dairy efficiency, there will be great challenges to develop milk specialities and to merchandise them. Synergy effects associated with tourism ought to be utilised more. An increase in organic farming could be boosted by increased processing of organic milk. Further study is required to establish if a common marketing organisation for branded specialities (e.g. Origin from UNESCO Biosphere Entlebuch) would be beneficial for the region or whether each cheese factory should go it alone. References
bioaktuell (2009) http://www.bioaktuell.ch/ , FiBL, Ackerstrasse, Postfach CH-5070 Frick. BLW (2009) http://www.blw.admin.ch/themen/00005/00044/index.html?lang=de , CH-3003 Bern. Echt Entlebuch (2009) http://www.biosphaere.ch/de.cfm/home/economy/echtentlebuch/ , CH-6170 Schpfheim. Entlebucher Milk (2005) Project study. Schnider Th., Hofstetter P. & Hltschi M.,CH-6170 Schpfheim GDI (2008) European Food Trends Report. Bossart D.and Hauser M., CH-8803 Rschlikon /ZH. Hofstetter P., Rder N., Bergamini A., Boltshauser A., Grandchamp A.-C., Keller Ch., Meduna E., Stofer S., Petermann R. , Ruoss E. and Scheidegger Ch. (2007) Impact of Swiss agro-environmental policy on cattle farming and target species in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. EGF, 12, 496-499. Lawa (2009) Personal Information. Dienststelle Landwirtschaft u. Wald. Centralstr. 33, CH-6210Sursee. LUSTAT (2009) Statistik Luzern. Jahrbuch Kanton Luzern, 2009. Burgerstrasse 22, CH-6002 Luzern. SMP (2008, 2009) Annual Report and Personal Information. Weststrasse 10, CH-3000 Bern 6. ZMP (2009) Personal Information.Zentralschweizer Milchproduzenten, Friedentalstr.43, CH-6002 Luzern.
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SESSION 2 Fodder production adapted to the environment
Links between forage systems, practices and biodiversity: an approach in a PDO cheese area in French mountains.
Orth D.1*, Gueringer A.2, Balay C.1, Landre F.2 1 UMR Mtafort, Enita Clermont-Fd, France 2 UMR Mtafort, Cemagref Clermont-Fd, France *orth@enitac.fr
Abstract Biodiversity is now often used to argue for PDO status. This research analyzes the links between forage systems, practices and biodiversity in the St Nectaire area of PDO cheese in France. A statistical analysis characterizes the forage systems of dairy farms of the area as regards their potential impact on biodiversity. Surveys in farms and assessments of floristic and faunistic diversity allow the level of biodiversity to be assessed in pastures. This work shows that behind an average level of biodiversity, differences may be important between farms and between plots of one farm, according to the adaptation of practices by the stockbreeder. Keywords: Biodiversity, Forage system, Protected Designation of Origin, Pasture Introduction The Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) areas play an important role in French policy for the quality and origin of agricultural products. For the justification of this status, a new argument appears: the part played by these official signs of quality as regards the conservation of the natural resources, the landscapes and the biodiversity. Indeed, in such a mark the coupling between the characteristics of the product and the characteristics of the territory is essential. The aim of the present analysis is to evaluate the biodiversity produced and used by the farms on a PDO cheese area in Auvergne (France). It is part of an ongoing research studying how local actors adopt or not this stake of safeguarding the biodiversity, and convey it into actions (BIG-Diva project, part of Diva program Agriculture, action publique et biodiversit - French ministry of ecology). In this project, two PDO cheese areas are surveyed. This text presents the first results for one, the Saint-Nectaire PDO. Material and methods Despite being an area among the smallest in France, the Saint-Nectaire holds the 5th rank of the 29 French PDO cheeses made with cow milk, and first place for farmers production (about 45% of total tonnage is made in farms by breeders). It is produced on averagely high mountains (from 800 to 1800 m), with natural grassland. The specifications for this PDO cheese will change, especially regarding the feeding of dairy cows. After 2020, silage and wrapped balls will be removed and hay will be the only forage allowed. These changes will lead to modifications of the stockbreeders practices (Farruggia et al., 2009). Our approach is based on the analysis of the forage systems, the practices of farmers, and the biodiversity in the meadows. It combines:
The statistical analysis of a survey carried out in 2006 to appreciate which difficulties the new specifications will raise for the dairy producers. We used 18 variables for 455 farms to characterize in a typology the forage systems as regards their potential impact on biodiversity (Jean-Pierre, 2008). These farms were located all over the area, from 800 to 1300 m, but could have plots of higher elevation due to transhumant systems. Surveys in dairy farms: the objective was to specify the forage systems by analysis of the practices and their links with the livestock system. Values at the scale of the system hide practice adaptations at the scale of the plots (Gueringer et al., 2009). We surveyed 20 farms, chosen in order to highlight the diversity of the farming systems (size, milk delivery or cheese making, organic farming, etc.). A simplified assessment of floristic and faunistic diversity carried out on some of the surveyed farms pastures. Each farmer was asked to choose three of his plots: two of them had to be typical of his dairy farming system (one only grazed and one mown) and the third one was selected for being the most diversified according to the farmer (grazed or mown meadow). The management of these three plots was precisely described during the survey. The method used to evaluate the biodiversity relies on field observations of landscape elements (wet habitats, rocks, bare soil, hedges, trees )and simplified counting of flora and fauna (birds, butterflies and orthopterans) based on a physiognomic approach (Orth et al., 2008). The flora diagnosis has to be done for each vegetation facies of a plot and differentiates the herbaceous vegetation diversity and the additional floristic diversity depending
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on landscape elements. The fauna diagnosis is carried out for each above mentioned animal group at the plot scale. The final assessment gives a diversity level for each component which is a score between one (low level) and five (high level).
Results and discussion The results for the typology of the forage systems are presented below (figure 1). We distinguish 9 types of systems as regards their potential impact on biodiversity. The farms are gathered together according to the proportion of various harvesting methods in their forage system, their practices of fertilization, and the difference of intensity they introduce between mown plots and grazed plots in the management of their area. These types are not significantly linked to elevation. It appears that some of them have potentially a stronger impact on biodiversity, as their forage system cumulates several practices having an unfavourable impact (dates of mowing, frequency of cuts, practices of fertilization).This concerns types 2, 3, 8 and 9 and 38 % of the 455 farms. On the contrary, other types (1 and 5) gather 24 % of the farms which have practices respecting more biodiversity for each component of the forage system. Lastly, for groups 4, 6, and 7 (38% of the farms), the impact is more complicated to evaluate. They combine practices having different effects, quite positive for some, negative for others. This typology was built with data which were not originally collected for such an analysis.
Dry forage Type 5: 38 farms Hay only Extensive management Organic fertiliser only Type 1: 73 farms Hay only Imbalance between grazed and mown areas Extensive grazing but intensification of the plots harvested to insure winter feeding Type 4: 79 farms Hay is in majority Topping for a large part off harvested plots High level of fertilisation mown plots to insure forage supplies with the first cut
Type 2: 109 farms Hay dominates Farms heavily stocked High level of fertilisation and split application for a lot of cuts
Type 6: 17 farms Hay and wrapped balls Soil amendment with liming material Mown meadows more intensive than grazed Type 8: 5 farms Important part of the area harvested for wrapped balls. A first cut early to permit a third cut
Extensive
Type 7:75 farms Important part of the area for wrapped balls. Extensive grazing Intensification of the plots harvested
Intensive
Type 3: 19 farms Early grass cutting and damp forage Wrapped balls dominate High level of fertilisation, mineral and solid manure Type 9: 40 farms Early grass cutting and damp forage. Silage dominates High level of fertilisation, mineral and liquid manure to permit a lot of cuts
Damp forage
Fig.1 Typology of the forage systems
The surveys in farms, thanks to more information on practices, on their adaptation to the different plots and their relation with the livestock, allow a sharper analysis. Looking at the farming system of the 20 farms surveyed, and only for mown areas, we distinguish 12 different crop sequences, by combination of the different cutting techniques in the course of the year. Most farms combine only three, but some up to seven. It results more or less variety of dates of mowing and intensity of exploitation of the meadow for one farm. Regarding biodiversity results, we present here only the flora results (herbaceous and landscape diversity) as the fauna was quite poor in all diagnoses in 2008 due to a very cold year. We studied 58 plots and carried out the floristic biodiversity assessment on 75 vegetation facies as 16 plots had several facies. The first thing to note is the high level of landscape diversity for all kinds of meadows in our sample (figure 2a). The results for herbaceous vegetation are more heterogeneous and we found a wide range of diversity level (figure 2b) with an average score of 3 for the grazed meadows and 4 for the hay meadows. These results are not related to elevation. As expected, the means of the meadows pointed
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out as the most diversified are significantly higher than those of the typical grazed or mown ones. They dont always have a high biodiversity level however they generally obtain the highest score among the three plots chosen by the farmer. Even if farmers dont always know what biodiversity means, they are able to distinguish the biodiversity of their plots.
Figure 2a : Diversity level of the landscape elements for the whole sample
70 Number of vegetation facies
number of vegetation facies 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Figure 2b : Diversity level of the herbaceous vegetation for the whole sample
Most diversified mown meadow Typical mown meadow Most diversified grazed meadow Typical grazed meadow
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 Diversity level 4 5
Most diversified mown meadow Typical mown meadow Most diversified grazed meadow Typical grazed meadow
3 Diversity level
Fig.2: Biodiversity results
We also studied the link between the assessed herbaceous diversity and the forage systems described previously in the typology. For this purpose we assigned each farm to a typology group and compared our field results to the supposed effect on biodiversity of the group (table 1). Taken as a whole and looking at the typical meadows, the hypothesis we proposed can be accepted, as the groups expected to be positive for biodiversity show a mainly high level of biodiversity and the groups expected to be negative show a low level. Table 1. Farming systems and diversity of the herbaceous vegetation
Hypothesis on biodiversity Forage system Biodiversity results on the 3 plots (one line per farm) Positive effect expected 1 5/ 5/ 5-4 M 2-5/ 5/ 5-5 G 2/ 5/ 5 M 2/ 3/ 2-3-4 M 5 5/ 4-5-5/ 5M 5/ 5/ 5M 4/ 5/ 5-5G 2/ 5/ 5M 2-3/ 3-4/ 3-5G Unknown 4 1-3/ 2/ 4-5M 3/ 4/ 5-5M 1-2/ 2/ 3M 4/ 5/ 2M Negative effect expected 2 1/ 3-2/ 3G 0/ 1/ 5M 1/ 5/ 0 3 5/3/0 8 3/ 5/ 3-0G 9 1/ 2/ 5-5M 1/ 3/ 1-1P
Biodiversity results: marks from 1 (low level) to 5 (high level), 0 for missing data 3 marks per farm separated by / : Typical grazed meadow / Typical mown meadow / most diversified meadow (grazed G or mown M) Several marks per plot (separated by - ) when several vegetation facies in the plot In italics: organic farming systems
However this system doesnt work for all typical plots and the most diversified meadows can sometimes have a high diversity level although the farming system seems to be quite intensive. A further study based on a second meeting with each farmer gives elements to explain the difference between plot diversity and global farming system. The main elements are: plot location with higher practice intensity for the nearest one, natural environment features which limit diversity despite extensive practices (wet conditions for example) or increase it due to soil heterogeneity, history of the plot as the vegetation assessed is inherited from the former practices. When considering organic farming we notice that the surveyed farms were mostly extensive systems but results on plot diversity can sometimes be low due to the reasons explained previously. Our results cannot completely succeed in getting a precise idea of the floristic biodiversity produced in the Saint Nectaire PDO dairy systems as we have studied only three plots per farm which doesnt cover the whole diversity of the practices. Moreover the 20 farm surveys cover only 7 of the 9 farming system types. Nevertheless, we show some trends which are important to consider for biodiversity conservation in the PDO area. We have found that the intensive farming systems, which are well represented in the area, usually lead to low biodiversity for their typical meadows even if they can also have some more diversified meadows left due to the characteristics of the plots. It is particularly important to encourage these systems to keep up the diversity between their different plots and even within the plots when different vegetation facies are present. Moreover, as we found generally a high landscape diversity it is also
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important to maintain this floristic potential in the area considering the landscape elements as biodiversity islands which would be able to keep or restore biodiversity.
Conclusions As mentioned previously, this research program is still ongoing. So the results and comments have yet to be supplemented. However, the biodiversity of the Saint Nectaire PDO dairy farms can be considered on the whole as medium for the herbaceous vegetation and high for the landscape elements which are therefore increasing the global floristic diversity. This assessment is done before the expected changes on practices due to the new PDO specifications. Nowadays most of the forage systems are based on hay. But a lot of farms also use damp forage, mainly wrapped balls, to secure their winter feeding thanks to an early cut. These farms will have to adapt and techniques like barn-dried hay or acid treating are still used by some farms and could expand which wont be favourable to maintain biodiversity. But this work also raises the question of the link between PDO specifications and biodiversity at the scale of the whole PDO area. First because as we see, the average level of biodiversity may mask important differences from one plot to the other, second, because biodiversity depends on all the farms using the territory. In our case, around 60 % are dairy farms concerned by PDO, most of the others are suckling systems, generally less intensive than dairy ones. Besides, a large part of this mountainous area is used as summer pasture by farmers coming from other areas. It means that the biodiversity of the PDO area is also produced by other farming systems. References
Farrugia A., Parguel P., Hulin S., Reuillon J-L., Pomis D., Beaumont B., Rioud G., Hauwuy A., Veysset P., Martin B., 2009, Les conditions de production laitire dans les cahiers des charges des filires sous signe AOC et leurs consquences dans les exploitations dlevage des zones dappellation, Journes AFPF, 25-26 mars 2009, Paris, pp 137-149 Gueringer A., Rapey H., Houdart M., Bigot G., Josien E., Landr F., 2009, Adaptability through spatial management: a case study of livestock farms in the Massif Central (France), Outlook on Agriculture, vol 38, n2 Jean-Pierre J., 2008, Pratiques agricoles et biodiversit des prairies : une relecture des systmes fourragers en zone AOC Sait-Nectaire, LaSalle ISAB, Cemagref Clermont-Fd, 43 p. Orth D., Balay C., Bonafos A., Deleglise C., Loiseau P., 2008, Proposition dune dmarche simple pour valuer la diversit floristique dune prairie permanente, Fourrages n194, 233-252
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Role of the between-plot plant functional diversity in uplandsdairy farms

Theau J.P.1*, Piquet M.2, Baumont B.3, Chabalier C.4, Delmas B.5, Lacour C 3, Hulin S.6, Farruggia A.7, Carrre P.2 1 INRA UMR1248 Castanet-Tolosan, France ; 2INRA UR874 Clermont-Ferrand Theix, France 3 EDE Puy-de-Dme, France ; 4Chambre Dpartementale dAgriculture du Cantal, France 5 Chambre Dpartementale dAgriculture de lAveyron, France ; 6Ple Fromager, France 7 INRA UR1213 Clermont-Ferrand Theix, France *jtheau@toulouse.inra.fr
Abstract Recent evolution in specifications of PDO cheeses of Massif Central in France has reinforced the use of grassland in forage systems. A research-development project, based on a processing network, was carried out to produce adequate technical references for grass management and for milk and cheese productions. Ten dairy farms representative of the PDO territories were sampled. On each farm, a management survey was realised and the botanic composition was collected on each plot to assess its plant functional diversity. The relevance of the practices according to the vegetation functional type was assessed using a method based on the sum of temperature. Distribution of functional types diversity differs between farms. Nevertheless, this diversity seems not to be enough taken into account by farmers practices. As a consequence, the forage system does not fulfil the potentiality offered by the between-plot diversity. These results suggest the need of practices adjustments for these dairy systems. Keywords: grassland, functional diversity, dairy farm, management, PDO cheese Introduction In Massif Central, cultivated area is composed by 80% of grassland featured by a great diversity resulting from soil and climate variability and management diversity. Those factors influence botanical composition and agricultural or environmental performances of the plots. Those grasslands support uplands dairy farms, which are historically built up on small size structure. Moreover, in hard climatic environment (long winter period imply high forage storage), maintaining the economic viability of the farm requires to research the more favourable milk price and profit margin. Implementation of PDO, which take into account grasslands diversity and its production potential, appear to be a good response to this local dairy industry. Considering that new rules on PDO set grassland at a key point of the forage system (via hay and grazing), it makes even more sense. Results presented are obtained through the ResearchDevelopment project named Prairies AOC. They analyse how inter-plot diversity of grasslands in the farm can be a positive feature to the sustainability of these systems. Our study focuses on two PDO, namely Le Laguiole and Le Cantal. It is based on results of a survey identifying farmers practises and on botanic composition to assess the vegetation diversity of the plot. Material and methods Surveys had been realised in two PDO areas: Laguiole (1900km, altitude from 700 to 1300m, average of 1300mm annual rainfall) and Cantal (7200km, altitude from 700 to 1000m, 600mm to 1600mm annual rainfall). Four farms (A12 to D12) from Laguiole and six (E15 to H15) from Cantal representatives of pedoclimatic variability were investigated. Collected data bring us information on structure and practices in use. Among our sample, the total cultivated area ranges from 38 to 77ha and the size of the herd from 27 to 50 dairy cows. Calving season is mainly concentrated in fall-winter period. Intensification level reveals a distribution on a wide range of variability (fig.1), from 2847 to 7297 litres per dairy cow for the milk production and from 2420 to 6553 litres per hectare of forage area. Most of forage storage is composed of hay (artificial drying for two farms) and completed of silage cut (2 farms) or haylage (3 farms). According to land use planning completed by famers in 2008, the plots of the farms were gathered in production units (PU) according to their use (Colno et al., 1998).We focus our study on the two main PU, namely storage building up (mowing) and dairy cows spring grazing. In every plot, simplified botanical composition (Fallour et al., 2008) based on identification of dominant species, had been carried out.
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According to Cruz et al. (2002) a grass functional classification, which is based on plant phenology, 7000 Cantal area D12 leaf life span, leaf digestibility at vegetative stage G15 6000 and growth speed, was used to define agricultural J15 A12 I15 5000 value of each plot (Ansquer et al., 2004; Farruggia 4000 et al., 2008). This classification considers 6 B12 H15 C12 3000 functional types (namely A B b C D E) and let to E15 2000 feature the pasture potential of each farm and of 1000 each PU within. The abundance of A+B+b grass 0 types in the total vegetation of the plot was used to 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 describe plot productivity whereas the proportion dairy density (Litres/ha forage surface) of b+D grass type characterises the abundance of late flowering species and could be used to Figure 2: Dairy density (milk litres per hectare of describe lateness of phenology. As vegetation forage surface) and milk production (milk litres per functioning (growth rate) is closely driven by dairy cow per year) for the ten farms investigated: temperature, the planning of plot utilisation was Black diamonds are farms from PDO Cantal area and white disks are farms from PDO Laguiole area. expressed on the basis of cumulative sum of average temperature (Theau et al., 2008). For mowing PU, the diagnosis is realised considering the average development stage of vegetation (earring, flowering), which are estimated at plot scale by the proportion of b+D grass type. For spring grazing PU, we consider the realisation of the first grazing date and the end of the spring grazing period relatively to the date the vegetation reach the stages ear at 10 cm or earring. Concerning zootechnical aspects, a diagnosis scale of dairy cows concentrate consumption was used to assess supplementation management and basis ration quality (Chambre dAgriculture, EDE, Institut de llevage, 2008).
milk production (Litres/dairy cow/yr) 8000 Laguiole area F15
Results and discussion

Inventory of functional diversity between and within farms In the considered farms, we describe 4 to 6 different functional types of grass that show a good functional diversity. Among these functional types, productive grasses (A+B+b), which exhibit capture strategy, are the most abundant (83% on average). Nevertheless, a contrasted relative contribution of each type of grass is highlighted, showing very different potentials between farms in terms of plot production and seasonality. On the basis of the relative proportion of each type on the farm we identified 3 groups, which use different type of grass to produce milk. The first category presents an early plant phenology (20 to 25% of b+D) and a relatively low potential of production (71 to 75% of A+B+b). The second one presents a late phenology (27 to 32% of b+D) and a relatively high potential of production (82 to 89% of A+B+b). The third one is early and very productive (>92% de A+B+b). The functional diversity mobilized within mowing PU and spring grazing PU is shown in figure 2. Mowing surfaces are composed of more than 80% A+B (early grasses with capture strategy) in 4 farms, whereas others include also grasses with later development stage (type b) or lower potential of production (types C+D). In the cows spring grazing PU, the plots contain more b and C type species.
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Figure 3: Part of each functional type per production unit: (a) mowing (b) dairy cow spring grazing. Farms are classified by the proportion of A and B types in the forage area.
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Diagnosis of forage practises Plots were graphically positioned according to exploitation dates transformed into sum of temperature and according to their lately grasses proportion. For example, figure 3a shows the grazing plots of the farm A12 from the start to the end of the spring grazing period. It appears clearly that grazing practices are quite late according to the vegetation potential: only 4 plots were grazed before the beginning of the reproductive development (ear at 10 cm) and the last one was grazed at earring stage. This late grazing management comes partly from complementation practise which continue beyond the stage of ear at 10 cm (black rectangle on the figure 3a).
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Figure 4: An example of diagnosis of spring grazing for the A12 farm. The graphic (a) puts each plot in relation with entry date of cattle (expressed in sum of temperatures day-degree, d) and in relation with his functional composition (expressed in percentage of b and D types). The dotted line shows the Ear at 10 cm stage, and the dashed line, the Earring stage. The black rectangle symbolises transition period, while forage is distributed to the cattle. The graphic (b) positions the farm practices on a diagnosis scale of earliness (from white = early to black = late).
Such analysis was realised for all farms studied and each mowing and grazing PU. We conclude that a key point for the success of the dairy cows grazing is an early start, which maintains a good herbage quality, as done by 2 farmers over the 10 studied. Following the same analysis scheme, 4 farms cut before earring what provides the highest quality of storages. Forage practices and systems autonomy Most of studied farms feed too much concentrates according to dairy cow milk production (fig.4). It results that sward is poorly used by cows at grazing, and forage quality decreases quickly during the season resulting at the end to quite low quality of basis rations.
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Figure 5: Quality of the basis ration in the farms (from Rfrentiel 2009, CA, EDE, Institut de llevage)
The table 1 shows the crossed diagnosis of mowing or grazing practises and cows supplementation. It appears that farms with late practises, J15 and F15 for mowing or C12 and B12 for spring grazing matches to those that feed the highest quantity of concentrates related to the cow production. In contrast, farms that rely on earlier forage practises (namely E15 and G15) feed a high to very high quality of ration. This is in good agreement with results shown in the figure 4 for G15, but not in the case of the E15 farm which exhibit an overconsumption of concentrate regarding its cows production level. The ration of the 4 other farms have a low to high quality. For 2 of them, (H15 and D12) the main improvement of the practice include speeding up grazing to finish the first round as soon as possible, what imply to reduce
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the transition period. For A15 and D12, the advice could be to cut earlier (before earring) to improve forage quality. Table 1: Analysis of grazing practices and mowing practices with supplying of concentrates. The farms underlines are good in terms of concentrates supplying. The colour gradient represents a quality gradient for forage, from pale grey (low quality) to dark grey (very high quality).
Mowing > Flowering Mowing between Earring and Flowering Mowing < Earring J15 F15 D12 E15 G15 early grazing H15 Early start of spring grazing End of spring grazing quite late A12 I15 Late start of spring grazing End of spring grazing quite late C12 B12 late grazing
Conclusions This study shows that when a dairy system increases the proportion of grass in cattle feeding, it could take advantages in exploiting the vegetation diversity available. It also appears that whatever the intensification level (expressed in milk production per cow or/and per hectare of forage surface), the grass management must be improved in the majority of the studied farms. To analyse the coherence of farmers practises according to the vegetation potential on a farm surfaces, a diagnosis tool based on a functional approach of the vegetation has been presented. The results suggest that this tool is usable on a wide range of pedoclimatic conditions. Furthermore, it allows identifying room of manoeuvre in grazing or mowing management. Applied to our sampled farms, the best results in terms of herbage utilization were obtained for earlier exploitation of grasslands early start of grazing period and cut before earring in the case of storage forages-. Finally, it is important to underline that even in constraining context, intra-plot or inter-plot vegetation diversity could be an asset if associated to coherent practices which respect vegetation functioning. Moreover, in the case of cheese PDO production, preserving and exploiting the diversity have positive environmental impacts and improve the organoleptic features and the public image of the produce which could be profitable to the cheese industry. Acknowledgements This work was funded by the French Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries on the occasion of a CASDAR project managed by the Ple Fromager AOC Massif Central. The authors thank M. Weber, M. Chantel, C. Barthlmy, A. Lacalmontie, D. Nureau, S. Viusa-Camps, C. Gominard, J. Zapata and S. Violleau who realized the farm surveys. Thanks to G. Baloche to his contribution for the English version of this paper. References
Ansquer P., Theau J.P., Cruz P., Viegas J., Al Haj Khaled R., Duru M, 2004. Caractrisation de la diversit fonctionnelle des prairies flore complexe : vers la construction d'outils de gestion, Fourrages 179, 353-368. Chambre dAgriculture, EDE, Institut de llevage, 2008. Grille de consommation de concentrs pour les vaches laitires issue du Rfrentiel 2009 des rseaux d'levage Auvergne, Lozre, Aveyron. Conjoncture 2008. Colno F.C. et Duru M., 1998. Gestion de production en systmes dlevage utilisateurs dherbe : une approche par atelier in tudes et Recherches sur les Systmes Agraires et le Dveloppement vol 31 pp 45-62. Cruz P., Duru M., Therond O., Theau J.P., Ducourtieux C., Jouany Cl., Al Haj Khaled R., Ansquer P. 2002. Une nouvelle approche pour caractriser les prairies naturelles et leur valeur d'usage, Fourrages, 172, 335-354. Fallour D, Theau J.P., Corler K, Hossard L, Martin G, Jouany C, Duru M, Cruz P, 2008. A simplified method to determine the abundance of grass functional groups in natural grasslands. EGF, Uppsala, Sweeden, 93-95.
Farrugia A, Theau JP, Louault F, Dumont R, 2008. Comparaison d'outils de caractrisation de la flore pour diagnostiquer l'effet des modes de gestion sur les dynamiques de vgtation des prairies permanentes. Fourrages, 195, 301-314.
Theau J.P., Zerourou A, 2008. Herbage, une mthode de calcul des sommes de tempratures pour la gestion des prairies. In Symposium International Vista-WP5, Outils pour la gestion des prairies naturelles, Toulouse, 6-78/7/2005, 91-102.
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Productivity and plant diversity are related to a community functional signature in mountain grasslands
Bedia J.*, Cabaas S., Busqu J. CIFA - Centro de Investigacin y Formacin Agrarias, Gobierno de Cantabria, Spain *joaquinbedia@cifacantabria.org
Abstract Summer range grasslands are a major component of the vegetation of the Picos de Europa National Park. They constitute a remarkable legacy of a historical livestock culture adapted to a harsh mountainous environment. New grazing management options may accentuate the spatial heterogeneity of grassland utilisation and produce undesirable changes in their productivity and botanical composition. We have used the C-S-R plant functional type classification to assign functional signatures to three distinct grassland communities and relate these to their productivity, forage utilisation and plant diversity. Results obtained ratify the hypothesis of the significant relationships existing between the community functional signature and (i) productivity (positive), and (ii) plant diversity (negative) and support the potential usefulness of this approach in order to foresee mountain grassland responses against different management scenarios. Key words: Picos de Europa, grazing, functional types, ANPP. Introduction Grazing affects plant composition in rangeland ecosystems through different processes. It produces disturbances through defoliation and trampling, affects soil biogeochemical cycles through dung and urine deposition and can serve as a seed dispersal agent. The nature (intensity and frequency) of these processes defines the grassland plant diversity and productivity, as each plant species is functionally adapted to survive and grow only under certain levels of resources and disturbances. The classification of plants into functional types according to their strategies and their integration at the community level is a robust approach to predict important grassland functions (Lavorel and Garnier 2002), both for animal production (herbage yield) and nature conservation (plant diversity). We apply this methodology to different grassland communities found in a mountain communal rangeland in the Picos de Europa National Park (north-west Spain). This area represents a remarkable example of cultural landscape in which finely regulated forage utilisation by domestic herbivores has been historically a major asset. Materials and methods The mountain rangeland of Aliva (1,500 ha) is located in the Picos de Europa National Park, the largest limestone massif of the European Atlantic biogeographical region. It has a mean altitude of 1,600 m a.s.l. and is communally grazed at a stocking rate of 1-1.5 LU from June to September, mainly by cattle, mares and sheep. In 2007, sixteen areas were sampled at four different locations with homogeneous herbaceous vegetation in the rangeland according to their importance as forage resources. Exclosure cages (10010080 cm) were placed in the areas and nine cutting controls were performed at intervals of 15 to 21 days, starting just before the arrival of livestock and covering the entire annual production cycle. In each control, aboveground biomass samples were harvested inside and outside each exclosure, relocating them to a nearby position for the next control. From each forage sample, total, dead and green aboveground biomasses were measured after oven-drying to constant weight. Species composition, expressed as % cover, was estimated immediately before cutting taking 50 regularly positioned point quadrats within the cutting frame (100x50 cm). Diversity (Shannon index, H), dominance (Simpson index, D) and species richness (n) were averaged for each area. Plant species were classified according to the C-S-R triangle theory (Grime, 1979; Hodgson et al. 1999), which values plants according to their ability to capture resources (competitors C- and stress tolerants S-) and adaptation to disturbances (ruderals R-). Grassland functional signatures were calculated using the standard C-S-R coordinates provided by Hunt et al. (2004) for a considerable number of plant species. Annual aboveground net primary production (ANPP) was estimated following Sala et al. (1981), and herbage offtake calculated as the difference in total aboveground biomass inside and outside each enclosure. Forage utilisation (FU) was calculated as the proportion of forage ANPP consumed by grazing animals over the growing season (McKeon and Rickert 1984). Grassland areas were classified in vegetation types according to their botanical composition using a TWINSPAN analysis (Hill and milauer 2005). ANOVA and linear regression models were built to compare grassland functional signatures and their relationship with productivity and plant diversity.
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Results and discussion The TWINSPAN analysis classified samples into three distinct grassland types, coincident with the phytosociological alliances Nardion strictae, Cynosurion cristati and Potentillo montanae-Brachypodion rupestris (Rivas-Martnez et al., 2001). All samples were located within an intermediate zone of the CSR triangle (Figure 1), although functional signatures of samples were significantly different among grassland types (Table 1), with Cynosurion grasslands showing much higher R values (species adapted to disturbance in nutrient-rich environments) and much lower S values (stress-tolerant species) than Nardion and Potentillo-Brachypodion communities. C values (competitor species in resource-rich environments) were similar in the three vegetation types. The higher R values found in Cynosurion grasslands could be a response to their distinctive seasonal pattern of defoliation, which is higher at the beginning of the grazing season, thus favouring gap colonisation and a fast development of ruderals during the early, most productive period of the season. It might be also due to a higher presence of livestock involved in other activities such as resting and sheltering, therefore indicating higher disturbance intensity not directly linked to grazing but to other important livestock behavioural patterns.
Figure 1. Triangular plot of C-S-R coordinates calculated for each sample, grouped by grassland types
Cynosurion grasslands presented highest herbage yields (mean ANPP=507 gDM/m2/year) and lowest plant diversities (mean H=2.18, Table 1). ANPP values were consistent with the theory of plant strategies developed by Grime (1979), with lower yields corresponding to higher S values. This fact can be interpreted as an indicator of poorer conditions for plant growth favouring plants with nutrient-conservative traits. On the other hand, the lowest diversity values of Cynosurion are explained by the dominance of fewer, more productive plant species with more developed resource-acquisitive traits, which tend to monopolize available resources. This is illustrated by dominance, which was the highest of all three community types (D=0.39, Table 1). Table 1. Fitted values ( s.e.) of C, S and R coordinates, ANPP, H (Shannon index), D (Simpson index) and n (species richness), for each grassland type, from one-way ANOVAs for each response variable. Letters indicate groups (TukeyHSD, confidence level = 0.95)
C S R ANPP FU H D n Nardion 0.27a (0.008) 0.50a (0.011) 0.23b (0.013) 261a (34.2) 78a (4.1) 3.01b (0.106) 0.24a (0.034) 27.1b (0.66) Cynosurion 0.33b (0.006) 0.36b (0.008) 0.31c (0.009) 507b (24.2) 78a (2.9) 2.18a (0.075) 0.39b (0.024) 19.6a (0.47) Brachypodion 0.33b (0.008) 0.49a (0.011) 0.18a (0.013) 319a (34.2) 78a (4.1) 2.93b (0.106) 0.25a (0.034) 28.4b (0.66) P <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.996 <0.001 0.003 <0.001
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Annual forage utilisations were identical for all grassland communities, suggesting high grazing pressure at the landscape level. This variable is not therefore a good estimate of disturbance intensity. The best predictor of ANPP and plant diversity was the C:S ratio (Figure 2), while the R coordinate or any variable containing it (e.g. R:S) did not yield good estimates. These results suggest that the productivity of the Cynosurion grassland community could increase if current disturbance is reduced, favouring competitor plants at the expense of ruderals. Measures to reduce disturbance need previous knowledge of livestock grazing behavioural patterns and how these are controlled by grazing culture and farming practices (Provenza, 2007).
Figure 2. Linear regressions of ANPP and Shannon index against the C:S ratio.
Our results support the idea that intensively grazed landscapes can support plant communities of high diversity and conservation value while maintaining optimal livestock production levels if more productive grasslands are also found. The moderate flow of resources exerted by domestic grazers from the less productive and more diverse Nardion and Potentillo-Brachypodion grasslands to very productive Cynosurion grasslands, appears to be the main process responsible for the sustainability of the whole system. At the same time, grazing activity prevents shrub encroachment, thus contributing to a higher biological and structural diversity of mountain rangelands along a gradient of disturbance induced by grazers. Processes described can only be supported in non-fragmented heterogeneous rangelands (Hobbs et al. 2008), as it is the case of most communal properties in northern Spain, and also if adequate stocking rates and spatial distribution are maintained.
Conclusions Integration of a plant functional classification at the community level is a promising tool to estimate important rangeland characteristics such as productivity and plant diversity. This approach has direct applications in grazing management for conservation and animal production at different spatial and conceptual scales. Further efforts covering a wider range of existing community types will be valuable to prove the robustness and practical utility of this methodology in communal mountain pastures. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Picos de Europa National Park authority for its support in the course of fieldwork and to the Spanish Institute for Agricultural Research (INIA) for financing the project (RTA2005-00160C02-00) and a scholarship grant of the first author. We also acknowledge an anonymous reviewer for useful comments on the original manuscript.
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References
Grime J.P. (1979) Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. Wiley. Chichester, 417 pp. Hill M.O. and milauer P. (2005) TWINSPAN for Windows version 2.3. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology & University of South Bohemia, Huntingdon & esk Budjovice. Hobbs N.T., Reid R.S., Galvin K.A. and Kruska R.S. (2008) Fragmentation of arid and semi-arid ecosystems: implications for people and animals. In: Galvin K.A., Reid R.S., Behnke Jr. R.H., Hobbs N.T. (eds): Fragmentation in Semi-Arid and Arid Landscapes. Springer, pp. 25-44. Hodgson J.G., Wilson P.J., Hunt R., Grime J.P. and Thompson K. (1999) Allocating C-S-R plant functional types: a soft approach to a hard problem. Oikos 85, 282-294. Hunt R.,, Hodgson J.G., Thompson K., Bungener P., Dunnett N.P. and Askew A.P. (2004) A new practical tool for deriving a functional signature for herbaceous vegetation. Applied Vegetation Science 7, 163-170. Lavorel S., and Garnier E. (2002) Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits: revisiting the Holy Grail. Functional Ecology 16, 545-556. McKeon G.M. and Rickert K.G. (1984) A computer model of the integration of forage options for beef production. Proceedings Australian Society Animal Production 15, 15-19. Provenza F.D. (2007). Social organization, culture and use of landscapes by livestock. Options Mditerranennes. Serie A. N 74, 307-315. Rivas-Martnez S., Fernndez G., Loidi J., Lousa M. and Penas A. (2001) Syntaxonomical checklist of vascular plant communities of Spain and Portugal to association level. Revista Itinera Geobotanica 14, 5-321. Sala O., Deregibus V., Schlichter T. and Alippe H. (1981) Productivity dynamics of a native temperate grassland in Argentina. Journal of Rangeland Management 34, 48-51.
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Approaches on the biodiversity changes of undergrazed permanent grassland from Semenic Mountains (Cara-Severin County, western Romania)
Sreanu V.*, Moisuc A., Butnariu M., Samfira I. Banats University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timioara, Romania *vera_s_vera@yahoo.com
Abstract One of the common activities of the people in Cara-Severin County is animal breeding and permanent grassland is the main source of forage. The number of animals that are using grassland have suffered a great decrease twenty years ago. Because of that most grassland was undergrazed determining changes in the structure of the vegetation. The purpose of this work is to show the variation and dynamics of plant diversity during the 2003 2008 period in four grazed grassland from Semenic Mountains. In that area the main problem is due to the encroachment of some shrub species (Crataegus monogyna, Rosa canina, Prunus spinosum). Some undesired herbaceous noxious and weed species that are competing for light, space, nutrients and water with the other plant species, are also present in the vegetation. Braken (Pteridium aquilinum) represents the greatest problem. Keywords: plant biodiversity, grassland, undergrazing, shrubs, braken. Introduction Semenic Mountains are one sector of Banatului Mountains and are included in the National Park Semenic Cheile Caraului. The maximum temperature can reach 35 C and the minimum one 24 C. The yearly average rainfall amount is 1400 mm. The months with the most abundant rainfalls are April, May, June, July and August. The main soil types from Semenic Massif are brown acid soils typical for the mixed forests of spruce with beech, these being due to the climate of the area. On these soils grassland is composed of Agrostis tenuis, Festuca rubra, Dechampsia caespitosa, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Trifolium repens, Genista sagittalis, Luzula luzuloides, Carex brizoides, Colchicum autumnale, Achillea millefolium, etc. There are also brown alluvial soils covered with Nardus stricta because of the low pH. In Semenic Mountains, grassland over the 1200 m altitude is considered primary as natural grassland, grassland below 1200 m as secondary natural grassland. Material and methods The material of this research is represented by four grassland surfaces from Buconia locality (Cara Severin County, Romania) placed in different ecological conditions (slope, altitude, exposure, etc.). The soil pH of the studied surfaces is acid being comprised between 5.6 and 5.9. These grasslands are grazed occasionally during the year. The data were collected between 2003 and 2008. The method used for the research of the grasslands are the double metre method (point quadrate method) (Daget and Poissonet, 1971) which facilitates the determination of some vegetation indexes as the specific volume (SV %), the biodiversity (Shannon-Weaver) index and the pastoral value of the grassland. Correlation coefficients have been also calculated between different vegetation parameters. Results and discussion The vegetation of the grassland Buconia no. 1 is dominated by Agrostis tenuis and Festuca rubra; grassland Buconia no. 2 and Buconia no. 4 are dominated by A. tenuis and Agropyron repens; grassland Buconia no. 3 is covered mostly by A. tenuis and Hieracium pilosella. The botanical composition of the vegetation of the 4 studied grasslands is presented in figure 1 from the point of view of the specific volume of the species groups. In Buconia no. 1 the greatest specific volume is represented by grasses, the situation being relatively similar from a year to another year; an important contribution to the vegetation has Juncus effusus (10 - 15.8%), the amount of it remaining relatively constant during the time. In this grassland, there is also an important quantity of Eryngium campestre, this species being considered as a weed because it cannot be consumed by the herbivores.
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Grasses Trees and shrubs 100 90 80 70 specific volume (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2003 2004
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Cyperaceae and Juncaceae Moses and ferns
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Buconia 4
Figure 1. The dynamics of the botanical composition of the grasslands from Buconia from 2003 to 2008
Grassland Buconia no. 2 is characterised by a powerful decrease of the grasses during the study and an increase of the shrub contribution (Crataegus monogyna, Rosa canina) from 1% to 17% and braken (Pteridium aquilinum) from 2% to 10%. In the case of grassland Buconia no. 3, the plants group with the greatest specific volume in the vegetation is that of the other botanical families (especially Asteraceae as H. pilosella, one of the dominant species), with values between 52.4 % and 65.2 %. Euphorbia cyparissias a poisonous species for cattle has an important contribution in the vegetation cover. Grassland Buconia no. 4 is characterised by a great variation of the plants groups during the studied period. Thus, there can be noticed a great expansion of the shrub species C. monogyna and R. canina from 3% to 27% in the six years of study. This fact is accompanied by the decrease of the other groups present in the vegetation of grassland Buconia no. 4. The dynamics of biodiversity index (Shannon-Weaver) is shown in figure 2. This index has values that are characteristic for a vegetation with an average biodiversity. The lowest values of Shannon Weaver index are observed in grassland Buconia no. 2 (2.34) and the highest in the case of Buconia no. 4 (3.9). The dynamics of Shannon Weaver index shows a relatively constant evolution of the biodiversity, the greatest variation being recorded in grassland Buconia no. 1 from 2.6 to 3.4, but the values are characteristic for the same range of biodiversity, respectively medium diversity of the species. From the point of view of the pastoral value (fig. 3) the grasslands analysed in this work are characterised by low to medium values. The pastoral values from 2003 to 2008 remained relatively constant, except in grassland Buconia no. 4 where a decrease from 49 to 28 is registered. This fact is mostly due to the abandonment of the exploitation that determinates the decrease of the valuable species and the proliferation of shrubs and weeds. For a better characterisation of the grassland vegetation of the analysed surfaces, correlation coefficients (r) between different vegetation parameters (biodiversity, pastoral value, specific volume of the different plants groups) have been calculated (table 1). The pairs of independent and dependent variables analysed here show the existence of few negative and positive correlations.
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2008
4.5 4
Shannon-Weaver index
Buconia 1 Buconia 3
Buconia 2 Buconia 4
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2003 2004 2005

year
2006
2007
2008
Figure 2. The dynamics of the biodiversity in the grassland from Buconia from 2003 to 2008
60 50
pastoral value
Buconia 1 Buconia 3
Buconia 2 Buconia 4
40 30 20 10 0 2003 2004 2005

year
2006
2007
2008
Figure 3. The dynamics of the pastoral value in the grassland from Buconia from 2003 to 2008
The most powerful negative correlation was found between the SV % of the grasses and the SV % of the species from other botanical families (r = - 0.88) this showing that the increase of the grasses group determinates the decrease of the other botanical families. Other correlations were found between SV % of grasses and SV % of Cyperaceae and Juncaceae (r = 0.53), the same correlation being determined between SV % of other botanical families and SV % of moses and ferns. Another pair of variables that has shown a negative correlation is represented by SV % of Cyperaceae and Juncaceae and SV % of other botanical families (r = -0.56). The vegetation of the grasslands from Buconia is characterised by very different parameters determined by the management of these surfaces and the ecological factors that are influencing the vegetation. Some of the surfaces are used only by grazing and are fertilised periodically, as are grasslands Buconia no.1 and no. 2 dominated by grasses. The two other surfaces are used randomly; vegetation succession in Buconia no. 4 is typical for secondary permanent grassland that has been abandoned.
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Table 1. Correlation coefficients (r) between different grassland vegetation parameters

Specification Pastoral value 0.13 Grasses Legumes (SV %) Shannon-Weaver index Pastoral value Grasses (SV %) Legumes (SV %) Cyperaceae and Juncaceae (SV %) Trees and shrubs (SV %) Other botanical families (SV %) -0.07 0.28 (SV%) -0.08 -0.16 0.00 Cyperaceae and Juncacea (SV %) -0.29 0.38 0.53 * -0.14 Trees and shrubs (SV %) 0.20 -0.46 -0.03 0.05 -0.20 Other botanical Moses and families ferns (SV %) (SV %) 0.06 -0.11 -0.88 *** -0.08 -0.56 * -0.38 0.12 -0.10 0.18 -0.27 -0.17 0.53 * -0.37
Conclusions In the grasslands Buconia no. 1 and no. 2 that are relatively well managed the grasses show an important contribution. Grassland Buconia no. 3 has a low contribution of the grasses because of the lack of fertilisation. This favours the species from other botanical families. In the case of grassland Buconia no. 4 we have a vegetation succession. The shrubs are replacing fast the other plants groups from year to year. This succession is typical for abandoned surface. The increase of the grasses in the vegetation determinates the decrease of the species from other botanical families. Acknowledgements This work contains partial data from the project no. 408/2007 code ID_59 Inventory of the invasive plant species from western Romania and the elaboration of some efficient fast tools for the evaluation of their dynamics and impact on the vegetation coordinated by Veronica Sreanu and supported by the Executive Unit for the Financing of the High Education and University Scientific Research (UEFISCSU). References
Daget, P. and Poissonet, J. 1971. Une mthode danalyse phytologique des prairies. Critres dapplication, Ann. Agron., 22(1): 5 41. Moisuc A., I. Samfira, Luminita Cojocariu, M. Horablaga, Veronica Sreanu, Carmen Duru, Mirela Codrea, 2007. Ecological reconstruction of Banat's grasslands degraded by natural and anthropic factors, Scientifical Papers Faculty of Agriculture, Vol. XXVIII, 24-25 mai 2007 Timioara, p.255-260. Samfira I., Moisuc A., Sreanu Veronica, 2008. Dynamics of pastoral value and biodiversity under the influence of th altitudinal gradient, Grassland Science in Europe, Book of Abstracts, 22 General Meeting EGF 2008, Uppsala, Sweden, p. 172. Sreanu V., Butnariu M., 2009. Encroachment of Rosa canina L. shrub in grassland in Banat County, Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the Balkans, vol. 12, no. 4, Agricultural Academy, p. 771-782. Sreanu V., Moisuc A., Butnariu Monica, Stroia M. C., 2007. Study concerning shrub encroachment in western Romanian grasslands, 14th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation "Permanent and temporary grassland: plant, environment and economy", Ghent (Belgia), EGF 2007, p. 860-863. Voina, V., Moisuc A., 2004. Some considerations concerning the pastoral value of the wooded pastures, Lucrri tiinifice, Facultatea de Agricultur, vol. XXXVI, Editura Eurobit, Timioara, p. 187-191.
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Integrated research about the role of liming of subalpine pastures in Carpathians Mountains
Marusca T.*, Mocanu V., Blaj V.A., Hermenean I., Oprea G. Research Development Institute for Grasslands Brasov, Romania *maruscat@yahoo.com
Abstract Various studies were carried out on grassland, demonstrating the soil plant animal product relation, especially considering the effect of soil acidity adjusting. The study on degraded grasslands of Nardus stricta species at 1800 m altitude, improved by mineral fertilization (N 150 kg ha-1) and different paddock methods, have proved a significant effect at a liming for correction of the soil acidity at 2/3 Ah, started in 1995 and continued for a period of 13 years. Thereby pH level increased from 4,4 to 4,8 units and the exchangeable content of Al decreased from 2,4 to 0,3 me/100g soil. Trifolium repens, increased for 8% in the plant community, the pastoral value rose from 28 to 48, DM yield increased in mean with 28 % and milk production went up for 23 %. Liming measures improved forage and milk quality parameters, especially the content of unsaturated fatty acids. All these results make evident the importance of liming of sub alpine pastures with very acid soils to improve both quality and quantity of milk and forage. Liming is an essential condition of practicing organic farming and of biodiversity conservation of subalpine pastures.
Key words: subalpine pasture, liming, improvement, animal product.

Introduction In Romanian Carpathians the subalpine grasslands are located above the spruce fir line (Picea abies), at juniper (Pinus mugo) level at an altitude of 1600-1800 m to 2000-2200 m where after clearing and unreasonable grazing Nardus stricta strongly invaded to the vegetal cover of Festuca nigrescens and Festuca airoides. These degraded grasslands need to be improved by different methods, especially by the input of organic manure (paddocking) supplied with mineral fertilization. Because of very high soil acidity the fertilization is limited and makes liming necessary expecting good results in Carpathian Mountains (Puscaru, 1956; Lapusan 1976; Marusca, 2002). There are few data available with dairy cows experiments regarding the complex effect of liming over longer periods. These aspects will be discussed in this paper. Material and methods An experiment regarding the long term effect of liming was carried out on grassland with a very high soil acidity ( pH=4,4) degraded by Nardus stricta. The experimental site was located at an altitude of 1800 m at the juniper tree level in Bucegi Mountains of Meridional Carpathians. At the end of summer 1995 CaO was applied to correct the soil acidity at 2/3 Ah and in spring of 1996 mineral fertilizers were applied on unlimed and limed plots. The size of the main plots was 7,500 m, the sampling was made under cages with a size of 2m and replicated four times. The paddocks were grazed with dairy cows from Schwyz race for a period of 85 days (10th-20th June at 1st-10th September ) at a stocking rate of 4 cows per ha. The chemical analysis of the soil, grass and milk were made using current methods. The experiment period of 13 years can be differed into 4 stages: I. 1996 1998 Annual fertilization of NPK (N 150 kg/ha + 50 kg/ha P2O5 + 50 kg/ha K2O) II. 1999 2001 Conversion period to organic production III. 2002 2004 Organic fertilization by paddock method (1 cow/6 m2 for 5 nights) + 100 kg P2O5 in 2003, and in 2004; IV. 2005 2008 Remanent influence of organic production The trials will be continued for a 5th stage where organic fertilization by paddock system and phosphorous fertilization are applied up to the get down the liming effect. Under stationary site conditions on a subalpine level this period can be estimated to be 20 years. Results and discussion Concerning the agrochemical properties of the soil the application of lime and fertilizer resulted in a positive effect (Table1).
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Table1. Agrochemical characteristics of subalpine grasslands soil in Blana Bucergi grazed with dairy cows after 13 years of liming
Specification pH in H2O V Ah % Humus % IN P - AL ppm K - AL ppm Al exchangeable me/100 g sol Unlimed 4,4 21,8 16,93 3,69 48,0 116,5 2,372 Limed 4,8 38,1 17,05 6,50 60,0 164,0 0,306 Difference + + 0,4 + 13,3 + 0,12 + 2,81 + 12,0 + 47,5 - 2,066 % 109 175 101 176 125 141 13
There was a clear increase in the pH-value of 0,4 units and a strong decrease of the exchangeable Alcontent after 13 years of lime application. Because of fertilization the soil content of NPK was higher for 25-76% in comparison of the limed and unlimed area. The changes in soil properties induced a modification of the floristic composition, especially a decrease of Nardus stricta proportion from 40 % to 5 % on the unlimed area and nearly to zero on the limed area (Table 2). Table 2. Dynamics of floristic composition and pastoral value of subalpine grasslands (% proportion of biomass)
SPECIES Forage index Fi *) 0 1 3 1 0 0 1 3 2 1 4 2 4 2 0 0 0 0 2 X 1995 Initial composition (1) 40 12 . + 3 . 8 + + 17 . . 8 7 4 . + + . 1 16 VL - L Mean 1996 - 2008 Limed Unlimed (2) (3) 5 + 8 2 9 26 1 + 11 1 4 3 6 1 12 18 8 4 21 6 + 7 + 2 5 13 4 2 1 1 4 12 1 1 + + + 1 + + 28 48 M M-G Difference + ; (2 1) (3 1) - 35 -4 +9 +1 +8 +4 +2 + 12 +8 +4 ++ ++ -3 -3 -3 +4 +1 0 ++ -1 + 12 * - 40 - 10 + 26 0 -2 +3 -7 + 18 +4 - 11 +7 +2 +5 -5 -3 + 12 +1 0 +1 -1 + 32 *
(3 - 2) -5 -6 + 17 -1 - 10 -1 -5 +6 -4 - 15 +7 +2 +8 -2 0 +8 0 0 +1 0 + 20 *
Nardus stricta Agrostis rupestris Agrostis capillaris Anthoxanthum odoratum Deschampsia flexuosa Deschampsia caespitosa Festuca ovina Festuca nigrescens Phleum alpinum Poa media Poa pratensis Poa annua Trifolium repens Ligusticum mutellina Potentilla aurea chrys. Polygonum bistorta Campanula napuligera Hieracium aurantiacum Taraxacum officinale Other species Pastoral value (Pv) Appreciation**)
*) Fi : 0 = without value; 1 = very low; 2 = low; 3 = medium; 4 = good; 5 = very good **) Pv : 0-5=degraded (D); 5-15 = very low (VL); 15-25=low(L); 25-50 = medium (M); 50-75=good (G); 75-100 =very good (VG)
Liming has stimulated and increased predominant Agrostis capillaris with 17%, Festuca nigrescens with 6% and especially Poa pratensis with 7% which is a very valuable species with a low proportion on unlimed areas. Also proportion of Trifolium repens increase from 5% to 8% on the unlimed area and to 13 % on the limed area. An undesirable aspect of liming resulted in an increase of Polygonum bistorta species (8%) which have very low feeding level. The pastoral value on the limed areas was higher and ranged from 28 to 48 causing positive effects of dry matter and milk production (Table 3).
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Table 3 Effects of subalpine grasslands improvement on dry matter production (DM) and milk yield for a mean grazing period of 85 days (1995-2008)
Stage and improvement method I. Annual fertilization with 150 N+50 P2O5 + 50 K2O kg/ha II. Conversion to organic farming III. Paddock system 5 nights with 1 cow / 6m + 100 P2O5 kg/ha IV. organic production MEAN 1996 - 2008 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Unlimed 6.95 4.77 1.84 1.56 1.28 3.22 2.28 4.12 paddock 6.00 2.92 3.02 2.07 3.34 DM t ha-1 Limed 7.61 5.22 2.15 2.09 2.02 4.62 3.50 paddock 5.81 6.73 3.55 3.67 2.95 4.27 % 109 109 117 134 158 143 154 * * 112 122 122 143 128 Milk l ha-1 Unlimed Limed 4.180 5.690 4.784 5.803 3.356 4.274 4.216 4.364 1.725 1.960 2.070 2.460 1.927 2.280 2.111 * * 3.056 3.570 3.689 3.740 3.202 4.946 3.350 3.910 4.072 4.182 3.941 % 136 121 127 104 114 119 118 * * 110 110 110 112 123
Due to liming measures the medium yearly DM production and yearly milk yield significantly increased of 28 % (3,34 4,27 t DM ha-1) respectively of 23 % (3.202 3.941 l milk ha-1) during the period of 13 years which can be named efficient. The highest relative differences in DM yield between limed and unlimed areas could be noticed after 4 years after starting liming measures. Concerning the chemical composition of forage (Table 4) the crude protein content and content of calcium are within a normal range, whereas the cellular content is low and NDF, ADF, ADL components and cellulose are showing higher values than optimum. Table 4. Chemical composition (% of DM) of forage from subalpine pastures at Blana- Bucegi, 2006
Specification Crude protein (CP) Crude fibre (CF) Phosphorus Kalium Calcium NDF ADF ADL Celluloze Hemicelluloze (HC) Cell content Unlimed 13,6 29,9 0,25 1,28 0,60 61,3 34,5 5,05 29,4 26,8 31,9 Limed 13,5 30,8 0,21 1,22 0,53 61,7 35,3 7,12 28,2 26,4 33,0 Difference + - 0,1 + 0,9 - 0,04 - 0,06 - 0,07 + 0,4 + 0,8 + 2,07 - 1,2 - 0,4 + 1,1 % 99 103 84 95 88 101 102 140 96 98 103 Valuation Normal Normal Carence Carence Normal High High High High Normal Low
Optimum values: NDF 45-55 %; ADF 28-30 %; Lignin < 7%; Cellulose 20-25%; P2O5 0,35-0,45%; K2O 1,5-4,0%; CaO 0,4-0,6% of DM
A special aspect is the low contents of phosphorus and potassium in forage, even though the soil was normally supplied with these elements. Referring to milk quality, an increase of the DM content of 0,51% could be noticed for the limed variant as well as an increase of 0,11 % crude protein and 0,23 % crude fat (Table 5). These trials will be continued for the next stages of grassland improvement, using organic methods up to the end of the residual effect of liming.
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Table 5. Quality parameters of cow milk from subalpine pastures, Blana- Bucegi, 2007
Specification Density g /ml Dry matter 65 0C G % G Crude protein g/100 ml Crude fat g/100 ml Total saturated fatty acids % of CF Total unsaturated fatty acids, from with: miristoleic acid C 14:1 pentadecenoic acid C15:1 palmitoleic acid C16:1 heptadecanoic C17:1 oleic acid C18:1 linoleic acid C18:2 linolenic acid C18:3 other unsaturated fatty acids Unlimed 0,78 14,76 3,16 3,50 67,70 32,30 1,24 0,30 1,37 0,20 22,71 1,86 1,45 3,17 Limed 0,72 15,27 3,27 3,78 68,65 31,35 1,30 0,34 1,23 0,17 20,11 2,03 1,59 3,58 Difference + - 0,06 + 0,51 + 0,11 + 0,23 + 0,95 - 0,95 +0,06 +0,04 -0,14 -0,03 -2,60 +0,17 +0,14 +0,41 % 92 103 103 108 101 99 105 113 90 85 86 109 110 113
Conclusions Liming of subalpine grassland can be seen a very efficient measure to improve the soil plant animal product relation. The liming effects can be developed for a minimum period of 13 years and possibly over 20 years under the conditions of organic farming practice. References
A. Lapusan, 1976, Importanta aplicarii amendamentelor calcaroase in tehnologia infiintarii si intretinerii pajistilor semanate pe podzoluri, Lucrari stiintifice ale SCCP Magurele-Brasov, vol II, pp.143-157. T. Marusca, M. Pop, M. Neagu, V. Mocanu 1998, Les lots dmonstratifs aves des vaches laitires en alpage et leur importance pour la diffusion des rsultats de la recherche, FAO-CIHEAM, 10me runion du groupe de travail des herbages de montagne, 10-13 septembre, Brasov Roumania. T. Marusca V. Mocanu V.A. Blaj 2002, Effect of improvement tehnologies on subalpine pastures in milk production of th dairy cows, Proceedings of the 19 General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation, Multi Function Grasslands, Grassland Science in Europe, vol. 7, Pp 1052-1053, La Rochelle, France. T.Marusca, J. Frame, 2003, Pasture improvement strategies in the Carpathians pacage with dairy cows EGF 2003, Bulgaria, Optimal Forage Systems for Animal Production and the Environement, Grassland Science in Europe, Vol.8, Pp.219-221. D. Puscaru et al., 1956, Pasunile alpine din Muntii Bucegi, tratate, monografii,nr.4, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romane.
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Carrying capacity of Brachypodium genuense-dominated pastures of Monti Sibillini assessed by different methods
DOttavio P.*, Facchi J., Taffetani F., Santilocchi R. Dipartimento di Scienze ambientali e delle Produzioni vegetali, Facolt di Agraria, Universit Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy *p.dottavio@univpm.it
Abstract To promote the rational management of Brachypodium genuense-pasturelands their Potential Carrying Capacity (PCC) was defined by applying 3 different methods (Pastoral Value, Ponderal Contribution and Nutritive Value) that led to different values: 1.35, 2.34 and 4.22 animals ha-1 with a daily feed requirement of 9.17 Milk Forage Units during 110 grazing days. The application of a utilisation rate of 50 and 30% to PCC calculated by Ponderal Contribution and by Nutritive Value methods respectively reduced the differences compared with the values obtained by Pastoral Value method. Keywords: Carrying capacity, Brachypodium, Pastoral value, Ponderal contribution, Nutritive value. Introduction The species of genus Brachypodium have a basic role in the renaturalisation dynamics of abandoned or undergrazed grasslands of Central Apennines of Italy. It is described for Brachypodium rupestre (Bonanomi and Allegrezza, 2004) on the grasslands of the hilly and sub-mountain plains determining fast decrease of floristic biodiversity. This trend was also observed for Brachypodium genuense on grasslands of the mountain plain causing strong effects on their forage production and environmental characteristics (DOttavio et al., 2005a). To promote the rational management of the Brachypodium genuense-pasturelands present in the study area and their more efficient utilisation at lower altitudes, taking into account the prescriptions deriving from the reintroduction of Apennine chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata) at higher altitudes (Dupr et al., 2001), their potential carrying capacity was assessed by applying 3 different methods. Materials and methods The research was performed in Monte Bove valley (Ussita, Macerata province) included in Monti Sibillini National Park. In the study area, bedrock is calcareous and climate is characterised by mean annual temperature of 4.6C (mean monthly temperature below 0C during 4 months) and by mean annual precipitation of 669 mm with maximum in spring and autumn and minimum in August. The studied area (1400-2200 m a.s.l) had a total area of around 300 ha. Pastures located below 17501800 m were created from original Fagus sylvatica woods felled in past centuries to increase the grazing areas. The vegetation analysis, performed according to Braun-Blanquet (1964) during summer 2004, identified 12 different pasture types. Brachypodium genuense-dominated pasturelands, to be referred to the association Diantho ciliati-Brachypodietum genuensis, occupied 36 ha below 1850 m. The PCC of this vegetation was estimated by using 3 different methods in 2 locations represented by 3 sample areas: (i) Pastoral value (PV): PCC is based on the PV of the pasture assessed according to Daget and Poissonet (1971) and to DOttavio et al. (2005a,b). It is based on the use of Specific Indexes (SI: 0-5) assigned to each forage plant, considering their forage value, utilisation rate and production (Delpech, 1960), reported by Roggero et al. (2002) and calculated by DOttavio et al. (2000) for additional plants. The mean of the SI of the forage species present in each plot, weighted up by their abundance, gives the PV of the vegetation survey. The mean of the PV of the vegetation surveys of the same pasture identifies its Potential Pastoral Value (PPV: 0-100). PPV is corrected by considering the vegetation cover of each pasture (Bagella, 2002) and by applying a Fragility Coefficient (FC: 0.5-1.0) as index of the factors limiting the utilisation of the different pasture types (Cemagref, 1983), to obtain a Corrected PV (CPV). No corrections of the vegetation cover were applied to the PPV of the studied pasture (vegetation cover: 100%) and a FC of 0.9 was applied taking into account the limited structural instability of the soil, no evidence of erosion, and the gradient of the slope if greater than 26.6 (50%). The annual Milk Forage Unit yield (MFU ha-1 year-1) of the pastures was calculated according to Daget and Poissonet (1971) and to Cemagref (1987) assigning 66 MFU to 1 point of CPV of the pastures located in the mountain plain (1000-1850 m a.s.l.). The PCC of the studied pasture was referred to milking cows weighing about 600 kg and calculated, according to I.N.R.A. (1980), considering a daily feed requirement of 9.17 Milk Forage Units (MFU), taking into account the corresponding maintenance requirement (y=1,4+0,006 x kg of
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bodyweight), an increment of 20% of the maintenance requirement due to the grazing activity and a mean increment of the maintenance requirement of 0.453 MFU per each litre of milk produced assuming a milk daily production of 7 litres. (ii) Poneral contribution (PC): PCC is determined by considering the terms expressed in the formula:
Annual Forage Production x Seasonal Utilisation Rate Carrying Capacity = ------------------------------------------------------------------------Average Daily Intake x Length of Grazing Season
Annual forage production is the total forage dry matter (DM) produced per unit area on an annual basis and is expressed as kg of DM per ha. DM yield was assessed by the middle of July 2004 (according to the grazing calendar adopted by the local farmer) by cutting the forage into 6 sample areas of 1x1 m (1 m2) established in 2 different locations (between 1725 and 1760 m a.s.l.). Seasonal utilisation rate (K) is the % of the annual forage production that is actually harvested by the grazing livestock and is expressed as a unitless decimal fraction in the formula (i.e. 0.80). This is very dependent upon the stocking method and the grazing period adopted, the expected level of performance, but also upon quality and quantity of forage. According to different solutions, 5 values of utilisation rate (K: 100, 80, 60, 40 and 30%) were used in PCC calculation. According to Bittante et al. (1993) an average forage intake corresponding to 3.0% of the animal's bodyweight was used for cows of medium performance and milking ability. In the calculation, intake is expressed as kg of DM per kg of bodyweight on a daily basis. According to the local traditional practices 110 days was the length of grazing season used. (iii) Nutritive value (NV): forages collected in the mentioned 6 sample areas were dried at 65C and analysed to determine contents of Crude Protein (CP, Kjeldhal method), Ash, Crude Fibre (CF, Weende method) and NDF (Neutral Detergent Fibre), ADF (Acid Detergent Fibre), ADL (Acid Detergent Lignin) (Van Soest method). The NV expressed in MFU was assessed according to I.N.R.A. (1980). As mentioned above, PCC calculation was based on the comparison between MFU offered by the pasture production and the animals feed requirements of 9.17 MFU per day for 110 grazing days. Taking into account different conditions of forage and pasture utilisation, 5 values of utilisation rate (K: 100, 80, 60, 40 and 30%) were used in PCC calculation. The data were statistically analysed by means ANOVA procedure using SAS software (1985) and according to Gomez and Gomez (1984).
Results and discussion The studied pasturelands were definitely dominated by Brachypodium genuense as proved in each of the vegetation survey carried out (Tab. 1). In the study area, pastures dominated by B. genuense developed on steep slopes characterised by gravelly soils where the deposits are stable or only slightly mobile. Such conditions allowed B. genuense to spread diffusely. The high dominance of this species and of some other grasses with high vegetation cover indexes conferred to the pasture a dense coverage. The analysis of the characteristics of forage production highlighted the almost total homogeneity of the vegetations studied in the 2 locations (Tab. 2). The mean DM yield was 4.64 t ha-1 and the few grasses mainly contributed to the pasture production. In addition to B. genuense, which gave the main contribution, Bromus erectus, Festuca robustifolia and Agrostis tenuis were the more represented grasses. On the contrary, the legumes were not represented in each sample area and contributed very little to DM production. Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium pratense ssp. semipurpureum were the plants mostly represented. As the legumes, also the forbs did not contribute much to the forage production. Among these, Achillea collina gave the highest contribution. The analysis of the qualitative characteristics of the forage production highlighted a low CP content compared with other pastures of different botanical composition analysed in the same study area. This result should be justified by the dominant abundance of grasses compared to legumes and forbs but also by the advanced phenological stage of the dominant species at the harvest performed in accordance to the grazing calendar adopted by the local farmer. The values of Ash and CF seem to be comparable to those recorded for similar pastures dominated by grasses. NDF, ADF and ADL were characterised by high values to be referred to the advanced phenological stage of the dominant species of the pastures. MFU of 0.92 kg-1 of DM was the mean value obtained for the pasture studied. The analysis of the PCC calculated by the different methods did not highlight differences per each method between the 2 locations (Tab. 3). On the other hand, the comparison of the values of PCC showed significant differences between the methods: 1.35, 2.34 and 4.22 animals ha-1 for PV, PC and NV methods respectively (Tab. 3). The PCC assessed by PC and by NV methods were respectively 42.6 and 68.1% higher compared to the values obtained by the application of PV.
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Table 1. Characteristics and floristic composition (% abundance of the most abundant and frequent species) of the sample areas in the different assessment locations.
Location Sample area Altitude (m a.s.l.) Exposure (declination from N) Slope (degrees) Vegetation cover (%) Species number Grasses Legumes Forbs Species % abundance Grasses Legumes Forbs Brachypodium genuense (DC) R. et S. Lotus corniculatus L. Festuca robustifolia Mgf.-Dbg. Dianthus ciliatus Guss. Hieracium pilosella L. Silene graefferi Guss. Trifolium pratense L. ssp. semipurpureum (Strobl) Pign. Agrostis tenuis Sibth. Bromus erectus Hudson Luzula campestris (L.) DC. Achillea collina Becker Festuca circummediterranea Patzke 1 1725 225 20 100 25 6 3 16 74 4 22 52.7 2.5 12.7 0.8 2.5 2.5 0.8 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 . 1 2 1735 225 30 100 28 6 3 19 63 7 30 49.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 3.9 3.9 3.9 1.3 1.3
2.6
3 1745 225 25 100 26 6 3 16 64 7 29 50.6 3.7 5.9 3.4 3.2 3.2 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
1 1750 270 30 100 29 8 3 18 61 9 30 47.2 3.8 1.3 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 3.8
2 2 1755 270 30 100 23 7 3 13 64 7 28 55.6 4.4 . 4.4 4.4 4.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
3 1760 270 30 100 23 5 3 15 56 9 35 48.4 3.9 . 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 3.9 3.9
Tab. 2. DM yield, contribution of grasses, legumes and forbs to the production, quality characteristics and MFU of the forage in 2 locations (means of 3 sample areas).
Location 1 2 Total mean DM yield (t ha-1) 4.62 4.66 4.64 Contribution of the species Quality characteristics (% of DM) to DM production (%) Grasses Legumes Forbs CP Ash CF NDF ADF a 8.53 25.52 68.56 39.40 96.6 1.8 1.6 7.74 b 6.45 25.52 69.83 37.53 96.4 1.6 2.0 7.12 96.5 1.7 1.8 7.43 7.49 25.52 69.19 38.46 MFU (kg-1 DM) 0.91 0.92 0.92
ADL 7.42 7.07 7.25
In the columns, means with no common letter differ significantly at the 0.05 level (t test).
Tab. 3. PCC assessed by different methods and utilisation rates. Data referred to animals with a daily feed requirement of 9.17 MFU during a grazing period of 110 days.
Method Pastoral value (PV) Ponderal contribution (PC) Nutritive value (NV) Location 1 2 Total mean 1 2 Total mean 1 2 Total mean K=1 1.36 1.33 c 1.35 2.33 2.35 b 2.34 4.20 4.24 a 4.22 Number of animals ha-1 according to different values of seasonal utilisation rate (K) K=0.8 K=0.6 K=0.5 K=0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.87 1.40 1.17 0.93 1.88 1.41 1.18 0.94 1.88b 1.41b 1.17b 0.94b 3.36 2.52 2.10 1.68 3.39 2.54 2.12 1.70 3.37a 2.53a 2.11a 1.69a K=0.3 . . . 0,70 0,71 0,70b 1,26 1,27 1,27a
In the columns, total means with no common letter differ significantly at the 0.05 level (t test).
Differing from the PV, the PCC assessed by the other methods do not take into account the utilisation rate both of the forage plants and of the pasture. The higher PCC recorded by PC and NV methods could be explained by the fact that the very low utilisation of B. genuense by most of the animals (mainly due to its high silicium content) and the low utilisation rate of the pastures in extensive grazing systems was not taken into account. Based on these considerations, the application of a proper seasonal utilisation rate (around 50%) to the PCC calculated by PC and NV methods reduced the differences. Adopting this correction, PCC calculated by PV method was close to that assessed by PC (1.17) but still more than
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36% lower of that calculated by NV (2.11). Only the application of a utilisation rate of 30% to PCC assessed by NV allowed to have similar values (1.27) to that calculated by PV.
Conclusions The application of different methods to assess the carrying capacity of the pastures dominated by Brachypodium genuense led to different values. The higher values recorded by PC and NV methods was obtained without considering plants and pasture utilisation rate. In Brachipodium-dominated pasturelands this is a crucial factor affecting their management. The application of a seasonal utilisation rate of around 50 and 30% to PCC calculated by PC and NV methods reduced the differences compared with the values obtained by PV method. This allowed to record similar values to the actual stocking density of 1.17 Standard Livestock Units observed by DOttavio et al. (2005b) for comparable pastures in the southern sector of Sibillini Mountains. Despite this apparent convergence, it is believed that a seasonal utilisation rate of 30% of this pasture could still overestimate the use really done by cattle and sheep in extensive grazing systems characterised by low stocking rates and no strict shepherding (DOttavio et al., 2004). In spite of the PV method seems to fit to the actual condition, the contrasting data recorded for other pasture types present in the study area highlights the need to perform specific verification of the Specific Indexes and of the MFU conversion rate used. Based on this, Pastoral Value could be a very useful predictive method for the planning of rational and sustainable grazing in extensive systems where suitable vegetation data and computerized maps are available and accessible. In any case, to promote the rational management of Brachypodium-dominated pasturelands present in the study area and their more efficient utilisation some management improvements are advisable. Among all they could concern with the promotion of additional utilisation by horses and donkeys (as intermittent grazing or mixed with the cattle herd during the entire grazing period) because of their better ability to graze Brachypodium sp. and other less grazed species; earlier beginning of the grazing period compared to the traditional practices in order to increase the utilisation rate of Brachypodium species by cattle during the first stage of the vegetative stage; appropriate location of the drinking-troughs in the grazing areas to facilitate the access to Brachypodium-pasture surfaces; more strict shepherding to reduce pasture selection in extensive conditions and low stocking rates. References
Bagella S., 2002. Analisi integrate geobotaniche e agronomiche per la gestione sostenibile delle praterie dellAppennino umbro-marchigiano. PhD thesis. Universit degli Studi di Ancona. Bittante G., Andrighetto I., Ramanzin M., 1993. Tecniche di produzione animale. Liviana Ed. Padova. Bonanoni G., Allegrezza M., 2004. Effetti della colonizzazione di Brachypodium rupestre (Host) Roemer et Schultes sulla diversit di alcune fitocenosi erbacee dellAppennino centrale. Fitosociologia 41: 51-69. Braun-Blanquet J., 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzuge der Vegetationskunde. III Edition. Springer Verlag. Wien. New York. Cemagref, 1983. Pastoralisme montagnard: recherches en brianonnais. Et. 188. St. Martin DHeres. Cemagref, 1987. Exploitation de pelouses et landes subalpines par des bovins et des ovins. Compte-rendu de recherche n 211. St. Martin DHeres. Daget P., Poissonet J., 1971. Une mthode danalyse phytologique des prairies. Critres dapplication. Ann. Agro. 22 (1). 5-41. Delpech R., 1960. Criteres de jugement de la valeur agronomique des praires. Fourrages. 4: 83-98. D'Ottavio P., Scotton M., DOttavio D., Ziliotto U., 2005b. Utilisation of GIS technology for the planning of sustainable sheep grazing in the Monti Sibillini National Park (Central Apennines, Italy). EAAP Publication No. 115: 488-494. D'Ottavio P., Scotton M., Ziliotto U., 2000. Legumes in mountain pastures of Monti Sibillini (Central Apennines, Italy) grazed by sheep. Grassland Science in Europe. 7: 286-288. D'Ottavio P., Scotton M., Ziliotto U., 2004. Forage selection by sheep in extensive grazing systems in the Monti Sibillini National Park (Central Apennines, Italy). Options Mditerranennes. 61: 189-192. D'Ottavio P., Scotton M., Ziliotto U., 2005a. Pastoral value of mountain pastures of Monti Sibillini National Park (Central Apennines, Italy) grazed by sheep. Options Mditerranennes. 67: 93-.98. Dupr E., Monaco A., Pedrotti L., 2001. Piano dazione nazionale per il Camoscio appenninico (Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata). Quad. Cons. Natura, 10, Min. Ambiente Ist. Naz. Fauna Selvatica. Gomez K.A., Gomez A.A., 1984. Statistical procedures for agricultural research. II edition. Wiley J. and Sons, Inc. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore. I.N.R.A., 1980. Alimentation des ruminants. I.N.R.A. Publications, Versailles. Roggero P.P., Bagella S., Farina R., 2002. Un archivio dati di Indici specifici per la valutazione integrata del valore pastorale. Rivista di Agronomia. 36: 149-156. SAS, 1985. User guide: Statistics. SAS Institute. Cary. NC. USA.
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Forage quality of Nardus stricta pasture from two Pyrenean valleys in Andorra.
Fanlo R.1*, Domenech M.2, Esteban P.2 , Bou M. 1 Lleida University, Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain 2 CENMA (Centre d'estudis de la neu i de la muntanya d'Andorra) Avinguda Rocafort 21-23, AD600 Sant Juli de Lria, Andorra *Fanlo@pvcf.udl.es
1
Abstract The Andorran Nardus stricta pastures are found above the timberline in high mountains with long lasting snow. These acidophilus grasslands were intensely grazed in the past but now have light stocking rates. They represent 6 % of the total surface of Andorra and 30 % of the total grasslands. In this work, we evaluate and compare the forage quality (measured by NIRS method) of two different Nardus stricta pastures from different valleys (Madriu-Perafita-Claror and Ordino). The results show two different groups: one related to CP, DP and UFL and the related to a high fibre content (DAF and CF). Keywords: Pyrenees, pastures, quality, Nardus stricta Introduction For many centuries the Nardus stricta pastures have been used by cattle during the summer months, from the beginning of July to the end of September. The cattles breed and the seasonal stoking rate that the pastures have experienced over the last few years, make a future change foreseeable in composition and quality of these pastures. From the beginning of the last century to the fifties, the sheeps numbers have decreased drastically from 17,800 to 1,586 animals, followed by a light increase (2,400 in the year 2004) (Prez et al., 2005). The cattle and the equine livestock have followed a similar pattern. Another change which stands out is the increase in equine numbers during the nineties due to horse riding activities in the tourist sector (Sez y Brcena, 2001). In general and in all grasslands, the stoking rate has diminished. The aim of this work is to relate the actual forage quality of these grasslands (measurement by means of analysis NIRS) and their floristic composition. Material and methods The information was taken from two valleys in the Principality of Andorra (Madriu-Perafita-Claror and Ordino Parish). Using a distribution map of grasslands, the sampling places were selected randomly, within the surfaces covered by Nardus stricta grasslands. In every place four samples of 0.25 x 0.25 m were cut, dried in an air stove at 60C for 48 hours and, later, they were analyzed in a NIRS spectrophotometer. The NIRS method (Marten et al., 1989) allowed the following to be obtained: the crude protein (CP), digestible protein (DP), fat (EE), lignin (LAD), ashes, Ca, P, and Mg percentages content in DM, crude fibre (CF), detergent acid fibre (DAF), detergent neutral fibre (DNF), forage unitiesenergy (FU) and enzymatic digestibility. This was achieved by means of an NIR SYSTEM 6500, using a universal calibrator obtained in the laboratory (Catalan Agrofood laboratory, accreditation number 157/LE309). The total samples used were 27 from Madriu and 34 from Ordino. The floristic composition was determined by the point-quadrat method, (100 points per site separated 20 cm, and two replications) (Godall 1953). The specific contribution was defined according to Daget et Poissonet method (Daget et Poissonet 1971), where the number of species hit by each pin are irrespective of eventually occurring multiple contacts. At the same time, the richness of functional groups (grasses, legumes and non-legume forbs) and bare ground was measured. All values of forage quality parameters were analysed using ANOVA (StatSoft, 1995), after the normalization of the data. The least significant difference (LSD) and the Sheffe test were used to compare treatment means resulting in there being no significant differences (P < 0.05) ANOVA with Statistica 6.0 program (StatSoft 1995) (Table 1). For analysing the behaviour of the data and obtaining grouping patterns, Rotated Principal Component Analyses was used (SPSS software). Using the Scree test criteria (Cattell, 1966) two Principal Components were retained, representing the 84% of the total variance. For obtaining a more relaxed and interpretable result, the VARIMAX orthogonal rotation procedure was also applied (Figure 1).
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Figure1. Test plot for selecting the number of components to retain.
Results and discussion Table 1 shows the averages of different analysed parameters, quality and floristic composition. Pastures of Madriu Valley have more quality than Ordino: they have more minerals components, fat, proteins and enzymatic digestibility and less DNF and lignin. They arent significance differences in others components. The values of quality and production are similar to other pastures in the context of the Pyrenees (Domnech et al., 2007).
Table1. Floristic composition (percentage of functional groups in DM) and forage quality parameters (NIRS method) of Nardus stricta pastures. The different data are: crude protein (CP), digestible protein (DP), fat (EE), lignin (LAD), ashes, Ca, P, and Mg percentages content in DM, crude fibre (CF), detergent acid fibre (DAF), detergent neutral fibre (DNF) and forage unities-energy (FU).
% of % of % of ashes legum others locality grass es Madriu Ordino Ca P Mg EE, fat CP DP CF DAF DNF ADL FU Enzymatic digesti -bility
45,064 29,952 24,984 6,988 0,621 0,228 0,142 3,003 17,130 11,198 25,130 30,815 57,450 5,032 0,830 50,859 56,971 11,149 31,880 4,556 0,191 0,134 0,037 1,875 11,345 7,268 25,932 30,685 63,358 3,736 0,833 44,108 *** *** NS *** *** *** *** *** *** *** NS NS ** ** NS **
The Principal Components Analysis (Figure 2) groups clearly the parameters of good forage quality and puts up those of negative meaning.
Figure 2. Coefficients plot of the 2 Rotated Principal Components showing its relation with the bromathologic data (crude protein (PB), digestible protein (PD), fat (EE), lignin (LAD), ashes, Ca, P, and Mg percentages content in DM, crude fibre (FB), detergent acid fibre (FAD), detergent neutral fibre (FND), forage unities-energy (UF) and enzymatic digestibility).
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In figure 3 it can be clearly observed that Rotated Principal Components identify a well separated structure in terms of the area analysed, i.e., the component one, related to high fibre component, is much more related to the samples obtained at the Madriu area, while the negative values at component 2 show the major concentrations minerals components, fat, proteins and enzymatic digestibility at the Ordino valley. At the end the Principal Component Analysis highline a clear regional pattern.
Figure 3. Score values plot showing the distribution of the cases analysed in terms of the Rotated Principal Components retained and the geographical location of the bromathologic analysis carried out (Madriu valley and Ordino valley).
Conclusions The difference in the forage quality of the pastures in the two areas is based on its floristic composition. The greater abundance of leguminous plants in the Madriu valley pastures means a high protein and mineral content in the biomass. This could be due to the history of the management in these valleys in which the Madriu valley has had a greater stocking rate compared to the valley of Ordino. References
Cattell, R. B. 1966. The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 245-276. Daget, Ph., Poissonet, J. 1971. Une methode d'analyse des prairies. Ann. Agron. 22 (I), 5-41. Domnech, M., Prez-Butrn, C., Fanlo, R. 2007. Diversidad vegetal y calidad forrajera de los pastos supraforestales del valle del Madriu-Perafita-Claror (principado de Andorra). PASTOS (xxxv, 2),131-140. Goodall, D.W. 1953. Point quadrat methods for analysis of vegetation. Aust. J. Bot.1, 457-461. Marten, G.C., Schenk J.S., Barton, F.E. 1989. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS): Analysis of forage quality. Agric. Handb. 643. USDA-ARS. Washington. Perez-Butron, C., Domenech, M. and Fanlo, R. 2006. Changes in the stoking rates during the last century in the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley, a small site in Andorra, the Pyrenean country. In: Quality production and quality of the environment in the mountain pastures of an enlarged Europe. Ed. ERSA Agencia Regionale per lo Sviluppo rurale; pp: 97-100. Gorizia, Italia Sez y Brcena, X. 2001. Informe sobre leconomia Andorrana 2000. Andorra Anuaris socioeconmics 2001. Banca Privada dAndorra ; 148 pp. Andorra Statsoft. 1995. Statistica. CD + 3 Volumes. 2618 pp. StatSoft, Inc. 2325 East 13th Street, Tulsa OK.
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Activity patterns and diet selection of beef cows on Mediterranean mountain forest pastures
1
Casass I.1*, Blanco M.1, Revilla R.2 Centro de Investigacin y Tecnologa Agroalimentaria, Gobierno de Aragn, Avda. Montaana 930, 50059 Zaragoza, Spain 2 Centro de Transferencia Agroalimentaria, Gobierno de Aragn, Ctra. Movera, 50194 Zaragoza, Spain *icasasus@aragon.es
Abstract Activity patterns and diet selection were analyzed throughout an annual cycle in a suckler cow herd that grazed on forest pastures, grasslands and forage crops in a Mediterranean mountain area (Sierra de Guara, Spain). Most of the daily observation time was devoted to grazing (433 72 min), followed by resting, walking and suckling. Activity patterns were affected by the season of the year, with the longest grazing time in the spring and the shortest in the autumn. Cows grazed mainly on dry grasslands (49% of the annual grazing time), followed by forage crops (33 %) and browse (18%), although the relative importance of each forage resource depended on the season: fodder crops were highly grazed in the spring and summer, while browse reached 38% of the grazed diet in the winter. Pasture quality was associated to the available forage resource. Faecal N content was not constant throughout the year, indicating that cows selected forage with a higher protein content in the spring. Keywords: suckler cows, management of mountain forest pastures, intake behaviour, diet selection Introduction Livestock farming systems in Sierra de Guara Natural Park (Mediterranean mountain area, Northern Spain) were studied using a multidisciplinary approach (Bernus et al., 2005). In this context, a comparison was established between actual livestock use of pasture areas in the Park and their potential use, according to pasture characteristics and accessibility (Casass et al., 2006). This allowed the identification of some high-priority intervention areas, where pastoral use could/should be reoriented, and pilot studies were conducted there in order to check the feasibility of using livestock as a tool for environmental management. In one of these areas, a cattle herd was settled in an under-utilized range, and a management system adapted to forage offer through the year was designed. The objective of the current study was to determine the actual use of these grazable resources by cattle. Material and methods Twenty-five adult Pirenaica cows grazed throughout the year in a 464-ha range (600-880 m a.s.l.), dominated by forest pastures (297 ha, mainly Quercus ilex), with dry grassland (forest and almond trees understorey, open grassland) and cultivated crops (mixed meadows and rye-triticale, 23 ha). Forests and grasslands were available throughout the year, electrically fenced meadows were open in spring and autumn, and rye-triticale stands were grazed in the winter (before spiking) and summer. Cows calved in October and were weaned in March. Cows grazed all year round, but during lactation they grazed from Monday to Friday and were housed and fed a limited amount of a total mixed ration during the weekend, in order to make cattle production compatible with wild boar hunting in the range. During a whole annual cycle (March-07 to February-08), cattle activity patterns and diet selection were registered in monthly controls. Activity (grazing, walking, resting or suckling) and selected pasture types (forage crop: meadow, rye-triticale; dry grassland: understorey, open grasslands, grassland in cultivated areas, i.e. almond fields; or browse: several species) of cows in sight were assessed by visual appraise at 15-min intervals during daylight. In order to determine the quality of the selected pasture, samples for chemical analysis were taken adjacent to grazing animals simulating their diet. As an indicator of the effectively selected diet quality, 5 faecal samples were taken during observation days to measure faecal N content, which is related to diet protein content. Variance analyses (proc GLM) were conducted to determine the effect of the season of the year on all variables. Results and discussion Daily grazing time averaged 433 min (60% of the total observation time), was highest in spring and lowest in the autumn (Table 1). Cows rested for longer in the summer and autumn, suckled for longer in the autumn (early lactation) than in the winter, and walking time was similar throughout the year.
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Table 1. Seasonal effects on cow activity patterns (LS mean s.d.)

Time, min/day Grazing Walking Resting Suckling Spring 507 32.5 75 47.9 152 80.7 0 0.0 a b c Summer 462 52.7 74 33.6 304 67.0 0 0.0 ab a c Autumn 350 58.7 46 3.3 255 20.4 23 11.3 c a a Winter 411 22.2 105 81.5 118 23.6 12 0.9 P bc * NS b * b **
Cows devoted most of their time to grazing on grasslands (48.8 32.9%), mainly open grassland and understorey in almond fields. Forage crops (meadows and rye-triticale in similar proportions) were also important in cow diets (33.0 42.0%). Browse contributed to 18.2 21.0% of the annual diet, with a high preference for annual shoots of Quercus ilex and Arbutus unedo over other species (Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus sp.), while others were not consumed (Juniperus communis, J. phoenicea). The contribution of each pasture type depended on the season (Table 2): fodder crops were highly grazed in the summer while time grazing on browse was higher (although NS) in the autumn and winter, similarly to other findings in Mediterranean oak pastures (Brosh et al., 2006). In this period browse constituted 38% of the grazed diet, with a peak of 68% in January. Table 2. Seasonal effects on pasture type selection (LS mean s.d.)
Time, min/day Forage crops Dry grassland Browse Spring 175 225 345 235 26 20 b Summer 418 59 33 41 10 17 a Autumn 6 10 239 14 105 42 b Winter 28 49 239 105 144 124 b P ** P=0.09 NS
Pasture quality was strongly related to pasture type. Protein content was higher in forage crops, intermediate in grassland and lower in browse pastures (P<0.05), NDF (Neutral Detergent Fibre) was highest in grassland and ADL (Acid Detergent Lignin) was highest in browse (P<0.001). The seasonal effect on pasture quality was not evident, due to the high diversity of diet components, but a trend was observed towards a higher protein and lower fibre content in the spring (P>0.10). Faecal N content mimicked dietary protein content (Figure 1), with a maximum in spring (P<0.001), while indoors supplementation allowed for constant protein intake even though low protein browse pastures were intensively grazed in the autumn-winter.
6.0 Faecal 5.0 N, % 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 Faecal N P li i (P t CP) Pasture CP P li i (F l N) Pasture 30.0 CP, % 20.0 10.0 0.0 -10.0 -20.0 -30.0 month 03
Figure 1. Pasture Crude Protein (CP) and faecal nitrogen content through the annual cycle.
Conclusions The diversity of forage resources and their seasonal offer conditioned cow activity patterns and diet selection through the annual cycle. It is remarkable that browse had a significant contribution to cow diet in the autumn-winter, on days when no supplement was offered indoors. References
Bernus A., Riedel J. L., Asensio M. A., Blanco M., Sanz A., Revilla R., Casass I. (2005). An integrated approach to study the role of grazing farming systems in the conservation of rangelands in a protected natural park (Sierra de Guara, Spain). Livestock Production Science 96: 75-85. Brosh A., Henkin Z., Orlov A., Aharoni Y. (2006). Diet composition and energy balance of cows grazing on Mediterranean woodland. Livestock Science 102: 11-22 Casass I., Mandaluniz N., Asensio M. A., Prez de Arenaza A., Igarzabal A., Bernus A., Oregui L. M. (2006). "Habitat utilization of livestock ranging in two Natural Parks in Northern Spain". In Quality production and quality of the environment in the mountain pastures of an enlarged Europe. K. Biala, J. Nsberger, G. Parente, A. Peeters (Ed.). ERSA-Agenzia Regionale per lo Sviluppo Rurale: 127-134.
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Long term effects of organic fertilisation and differentiated management practices on the meadows of a mountain farm
Jeangros B.*, Troxler J. Research Station Agroscope Changins-Wdenswil ACW, CP 1012, 1260 Nyon 1, Switzerland *bernard.jeangros@acw.admin.ch
Abstract On a mountain dairy farm in the Jura (1200 m a.s.l.), permanent plots have been observed during ten years to study the effect of differentiated management practices and suppression of chemical fertilisers on botanical composition and forage production of the meadows. The botanical diversity of low intensive meadows slightly increased. Thanks to a good management of organic fertilisers, the quantity and quality of the forage produced by the different types of meadows was little affected. Keywords: mountain meadows, organic fertilisation, botanical diversity, DM-yield, forage quality Introduction Fifteen years ago direct payments have been introduced in the Swiss agricultural policy to ensure the appropriate use and care of agricultural land. The new policy aims notably to promote biodiversity in agricultural areas and to reduce the level of nitrates and phosphates in rivers and lakes. We started in 1994 a study to evaluate the long term effects of the new agricultural policy on a mountain dairy farm. Chemical fertilisers have been suppressed and grassland has been managed at different intensities according to the site-specific conditions. With a whole-farm approach, Jeangros and Troxler (2005) showed that the suppression of chemical fertilisers had no essential effect on the nutrients availability. Based on observations on permanent plots this paper aims to answer the following questions: a) Does the botanical diversity of the meadows managed with a reduced intensity really increase?
b) Is it possible to maintain the productivity of the meadows without chemical fertilisers?
Material and methods The study was carried out on the dairy farm La Frtaz (Jura, 1200 m a.s.l.). The stocking rate was low (0.8 LU ha-1) and 17 dairy cows produced on average 103 t of milk per year (6000 kg cow-1). Intensive and fairly intensive meadows (15.5 ha) were used 4 respectively 3 times per year. Extensive and low intensive meadows (2.5 ha) were cut only 1 to 2 times per year, the first cut occurring after July 1st. Pastures (15.8 ha) were grazed 5 times per year. Farmyard manure and slurry were applied in different quantities according to the utilisation frequency. Before 1994 chemical fertilisers were applied on all grassland area: on average 35 kg N, 15 kg P and 40 kg K ha-1 yr-1. Eighteen permanent plots of 20 x 10 m have been set up in 1994 on the different types of meadows (11) and pastures (7). Each spring, the botanical composition was assessed according to the method of Daget-Poissonet (1969). Each year, the DM-production of the meadows was estimated by cutting 6 plots of 0.5 m2 on each growth. The nutritive value of the harvested grass samples was estimated by analyzing the protein content and the organic matter digestibility (Scehovic, 1995). Results and discussion
Botanical composition
Table 1. Botanical composition of the meadows in 1994-1996 and 2001-2003 (mean of 3 years)
Management intensity % 1994-1996 Grasses 2001-2003 Legumes % 1994-1996 2001-2003 Forbs % 1994-1996 2001-2003 1994-1996 Number of species 2001-2003 % 1994-1996 Equitability 2001-2003 Low int. (4) Fairly int. (4) Intensive (3) 48.0 51.6 53.5 53.1 50.9 52.6 13.9 12.8 14.6 9.6 13.7 12.3 38.2 35.7 32.1 37.3 35.4 35.0 26.3 30.3 25.6 30.9 26.6 25.2 73 74 74 77 78 75 Mean 50.8 ns 52.2 13.7 ns 11.8 35.6 ns 36.0 27.5 ns 27.8 74 ** 77
( ): number of permanent plots *, **: the mean value 1994-1996 differs significantly from the value 2001-2003 at P > 0.95, resp. 0.99 ns: the mean values 1994-1996 and 2001-2003 are not significantly different
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In general the botanical composition of the meadows remained relatively stable (tabl. 1), meanwhile some changes occurred in the low intensive meadows: the proportion of grasses slightly increased, while those of legumes decreased. At the same time, the botanical diversity was slightly improved. Forage quantity and quality The annual DM-yield of all types of meadows strongly varied from year to year (fig. 1). On the long term, the DM-yield of intensive meadows remained stable (6.3 t DM ha-1 yr-1), but those of fairly inten-sive and low intensive meadows decreased: on average -1.2 t DM ha-1 during 10 years (-2% per year).
10
t DM ha-1
Fig. 1. Annual forage production from 1994 to 2003 of the different types of meadows (low intensive: circles and gray line; fairly intensive: squares and dotted line; intensive: triangles and black line) on the dairy farm La Frtaz (b indicates the slope of the linear regression).
b = - 0.11 (*), R = 0,09 2 b = - 0.12 (*), R = 0,12 b = - 0,01 (n.s.), R2 = 0,00
2
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
At the 1st growth the protein content of the forage was lower in 2000-2003 compared to 1994-1996 (tabl. 2). This could be partly explained by the slight decrease of legumes in some meadows. At the same time the organic matter digestibility (OMD) didn't vary significantly.
Table 2. Nutritive value of the grass in 1994-1996 and 2000-2003 (mean of 3 to 4 years)
Management intensity Protein 1st growth -1 (g kg DM) Regrowth(s) OMD1 (%) 1 growth Regrowth(s)
1 st
Low int. (4) 1994-1996 2000-2003 1994-1996 2000-2003 1994-1996 2000-2003 1994-1996 2000-2003 163 137 168 * 157 73.6 ns 71.9 69.5 ns 70.2 **
Fairly int. (4) 164 157 162 * 171 75.5 ns 74.4 71.6 ns 71.9 ns
Intensive (3) 188 161 177 ns 174 79.5 ns 76.7 74.5 ns 73.7 **
Mean ** 150 169 ns 168 75.6 ns 73.9 71.7 ns 71.9 169
OMD = organic matter digestibility
( ), *, **, ns: see table 1
Conclusion The differentiation of the management intensity during 10 years didn't have a big impact on the botanical composition of the meadows, but the botanical diversity of low intensive meadows was slightly improved. The quantity and quality of the forage produced on the mountain farm La Frtaz were little affected by the new management practices. A good storage and a differentiated use of the organic fertilisers produced on the farm allowed to maintain the productivity of intensive meadows. References
Daget P. and Poissonet J., 1969. Analyse phytologique des prairies, applications agronomiques. Document 48, CNRS-CEPE, Montpellier, 67 p. Jeangros B. and Troxler J., 2005. Effect of the Swiss agricultural policy on the long-term availability of nutrients for a mountain dairy farm. Proceeding of the 13th Meeting of the FAO CIHEAM Sub-Network on mountain pastures. September 15-17, Udine, Italy. Scehovic J., 1995. Pourquoi et comment tenir compte des mtabolites secondaires dans l'valuation de la qualit des fourrages? Revue suisse Agric. 27 (5), 297-301.
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Heterogeneity of botanical composition in mountain pastures: an overlooked quality of biodiversity

Schneider M.*, Nagel R., Weyermann I., Lscher A. Federal Research Station Agroscope Reckenholz-Tnikon ART, Reckenholzstr. 191, 8046 Zrich, Switzerland *manuel.schneider@art.admin.ch
Abstract Mountain pastures often exhibit a large heterogeneity in their botanical composition due to the heterogeneous environmental conditions, the limited range of dispersal of plants and the selective feeding and trampling by pasture animals. We investigated 27 mountain pastures in the community of Tujetsch in the Eastern Central Alps of Switzerland grazed by sheep, goats, dairy or suckler cows. In addition, 8 meadows were surveyed. Per field, botanical composition was recorded at three locations in 5x5 m2 plots. The locations were selected to represent situations of highest, lowest and mean management intensity at the site. We found that differences of botanical composition within one field may be as large as between fields with a distinct management (e.g. grazed by a different type of ruminant). Meadows exhibited less within-field heterogeneity than pastures what indicates the importance of selective feeding. However, there was considerable variation in within-field heterogeneity in each pasture group. Further research should target methods to measure heterogeneity in the field and the ecological implications of botanical heterogeneity. Keywords: grazing, vegetation, spatial variability, mountain grasslands, Swiss Alps Introduction Compositional heterogeneity is an obvious feature of natural plant communities and it was even stated that vegetation never shows homogeneity but only different degrees of heterogeneity (Rauschert, 1969). Heterogeneity is caused by environmental factors (soil, topography, ) as well as dynamic processes in the plant community (Watt, 1947). Grazing animals respond to variability in vegetation through selective feeding and behaviour and affect the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation (Adler 2001). Whether heterogeneity is increased or decreased by grazing depends on the grazing treatment (patch or homogeneous), the type of vegetation and the type of animal as well as the scale and technique of investigation. Vegetation may also be dynamic over time and patterns may change within years even in the absence of grazing. Material and methods This study investigated botanical composition in 35 fields of permanent grassland in the montaneous to subalpine zone in the village of Tujetsch in the Swiss Alps (valley of the Rhine Anterior, 846 E, 4641 N). The fields were mown, grazed by dairy cows, suckler cows, goats or sheep and covered a range of expositions, altitudes and slopes. On each field, yield proportions of all plant species were estimated in three subplots of 25 m2 according Dietl (1995). Ten classes (0, 0-1, 1-2, 2-5, 5-9, 9-15, 15-25, 25-40, 4060. 60-100%) were distinguished. The subplots were selected to represent situations of highest, lowest and mean management intensity at the site. In some fields, no differences were identifiable and three subplots were selected at random. Heterogeneity between subplots of the same field was visualised by a detrended correspondence analysis. In order to obtain a measure independent of a particular ordination technique, heterogeneity was quantified by calculating the average Bray-Curtis distance between the three botanical relevees in each field. The Bray-Curtis distance (or Steinhaus index) is a normalized Manhattan distance which is 0 if two sites A and B share no species and 1 if the species composition at the two sites is identical (Legendre & Legendre, 1998). A Tuckey test was used to assess significance of differences between subplots of different management. Results and discussion Mountain grasslands exhibited a large variability of botanical composition within individual fields (Figure 1a). Differences in botanical composition between three subplots in each field may be as large as between fields with a distinct management (e.g. grazed by a different type of ruminant) and different environmental conditions. Grasslands which are purely mown tend to exhibit less heterogeneity than grazed pastures. However, Bray-Curtis distances of species composition between subplots were not significantly different between mown and grazed fields due to the large variability in grazed fields (Figure
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1b). Differences in botanical composition between subplots were largely independent of the spatial distance between them, i.e. the size of fields. In addition, the data indicates a tendency for differences in botanical composition of sites grazed by sheep and dairy cows as well as between sheep and goats pastures. However, there is still considerable overlap between the groups (Figure 1a).
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0.6 Bray-Curtis distance -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 DCA axis 1
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Figure 1a: Heterogeneity in botanical composition within fields which were purely mown (), grazed by dairy cows (), suckler cows (), sheep () or goats (). Data on species abundance was analysed by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA). The three subplots per field are connected by black lines. Gray lines indicate the hull around all subplots with similar management. Figure 1b: Boxplot of Bray-Curtis distances between the three subplots per field; large symbols indicate median distance.
Conclusions Spatial heterogeneity is an important feature of mountain grasslands, especially of those under grazing. Differences of vegetation within a field may be as large as across a whole range of grassland under different management. Accounting for this heterogeneity may be crucial when we investigate effects of ruminants on vegetation and biodiversity. However, classical techniques of vegetation survey (such as the representative area approach used here) may be insufficient for this purpose. Ecologists have developed a range of alternative multi-scale sampling techniques (such as Whittaker and other nested designs) as well as transect methods such as Daubenmire, Parker, Daget-Poissonnet (see Stohlgren, 2007 for a review). They are mostly more time consuming than representative-area methods but come with the advantage of a potential explicit accounting for spatial heterogeneity. Further research should test the appropriate scaling and adaptation of these methods to mountain pastures in order to obtain more informative vegetative information with as little sampling effort as possible. References
Adler P, Raff D, & Lauenroth W (2001) The effect of grazing on the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation. Oecologia, 128:465-479 Dietl W (1995) Wandel der Wiesenvegetation im Schweizer Mittelland. Zeitschrift fr kologie und Naturschutz, 4:239-249 (in german) Legendre P & Legendre L (1998) Numerical Ecology. Elsevier Rauschert S (1969) On some problems in vegetation analysis and systematics. Archiv Naturschutz und Landschaftsforschung, 9:153-174 (in german) Stohlgren TJ (2007) Measuring plant diversity. Oxford University Press, 390 pp. Watt AS (1947) Pattern and process in the plant community. Journal of Ecology, 35:122
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The quality of forages from grasslands in organic farms in Poland

Jankowska-Huflejt H.*, Wrbel B. Institute for Land Reclamation and Grassland Farming, Department of Meadows and Pastures, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland *H.Jankowska@imuz.edu.pl
Abstract The study was performed in the years 2006-2007 in organic farms with over 30% share of grasslands and ruminant production based on forages from grasslands. The aim of the study was to evaluate the quality of organic forages and their usefulness in livestock production. The content of particular nutritive and mineral components was evaluated in 154 fodder samples (hay, meadow and pasture green fodder). Nutritive value was expressed in feed units acc. to the INRA system. Comprehensive evaluation of forages was made based on the relative feed value (RFV) index. The highest nutritive and energetic value was found in pasture green fodder, slightly lower in the meadow green fodder and the lowest in meadow hay. Among the tested forages the richest in mineral components was the green fodder from pastures and the poorest was hay. The average value of the RFV index for each of the three fodder types was from 100 to 123, corresponding to the III quality class (forages suitable for slaughter cattle, elderly heifers and marginally for dairy cows). Keywords: green fodders, hay, nutritive value, RFV index, organic farms Introduction The number of organic farms has markedly increased in Poland recently. Nearly half of them are grassland farms i.e. such with over 30% share of permanent grasslands in cropland structure [Inspekcja..., 2007]. These grasslands provide very cheap fodder of high quality which might be the sole food for cattle in summer. Hence, the status of grasslands and the quality of fodder produced there affect animal condition, health and welfare and the quality of animal products. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of bulk fodder from meadows and pastures and their usefulness in animal production. Material and methods The study was carried out in the years 2006-2007 in organic farms with minimum 30% share of permanent grasslands (mean 47%) in cropland structure and breeding ruminants based on fodder from grasslands. 78 fodder samples were analysed in 2006 and 76 in 2007. Samples were taken from the same grasslands from 34 organic farms (2007) and 33 organic farms (2006) situated in 7 different provinces of Poland, differing climatic and soil conditions. They included: hay, meadow and pasture green fodder. Basic food components were analysed in fodder samples: crude fibre with gravimetric method, crude fat with the Soxhlet method, crude ash - gravimetrically after combustion at 580oC and NDF (Neutral Detergent Fibre) and ADF (Acid Detergent Fibre) fractions with the Van Soest method. Protein was calculated according to the N content. Nitrogen and phosphorus were determined with flow-through spectroscopy, K and Na with atomic emission spectroscopy and Ca and Mg by the AAS method. Nutritive value of fodders was expressed in feed units for meat production (UVF) and feed units for milk production (UFL) calculated acc. to the French INRA system [Normy...., 2001]. Comprehensive evaluation of fodder quality was based on the content of ADF and NDF fractions by calculating Relative Feed Value index (RFV Linn & Martin, 1989). Results and discussion The highest nutritive and energetic value was found in pasture green fodder, slightly lower in meadow fodder and the least in meadow hay. The first contained the most total protein and least crude fibre and its ADF and NDF fractions. The content of crude fibre, largely dependent on plant growth phase during harvest, was highest in meadow green fodder, slightly less in hay and least in samples of green fodder from pasture (Table 1). In most fodder samples from organic farms the content of total protein was smaller and the content of crude fibre was larger than the optimum in bulk fodder for ruminants. Only 55% of hay samples showed the optimum content of total protein (100-140 g/kg DM) and 45% of samples the optimum content of crude fibre (290-330 g/kg DM). In meadow green fodder the optimum (120-150 g/kg DM) and higher than optimum content of total protein was found in 36% and 24% of analysed samples, respectively. Almost 50% of samples contained >300 g/kg DM of crude fibre.
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In 68% samples of green fodder from pasture the content of total protein was less than the optimum (160 g/kg DM) and 80% of samples contained more than the recommended 260 g/kg DM crude fibre. Energetic value of fodder from grasslands expressed in feed units (UFL and UVF) was differentiated. The highest value, comparable in some cases with concentrated fodder, was found in pasture sward and the lowest in hay, which was a result of losses during fodder preservation and storage (Table 1). The richest and poorest in mineral components was the green fodder from pasture and hay, respectively. Mean contents of K, Ca and Mg were within the optimum range while phosphorus was in short supply. Sodium was most deficient in the studied fodders and the K : Na ratio was several times higher than the optimum [Nazaruk et al., 2009]. Table 1. Average values ( standard deviation) of the quality parameters of fodder from grasslands in studied organic farms (years 2006-2007). DDM = 88.9-(0.779 x ADF); DMI = 120/NDF; RFV = (DDM x DMI)/1.29
Analysed parameters Total protein [g/kg DM] Crude fibre [g/kg DM] Crude ash [g/kg DM] Crude fat [g/kg DM] P [g/kg DM] K [g/kg DM] Ca [g/kg DM] Mg [g/kg DM] Na [g/kg DM] UFL Feed Unit for Lactation UVF Meat production Unit ADF [%] NDF [%] DDM - digestible dry matter [%] DMI - dry matter intake [% body weight] RFV - relative feed value Green fodder from pastures (n=52) 157.25 50.5 267.55 48.7 87.00 18.1 39.55 7.7 3.40 1.0 24.1 7.4 8.45 2.0 2.70 0.6 0.85 0.6 0.89 0.02 0.83 0.01 29.25 4.17 52.23 8.46 66.11 3.25 2.38 0.49 122.80 31.85 Green fodder from meadows (n=54) 124.40 28.5 306.35 33.3 78.80 16.6 33.50 6.4 2.75 0.6 17.55 7.7 8.1 2.5 2.85 0.6 0.85 0.7 0.88 0.02 0.82 0.01 33.40 3.13 59.05 5.95 62.88 2.44 2.06 0.25 100.37 15.80 Hay (n=48) 108.95 22.8 305.40 32.6 71.65 13.6 31.50 8.7 2.50 0.6 18.50 5.5 6.4 2.0 2.10 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.73 0.01 0.64 0.01 33.31 3.55 59.43 8.37 62.95 2.76 2.05 0.36 100.78 23.24
Relative feed value of evaluated fodder ranged from 100 (hay and green fodder from meadows) to 123 (green fodder from pastures). It was the effect of low content of the ADF fraction in green fodder from pasture which determined also high dry matter digestibility. Most samples of pasture green fodder (c. 62%) were assigned to III and IV quality class (RFV from 87 to 124). Acc. to Linn and Martins [1989] scale these fodders are appropriate for slaughter cattle, older heifers and marginally for dairy and dry cows. Only 25% of analysed samples of pasture green fodder was suitable for feeding the best and good cows and for young breeding heifers (I and II quality class). Slightly worse fodder was hay: 6% of samples were assigned to the I and II quality class, the rest fell into the IIIIV class. The worst among analysed fodders was green fodder from meadows, 64% of whose samples were classified as IV and V quality class i.e. unacceptable for feeding highly efficient dairy cows and young heifers.
Conclusions The highest nutritive and energetic value from among the analysed fodders was found in the green fodder from pastures and the lowest - in hay. Mean RFV index for all evaluated fodders ranged between 100 and 123 which classified them in III quality class (fodder suitable for slaughter cattle, older heifers and marginally for dairy cows). Results obtained on the content of nutrient components in samples of analysed fodder from organic farms agree with those obtained in other studies on feed value of fodders from conventional farms in Poland. References
Inspekcja Jakoci Handlowej Artykuw Rolno-Spoywczych. 2007. Stan i tendencje rozwoju rolnictwa ekologicznego w Polsce. http://www.ijhar-s.gov.pl/ Nazaruk M., Jankowska-Huflejt H., Wrbel B., 2009. Ocena wartoci pokarmowej pasz z trwaych uytkw zielonych w badanych gospodarstwach ekologicznych. Woda-rodowisko-Obszary Wiejskie (Water-Environment-Rural Areas) t. 9 z.1 (25) p. 61-76. Normy ywienia byda, owiec i kz. Warto pokarmowa pasz dla przeuwaczy. 2001. Opracowanie wg. INRA (1988). Krakw, Wydaw.: Instytut Zootechniki, ss. 218. Linn J.G., Martin N.P. 1989. Forage quality test and interpretation. Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minesota. s. 1-5.
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Agronomic characterisation and chemical composition of a collection of sainfoin entries (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.)
Demdoum S.*, Delgado I., Muoz F. Centro de Investigacin y Tecnologa Agroalimentaria de Aragn, Zaragoza, Spain *sdemdoum@aragon.es
Abstract Agronomic characteristics of twelve cultivars from all over Europe and eleven Spanish accessions of sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) were evaluated during the first productive cut in a small plot trial under irrigation, in Zaragoza (41 3N, 0 47W), Spain. Dry-matter production, growth habit and flowering intensity in the establishment year were regularly assessed. The chemical composition of the first cut was also evaluated by the contents in NDF, ADL, mineral matters and total nitrogen matter. Results show a wide variability in all characters. Dry-matter production ranged from 220 g.p-1 for Costwold common to 447 g.p-1 for Korunga o Yubilena cultivars. In the same way, an important variability was encountered in plant growth habit, from prostate to erect. The total nitrogen content ranged from 2.1 to 3.4%, the same order of variation was observed in fibre content (NDF: 35.5 to 50.3%, ADF: 24.7 to 35.9%, ADL: 6.2 to 8.6%). Significant correlations between production, growth habit or flowering intensity were found. Plants with higher flowering intensity in the establishment year displayed a higher production and tended to be more erect the following year. No link was found between agronomic and nutritional traits. Introduction Legumes are important as they provide animal feed with high protein level. Among them, sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.) has a high protein content without risk of bloating due to its composition in tannins. Sainfoin is a hardy perennial thriving on poor or calcareous soils. Adapted to the cultivation at sea level in the northern part of Europe, it shows a preference for hilly or mountainous environments when grown in the Mediterranean area. Once left on side, the properties of this traditional legume justify efforts of characterisation on an agronomical and nutritional level. The objective of this work is to assess the variability of the agronomical characteristics (dry-matter production, growth habit and flowering intensity) and the chemical composition of a collection including 23 accessions of sainfoin from all over Europe. This collection was grew in a small plot trial in Zaragoza and assessed during the first productive cut, which represents 45% of the annual production (Delgado, 2000). Material and methods
1. Agronomic characterisation A small field trial including 23 cultivars and ecotypes of sainfoin were carried out in randomised block with three repetitions on silty-loamy soil and under irrigation, in Zaragoza (41 3N, 047W), Spain. The varieties were the following Costwold and Somborne from UK, Esparcette (Germany), Sepial, Incoronata and Ambra from Italy, Fakir (France), Ukraine, Visnovsky (Czech R.), Yubileyna (Bulgaria), Korunga (Turquey), Poland and from Spain: Teruel, Reznos, 7.1, Mezquita de Jarque, Lagueruela, Loarre, Villahoz, Torrecilla de Cameros, Graus, Tartareu and Villahermosa del Rio. The intensity of flowering (in percentage of blooming plants) was assessed during the establishment year (2007). Plants were cut in spring 2008 when they reached full flowering; growth habit was assessed at this time, as the ratio between height and diameter of the plant. Dry matter was obtained after ovendrying at 60C until constant weight. 2. Chemical composition Mineral matter and total nitrogen (AOAC, 1990) contents of forage production of the 23 varieties were assessed. The fibre content was evaluated though NDF (Neutral Detergent Fibre), ADF (Acid Detergent Fibre) and ADL (Acid Detergent Lignin) levels (Van Soest et al., 1991). Results were analysed by analysis of variance with SAS software in order to determine block and variety effect and to assess relations between the traits (SAS, 1982).
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1. Agronomic characterisation A high variability was encountered in all of the traits. In the establishment year not all plants were able to flower. The percentage of plants able to flower in the first year ranged from 10 to 98.7% among the cultivars (respectively Cotswold common and Reznos). Plants showed a wide variation in growth habit. Even though they were all in the same phenological stage (full flowering), some varieties showed a prostate habit when others were erect. Erect habit can be suitable for hay making, prostrate habit will be more fitted for soil protection. Mean dry matter production was 354 g.p-1 (gram/plant), but ranged from 220 g.p-1 for Costwold common to 447 g.p-1 for Korunga or Yubilena. All agronomic traits were positively related: varieties with the higher flowering intensity in the establishment had higher production (** R=0.134) and were more likely to be erect (*** R=0.234). Both types of accessions (cultivars and ecotypes) were similar in heterogeneity. This is in accordance with results obtained with a larger collection of Spanish ecotypes (Delgado, 2008). Six ecotypes and cultivars showed a lower variability for dry-matter production and growth habit (cv Costwold common, cv Incoronata, cv Sepial, Teruel, Mezquita de Jarque and Tartareu). Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the assessed traits in a sainfoin collection in 2008:
Dry Matter Production (g.p-1) Growth habit Flowering intensity Total nitrogen (% of DM) Ash (% of DM) NDF (% of DM) ADF (% of DM) ADL (% of DM) Mean 354.0 1.2 77.7 2.7 9.1 41.8 29.8 7.2 Max 447.0 1.7 98.7 3.4 13.9 50.3 35.9 8.6 Min 220.0 0.9 10.0 2.1 7.4 35.6 24.7 6.1 Variation coefficient 20.9 20.4 30.4 12.8 19.1 8.8 10.0 8.1
2. Chemical composition: Contents in total nitrogen, ash, NDF, ADF and ADL are presented in table 1. A high variability was encountered at chemical level, nevertheless lower than on agronomical characteristics. In the same way, correlations between chemical contents are weaker than correlations between agronomical traits. Nutritional value was globally very satisfactory. Total nitrogen range from 2.1 to 2.7% of DM in Somborne and Incoronata respectively and was of 2.7% in mean. ADL level at full flowering stage ranged from 6.1 to 8.6 (mean ADL=7.2). Results were close to those obtain by Bal (2006) for the same phenological stage. Varieties did not differ significantly on total nitrogen, ash, ADL, ADF or on NDF level. No significant relations were encountered between agronomic traits and chemical composition.
Conclusions Cultivars and ecotypes of sainfoin showed a wide variation of growth habit, flowering intensity and production as well of total nitrogen, ash and fibres; cultivars were not more homogeneous than ecotypes. Flowering intensity during the establishment year is shown to be an indicator of agronomic characteristics of the plant during the following year. Globally, varieties showed high nitrogen content. The absence of a link between chemical composition and agronomic characteristics may allow us to select plant by optimising both aspects. References
A.O.A.C. 1990. Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 15th ed, Washington D.C. 66-88. Bal MA., Ozturk D., Aydin R., Erol A., Ozkan CO. 2006. Nutritive value of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciafolia) harvested at different maturity stage. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science. 9(2): 205-209. Delgado I., Salvia J., Buil I., Andrs C. 2008. The agronomic variability of a collection of sainfoin accessions. Span J Agri Res 6(3): 401-407. Delgado, I., Andrs, C., Sin, E., Ochoa, M. J. 2002. Present situation of sainfoin crop (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.). Survey carried out among seed producers. Pastos, 32 (2): 235-247. Van Soest PJ, Robertson JB and Lewis BA. 1991. Methods for dietary fibber, neutral detergent fibber, and non starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J Dairy Sci 74: 35833597. SAS Institute. 1982. SAS, Users guide: Stastistics. Cary, NC. Bal MA., Ozturk D., Aydin R., Erol A., Ozkan CO. 2006. Nutritive value of Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciafolia) harvested at different maturity stage. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science. 9(2): 205-209.
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Semi natural grassland: floristic diversity and plant traits

Ferroni L.*, Bolzan A., Vecchiettini M., Speranza M. Department of Agri-Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Bologna, Italy *lucia.ferroni@unibo.it
Abstract The biodiversity of semi natural grasslands can be evaluated with a floristic and functional approach. Our study was performed in the spring of 2007 and 2008 in two grassland areas of the Regional Park of Monte Sole (Emilian Apennines, Italy) characterized by the same local climatic conditions, but different resource availability. We analyzed the floristic richness and pastoral value of each area and one functional trait, the Leaf Life Span (LLS) of the dominant species Brachypodium pinnatum and Bromus erectus. We tested the behaviour of LLS in both areas and analysed the relation between LLS and floristic and productive characteristics of the two semi natural grasslands. The differences of LLS between the areas were highly significant, and we found a negative correlation between LLS and floristic diversity. Keywords: Leaf Life Span, floristic diversity, Brachypodium pinnatum, Bromus erectus, grasslands. Introduction Semi natural grasslands are among the most species-rich plant communities in Europe. Grassland habitats are a priority ecosystem for biodiversity conservation. Species diversity is regarded as one of the most central criteria in biodiversity assessment and decisions about management priorities for semi natural grassland (Reitalu et al., 2009). The majority of studies on the impact of landscape and environmental variables on plant species diversity usually have a floristic approach but the relationship between floristic diversity and functional traits are little known. Leaf Life Span (LLS) is a functional trait involved in a fundamental trade-off in plant functioning between a rapid production of biomass and an efficient conservation of nutrients. LLS is thus expected to vary with the characteristics of natural habitats: in particular species with short LLS tend to occupy nutrient rich sites, species with long LLS tend to be favoured in nutrient-poor habitats (Navas et al., 2003). The present contribution analyzes five grassland sites in two different areas from the floristic (number of species, pastoral value) and the functional (LLS of the dominant species Brachypodium pinnatum and Bromus erectus) point of view, in order to point out correlations between these two kinds of parameters. Material and methods The study was performed in two areas, Zanini and Stanzano, in the Regional Park of Monte Sole (6476 ha), located in the Emilian Apennines of Bologna Province (Italy). Both areas have the same climatic conditions (total annual precipitation: 524mm in 2007; 723mm in 2008). The two areas have the same elevation (400 m a.s.l.), but different soil textures (silt loam at Zanini, 44% sand, 54% silt and 2% clay, and silt at Stanzano, 12% sand, 85% silt and 2% clay), slope (respectively 25 and 16) and exposure (respectively South and South-West). We selected three sites in the Zanini area (Zanini 1, 2 and 3) and two sites in the Stanzano area (1 and 2). To evaluate the floristic richness and to describe the plant communities we calculated the frequency contribution of each species following Daget and Poissonet (1971), in spring 2007. The pastoral values (PV) of the grassland sites were calculated from the pastoral values of each species, (Roggero et al., 2002) weighted by its frequency contribution along the transect. For B. pinnatum and B. erectus the LLS measurement was made in spring (March-July) 2007 and 2008 in each site. To calculate the LLS we followed the protocol of Navas et al. (2003). Data were analysed with Sigma Stat 3.0 for Windows. Results and discussion
Table 1. Number of species and pastoral value of the study sites of the two areas.
Areas Zanini Stanzano Sites 1 2 3 1 2 Number of Species 88 73 71 48 44 Pastoral value 31.15 26.00 28.71 22.74 26.04
The number of species and the pastoral value of the study sites are reported in Table 1. The Zanini sites (1, 2, 3) have a higher specific diversity compared to the Stanzano (1, 2) sites. There are similar differences between the PVs too, but they are less strong. According to Argenti et al. (2006), the PV value
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for a poor quality grassland is PV<=15, for medium quality grassland is 15<PV<=25, for a good quality grassland is PV>25; the Zanini sites are good quality grasslands (PV average value 28.62), the Stanzano sites are medium quality grasslands (PV average value 24.39). The LLS values of B. pinnatum and B. erectus in the study areas are reported in Table 2. The Zanini sites always have lower values, Zanini 1 has the lowest and Stanzano 2 the highest. Table 2. Average values standard deviation of LLS (days) for the five sites in the two years and the P value of One Way ANOVA between areas.
2007 Areas Zanini Stanzano P Sites 1 2 3 1 2 B. pinnatum 13.85 6.08 23.21 5.98 33.27 9.57 32.21 9.24 43.48 12.53 0.005 B. erectus 15.65 5.93 15.50 3.78 18.75 3.22 20.17 2.43 21.69 5.06 0.020 B. pinnatum 28.70 9.45 30.04 4.10 37.22 13.06 41.42 7.96 45.28 17.69 0.019 2008 B. erectus 29.76 8.98 36.45 7.55 35.92 4.49 37.92 5.87 46.67 8.77 0.017
Table 2 shows the results of the One-Way ANOVA between areas. In the two areas the LLS values of both species in both years present statistically significant differences, that can be due to the ecological differences of the two areas. For both species the 2008 values are higher than those of 2007 (B. pinnatum, P=0.046 B. erectus, P=<0.001). Comparing the two years, LLS values of B. erectus cover a wider range of variability than those of B. pinnatum. This is probably due to the different amount of precipitation in the two years (2007 was drier than 2008) and to the different xero-tolerance of the two species. (B. erectus is better adapted to dry climatic conditions (Liancourt et al., 2005)), so its LLS was lower during 2007. The correlations between LLS and floristic parameters are shown in Table 3. LLS of the two species, in the two years, are negatively correlated with the number of species in the five sites; correlations with the PV are not significant. High LLS of the dominant species would reduce light availability at the soil surface and could have a detrimental impact on the species richness and diversity. Table 3. Values of Pearson Correlation Coefficient of LLS, Number of species and PV (ns=not significant; *=P < 0.05; **=P < 0.01).
2007 Number of species PV B. pinnatum -0.882 * -0.343 ns B. erectus -0.909 * -0.536 ns B. pinnatum -0.939 * -0.596 ns 2008 B. erectus -0.884* -0.577 ns
Conclusions The floristic diversity of semi natural grasslands here studied is an important parameter for their characterization. This parameter is able to express functional aspects of the dominant species and it seems that a higher floristic diversity coincides with a faster turnover of plant biomass and leaf dynamics. References
Argenti G., Bianchetto E, Ferretti F, Staglian N., 2005. Proposta di un metodo semplificato di rilevamento pastorale nei piani di gestione forestale. Forest@, 3(2): 275-280. Daget P., Poissonet T., 1971 Une mthode danalyse phytosociologique des prairies. Annales Agronomiques, 22(1): 5-41. Liancourt P., Callaway R.M., Michalet R., 2005. Stress Tolerance and Competitive-Response Ability Determine the Outcome of Biotic Interactions. Ecology, 86(6): 1611-1618. Navas M.L., Ducout B., Roumet C., Richarte J., Garnier J. and Garnier E., 2003 Leaf life span, dynamics and construction cost of species from Mediterranean old- fields differeing in successional status. New Phytologist, 159: 213-228. Reitalu T., Syke M.T., Johansson L.J., Lonn M., Hall K., Vandewalle M., Prentice H.C., 2009. Small-scale plant species richness and evenness in semi-natural grasslands respond differently to habitat fragmentation. Biological Conservation, 142: 899-908. Roggero P.P., Bagella S., Farina R., 2002. Un archivio dati di Indici specifici per la valutazione integrata del valore pastorale. Rivista di Agronomia, 36: 149-156.
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The utilisation of grasses functional types and of the cumulated sum of temperatures to evaluate permanent grassland digestibility in PDO cheese farms of the Massif Central in France
Baumont R.1*, Delmas B.2, Violleau S.3, Zapata J.4, Chabalier C.5, Picard F.1, Louault F.6, Andueza A.1, Farruggia A.1 1 INRA UR 1213 Herbivores, 63122 Saint-Gens Champanelle, France 2 Chambre dAgriculture de lAveyron, Carrefour de lAgriculture,12026 RODEZ, France 3 Chambre dAgriculture du Puy-de-Dme, France, 4 Ets Dpartemental de lElevage du Puy-de-Dme, 11 Alle P. De Fermat, 63171 Aubire, France 5 Chambre dAgriculture du Cantal, 26 Rue du 139me RI, 15002 Aurillac, France 6 INRA UR 974 Ecosystme Prairial, 234 avenue du Brzet 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France *baumont@clermont.inra.fr
Abstract This paper presents first results of a study that provides references on the variation of permanent grassland digestibility according to its composition in grasses functional types and on the decline of digestibility with the sum of temperatures during the first growth cycle. Keywords: permanent grassland, digestibility, grasses functional types, sum of temperatures Introduction Permanent grasslands are the main forage resource in dairy farming systems producing PDO cheese in the Massif Central of France. In these systems, grassland management is questioned in order to reconcile forage self-sufficiency at the farm level, quality of the products and ecosystem services related to biodiversity. For that purpose, a better characterization of the links between environmental and management conditions, floristic composition, yield and nutritive value of grassland is needed. Species composition can greatly influence grassland nutritive value (Huyghe et al, 2008). Daccord et al (2006) described the variation in grassland digestibility according the proportion of grasses, legumes and forbs, and the type of grasses (the richness in rye-grass). Cruz et al (2002) proposed to classify grasses cooccurring in grassland into functional types according to a set of functional traits that characterises plant growth strategy according to fertility level and phenology. In this paper we report the first results of a survey of grassland plots from PDO cheese farms of the Massif Central and explore the ability to evaluate the digestibility of the herbage from the functional type characterization and the cumulated sum of temperatures as an indicator of the maturity stage. Material and methods A total of 75 plots distributed in 15 farms located in PDO territory in the Massif Central were first chosen according to the information obtained from the farmers on their use in the forage system (cut or graze), the intensity of the utilisation (high or low grazing pressure, early or late cut) and the level of fertilization. Measurements were made during 2008 at three dates along the first growth cycle. Sampling dates were determined according to the sum of temperature calculated from Februray 1st and set to 400, 700, and 1200 degree-days (Cd). Measurements at 400 Cd were made before grazing turnout, and measurements at 700 and 1200 Cd were made in exclosures that were kept uncut and not grazed. Determination of the abundance of main species, scored on a scale from 1 to 6, were performed on five 0.25m frames along a diagonal within homogeneous facies (Fallour et al, 2008). Plots were therefore classified at each date into following functional types (Cruz et al. ,2002; Cruz, Theau, Lecloux, unpublished): type A comprises species from fertile sites with early flowering date (<900Cd), typical species are Alopecurus Pratensis, Lolium Perenne; type B comprises species from medium-to-fertile sites with mid-early flowering date (1200Cd), typical species are Dactylis glomerata, Festuca arundinace; type b comprises species from mid-fertile sites with late flowering date (>1600 Cd), typical species are Agrostis capillaris, Poa trivialis; type C comprises species from low fertile sites with mid early to late flowering date, typical species are Festuca rubra, Festuca ovina. After botanical determination, the herbage was cut at 5cm above ground level and mixed. Two subsamples were kept frozen for further laboratory analysis. One sample was used for the determination of grasses, legumes and forbs proportion in the biomass on dry weight basis and the other sample was used for in vivo organic matter digestibility (OMD) determination using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) according to the procedure described by Rodrigues et al., (2008). Due to missing samples (difficulties to maintain the exclosures, vole damages) the dataset that was analysed comprises only 62, 56 and 38 plots for first, second and third sampling date respectively.
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Results and discussion Estimates of OMD varied between 69.6 and 88.3%, between 64.2 and 79.8%, and between 48.9 and 67.4% on the first, second and third sampling date respectively. The plots were highly dominated by grasses that contributed to 76.812.9, 81.510.3 and 87.210.2 % of the total biomass on the first, second and third sampling date respectively. The contribution of legumes and forbs to the biomass was low with mean values across the three sampling dates of 5.46.1 and 9.48.3 respectively, as well as the dead material that represented 3.65.4 % of the biomass. No significant relationship could be established between the composition of grassland in botanical families and the variation in OMD.
OMD (%) 90 y = 78.8 + 0.05x R=0.05 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 y = 63.7 - 0.05x R = 0.18 50 0
First Date
(A)
OMD (%) 85 80 75 70 65 60
(B)
Type A and B Type b Type C
Second Date
Third Date
20
40
60
80
100
55 200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Abundance of grasses from type A and B (%)
Sum of temperatures ( Cd from 1st February)
Figure 1: Relationship of OMD with (A) the abundance of grasses from type A and B for the three sampling dates; (B) the sum of temperatures for the plots classified in functional types.
The abundance of grasses from functional types A and B tended to increase digestibility of the herbage for an early sampling date and to decrease it for a late sampling date (Figure 1A). Grassland dominated by species from types A and B achieve flowering earlier than grassland dominated by species from type b and C. Indeed, when plots are classified according the functional type of the most abundant species (Figure 1B), the decrease in digestibility with the increase of sum of temperatures is lower for type C plots (1.5 point of digestibility for 100 Cd) than for type A and B (2.8 points of digestibility for 100 Cd) and for type b (2.6 points of digestibility for 100 Cd). The low digestibility of type C plots in early spring is consistent with previous results found for grassland with high proportion of Festuca rubra (Rodrigues et al., 2008).
Conclusions These results encourage the development of estimations for grassland digestibility according to their grasses functional types and the sum of temperatures. Further investigations will be undertaken to strengthen these results with a second year of measurements and to link them with management practices. Acknowledgements This work was funded by the French Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries on the occasion of a CASDAR project managed by the Ple Fromager AOC Massif Central. The authors thank M. Weber, M. Chantel, C. Barthlmy, A. Lacalmontie, D., Nureau, S. Vinsa-Camps, C. Gominard and C. Lacour who contributed to field measurements and E. Tixier who contributed to laboratory measurements. References
Huyghe C., Baumont R., Isselstein J., 2008. Plant diversity and feed quality. Grassl. Science in Europe, 13, 375-386. Rodrigues A.M., Andueza D., Picard F., Cecato U., Farruggia A., Baumont R., 2008. Classification of mountain permanent grasslands based on their feed value. Grassland Science in Europe, 13, 501-503. Cruz P., Duru M., Therond O., Theau J.P., Jouany C., Al haj Khaled R. and Ansquer P. (2002) Une nouvelle approche pour caractriser les prairies naturelles et leur valeur dusage. Fourrages, 172, 335-354. Daccord R., Wyss U., Kessler J., Arrigo Y, Rouel M., Lehmann J. and Jeangros B. (2006) Valeur nutritive des fourrages. In: Apports alimentaires recommands et tables de la valeur nutritive des aliments pour les ruminants. Chapitre 13. 18p. On line publishing. Station de recherche Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP. Fallour D, Theau J.P., Corler K, Hossard L, Martin G, Jouany C, Duru M, Cruz P, 2008. A simplified method to determine the abundance of grass funtional groups in natural grasslands. Grassland Science in Europe, 13, 93-95.
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Plant biodiversity and pastoral value of two permanent grasslands from arcului Mountains (Cara-Severin County, western Romania)
Sreanu V.*, Moisuc A., Butnariu M., Cotuna O. Banats University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine from Timioara, Romania *vera_s_vera@yahoo.com
Abstract The land surface covered with permanent grasslands in Cara-Severin County is 258,271 hectares and represents 30% from the total land surface and 65% from the agricultural land of the county, being an important natural resource for this area. In arcului Mountains there are some permanent grassland rich in plant species that are exploited in mixed system (cutting-grazing). These consist in small patchy surfaces, every of them being influenced by very specific ecological conditions (altitude, exposition, slope, soil etc.) of the micro-zone where they are placed. The purpose of this work is to expose the features of the vegetation carpet pointing especially the biodiversity and the pastoral value. The studied surfaces show a great number of plant species. Keywords: plant biodiversity, pastoral value, permanent grassland, management practices. Introduction arcului Mountains is a part of Banats Mountains respectively of the Meridional Carpathians, this massif being bordered by Timi Valley, Bistra Valley, Hideg Valley, es River continued by River Mare. Cara Severin is a mountainous county because 65.4% of its entire surface is covered with mountains, but there are also large valleys. The arcu Massif is formed from granite and sedimentary rocks. There are still today signs of former glaciers activities. The grasslands are covering an important surface of the mountain; one of the main activities of the inhabitants in this area is animal breeding, mostly cattle and sheep, but also pigs. Material and methods In this work are studied two grassland surfaces from Borlova locality, in arcului Mountains (Cara Severin County). First grassland is used by cutting grazing system, and the second one exclusively by grazing. The data were collected during 2005 2008 period. The method used for the study of the vegetation is the double metre method (point quadrate method) (Daget and Poissonet, 1971) which facilitates the determination of some vegetation indexes as the biodiversity (Shannon-Weaver) index and the pastoral value of the grassland. Results and discussion The vegetation of the grassland used by cutting grazing system has a great biodiversity, the total species number being 60, the dominant species being Festuca rubra and Agrostis tenuis. Plantago media, Achillea millefolium and Thymus serpyllum have also an important contribution. Eight grasses, 7 legumes and a great number of plants from other botanical families have been found. Meanwhile the grassland used exclusively by grazing has only 22 species, respectively 5 grasses and 3 legumes, the dominant ones being Festuca rubra and Agrostis tenuis. Table 1 presents the plant species from the two studied grasslands. The biodiversity index (Shannon-Weaver) calculated for the grassland used by cutting grazing system is 6.4 showing a high biodiversity, and the one of the grazed grassland is 3.7 and indicates an average biodiversity. Analysing the pastoral value of the grasslands on a 0 100 scale, the grassland used in mixed system has a pastoral value index of 62 and the exclusively grazed one reached 49. The lower pastoral value of the grazed grassland is due to the presence of braken (Pteridium aquilinum) on important surfaces, this forming an important part of the biomass produced in this grassland. Comparing the two grassland management types, the best for the analysed region is the cutting grazing system, because this allows the development of a great biodiversity and in the meantime favours the development of species with good forage value that determinates a good pastoral value of the grassland.
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Table 1. Plants species in the two grasslands from Borlova managed in different ways
Cutting grazing system Grasses
Festuca rubra, Agrostis tenuis, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Agropyron repens, Cynosurus cristatus, Trisetum flavescens, Dactylis glomerata, Briza media Luzula luzuloides, Juncus effusus Festuca rubra, Agrostis tenuis, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Agropyron repens, Cynosurus cristatus
Grazing system
Juncaceae and Cyperaceae

Luzula luzuloides
Legumes
Trifolium repens, Trifolium montanum, Medicago lupulina, Lotus corniculatus, Genista tinctoria, Lathyrus pratensis, Vicia cracca Betula pendula, Crataegus monogyna, Corylus avellana Centaurea jacea, Salvia nemorosa, Plantago lanceolata, Achillea millefolium, Thymus serpyllum, Ranunculus acris, Verbena officinalis, Viola ricolour, Hypericum perforatum, Cruciata laevipes, Equisetum arvense, Potentilla erecta, Orchis morio, Plantago media, Hieracium pilosella, Narcissus stelaris, Polygala vulgaris, Viola arvensis, Ornithogallum umbellatum, Dianthus carhusianorum, Campanula patula, Epilobium tetragonum, Cichorium intybus, Thymus pulegioides, Euphorbia cyparissias, Leucanthemum vulgare, Veratrum album, Colchicum autumnale, Lysimachia nummularia, Agrimonia eupatoria, Ajuga reptans, Gallium saxatile, Asarum europaeum, Rumex acetosella, Centaurium erythraea, Minuartia verna, Cerastium arvense, Lychnis flos-cuculi, Silene vulgaris, Scabiosa columbaria Polytrichum communae Trifolium repens, Medicago lupulina, Lotus corniculatus Crataegus monogyna Plantago lanceolata, Achillea millefolium, Thymus serpyllum, Ranunculus acris, Verbena officinalis, Potentilla erecta, Veratrum album, Colchicum autumnale, Ajuga reptans, Cerastium arvense, Hieracium pilosella
Shrubs and trees Other botanical families
Mosses and ferns

Pteridium aquilinum
Table 2. The contribution (in %) of each group of species in the two grasslands from Borlova
Specification Grasses Cutting grazing system Grazing system 48 62 Contribution (in %) of the plants group of species Other Juncaceae and botanical Legumes Shrubs families Cyperaceae and trees 6 8 2 35 5 11 1 18
Mosses and ferns 1 3
Conclusions The grassland used in mixed systems has the best results from the point of view of biodiversity and pastoral value because this type of management determinates the presence of many plants species that arent growing in grasslands that are exclusively grazed. The mixed management practice allows the presence of species as Orchis morio, Narcisus stelaris, the last one being a protected species. Acknowledgements This work contains partial data from the project no. 408/2007 code ID_59 Inventory of the invasive plant species from western Romania and the elaboration of some efficient fast tools for the evaluation of their dynamics and impact on the vegetation coordinated by Veronica Sreanu and supported by the Executive Unit for the Financing of the High Education and University Scientific Research (UEFISCSU). References
Daget, P. and Poissonet, J. 1971. Une mthode danalyse phytologique des prairies. Critres dapplication, Ann. Agron., 22(1): 5 41. Sreanu Veronica, Moisuc A., Butnariu Monica, Duru Carmen, tefan Camelia, 2008. Comparison between the vegetation of overgrazed and undergrazed grassland in Western Romania, 1st International Pasture Conference Ettelbruck / Luxembourg, Milk production from pasture, 4 July 2008, p. 13-14. Sreanu Veronica, Moisuc A., Butnariu M., Stroia M. C., 2007. Study concerning shrub encroachment in western Romanian grasslands, 14th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation "Permanent and temporary grassland: plant, environment and economy", Ghent (Belgia), EGF 2007, p. 860-863.
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Effects of mineral and organic fertilisers on herbage production and quality at seminatural grassland
underlk J.*, Ondrek L., Kizekov M. Grassland and Mountain Agriculture Research Institute, 974 21 Bansk Bystrica, Slovakia *cunderlik@vutphp.sk
Abstract A field trial was established to study effects of mineral and organic fertilisers on production, quality and botanical composition at permanent grassland over four years. The fertiliser treatments were (kg.ha-1): 1) control; 2) P30 + K60; 3) N60 + PK; 4) N120 + PK; 5) manure 12 t.ha-1; manure 24 t.ha-1. The sward proportion of grasses was increasing with the rising rates of nitrogen fertilizer. With manure application, the proportion of grasses was dominant in the first year, but decreased later whereas the herb and legume proportions were rising. The highest dry matter yield (4.81 t.ha-1) of herbage (DM) was found in the first harvest year. The highest dry matter yield (5.28 t.ha-1) was recorded with the N120 + PK fertiliser rate and somewhat lower with the manure application and the fertiliser rate of N60 + PK. The lowest DM yield was found with the control (3.2 t.ha-1). Keywords: seminatural grassland, botanical composition, dry matter, herbage quality Introduction So far, problems relating to grassland nutrition have been dealt very often, such as fertilizer application dates, rates of fertilizer, nitrogen rates, fertilizer concentration, application techniques and so on (Novk, 1991). Regular application of farmyard manure or other organic fertilizers repeated after a number of years is increasing for maintaining the fertility of soil (Krajovi et al., 1990). Ripe and well-processed farmyard manure does not only bring the basis nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) to the soil, but it also improves the psychical properties and biological activity of the soil (Tma and Matula, 1993). Material and methods Production, quality and botanical composition of grassland under three-cut utilization system were investigated at Radva site (altitude 460m, near Bansk Bystrica) during four years. A field trial was established using the block method with the following fertilizer treatments (kg.ha-1): 1)) control; 2) P30 + K60; 3) N60 + PK; 4) N120 + PK; 5) manure 12 t.ha-1; manure 24 t.ha-1. Results and discussion The research results showed that the rising fertilizer N rates increased the grass proportion in sward for all research years. At the farmyard manure (FM) application, grass species were dominant in the 1st year, but their proportion was getting smaller and the proportion of herbs and legumes was rising in the following years. Over the research period, the highest herbage dry matter (DM) yield (4.81 t.ha-1) was found in the first harvest year; manure had been applied in the autumn the year before (Table 1). The second highest DM yield (4.70 t.ha-1) was recorded in the last year. The increase in DM yield was not repeated in the year following manure application, although it was the case the first year. The statistically significant difference was found only between the first and the third year and the differences between the other research years were not significant. The highest nutrient uptake by herbage was recorded in the third year (Table 1). The highest DM production (5.28 t.ha-1) was found with the N120 + PK treatment. Somewhat lower DM yield was found with treatments with manure and with N60 + PK. The lowest DM yield (3.47 t.ha-1) was recorded at the non-fertilized control. The differences between the control and the respective fertilizer and manure treatments were significant. The difference between the control and the PK treatment was not significant. The highest nutrient uptake was found with the N120 + PK treatment and the lowest one at the control (Table 2). The nutrient content over the research years and treatments is given in Tables 1 and 2. Over the research years, the nitrogen content in herbage was in compliance with the required N concentration. The phosphorus content in herbage was in agreement with the required criteria for all treatments through the years, except for the last year where the lowest P content (2.62 kg.ha-1) was recorded. The K content was well-balanced for the treatments. However, there were significant differences between the years and the lowest K content (15.65 kg.ha-1) was found in the last year. The content of Na was low and disagreed with the required criteria in all the years and treatments. The calcium content in herbage complied with the criteria at all the treatments and the differences were not significant. There were statistical differences between the research years as Ca content ranged from 6.54 to 9.40 kg.ha-1.
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Table 1 Analysis of variance DM yield, the content of biogenic elements in herbage Years 1 2 3 4
st nd rd th
DM (t.ha-1) 4.81 b 3.85 a 4.35 ab 4.70 ab 0.909
Content of biogenic elements (kg.ha-1) N 18.22a 23.97 b 25.21 b 19.09 a 1.267 P 2.79 a 3.41 b 3.52 b 2.62 a 0.254 K 18.77 b 20.96 c 22.82 d 15.65 a 1.852 Na 0.22 a 0.42 bc 0.52 c 0.42 b 0.053 Ca 7.80 b 8.42 bc 9.40 c 6.54 a 1.134 Mg 2.90 a 3.37 b 3.87 c 3.46 b 0.376
0,05
Table 2 Analysis of variance DM yield, the content of biogenic elements in herbage at the treatments Treatments Control PK N60 + PK N120 + PK FM 12t FM 24t 0,05 DM (t.ha-1) 3.47 a 3.59 a 5.03 b 5.28 b 4.47 ab 4.75 b 1.114 Content of biogenic elements (kg.ha-1) N 20.59 a 21.63 ab 21.21 ab 22.57 b 22.47 b 21.28 ab 1.552 P 2.92 ab 3.17 bc 2.62 a 2.94 b 3.48 d 3.38 cd 0.312 K 19.00 ab 20.89 b 20.53 ab 19.09 ab 18.44 a 19.32 ab 2.269 Na 0.39 a 0.40 a 0.38 a 0.43 a 0.41 a 0.44 a 0.065 Ca 8.05 a 8.43 a 7.73 a 8.18 a 7.86 a 8.00 a 1.389 Mg 3.28 a 3.27 a 3.16 a 3. 59 a 3.55 a 3.56 a 0.416
Conclusions The four-year research on the effects of mineral fertilizer and farmyard manure showed that the manure application resulted in the expansion of weed species (mainly Elytrigia repens) in the first year of application. Probably, the manure contained a big proportion of weed seeds which entered the digestive system of cattle grazing the weed-infested sward. In the following year, the proportions of legumes and herbs increased in the sward. The mineral fertilizer especially the N120 + PK rate maintained the higher proportion of grasses in the sward. The yield was higher with the mineral fertiliser treatments than those with the manure applied. The highest DM production (5.28 t.ha-1) was recorded with the N120 + PK treatment. There were not any marked changes in the chemical composition of DM between the mineral fertiliser treatments and those with manure applied. The cuts and the years were the most notable factors influencing the herbage quality. References
Krajovi V. et al. (1990). Komplexn vyuitie trvnych porastov v SFR. Syntetick zveren sprva, VLP, Bansk Bystrica. Novk, J. (1991). Bezorbov obnova ruderlneho trvneho porastu prsevom. IV. Zmeny obsahu minerlnych ltok v suine nadzemnej biomasy. Ponohospodrstvo, 41, 721 729. Tma, J., Matula, J. (1993). Zmny pH a zsobenosti pd ivinami v zvislosti na systmu hnojen pod doasnm porostem srhy lalonat. Rostlinn vroba, 39, 363 373.
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Intake of sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble in Northern Greece

Yiakoulaki M.D.*, Papanastasis V.P. Department of Range Science (236), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece *yiak@for.auth.gr
Abstract Cereal stubble after harvesting is an important feeding resource for small ruminants in the Mediterranean basin countries during summer. At that period forage of natural pastures is dormant and depleted, and shepherds lead their flocks for grazing to barley and wheat stubble. In this paper, intake of sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble was determined by using the bite count method. Intake of sheep was 1151g day-1 while that of goats were 991g day-1. Sheep consumed higher (p0.05) amount of forbs (524g day-1) compared to goats (315g day-1). Goats selected heavier (p0.05) bite weight of stubble (0.55 g DM bite-1) than sheep (0.34 g DM bite-1). Keywords: Intake, cereal stubble, grazing, sheep, goats Introduction Sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble during summer represent one of the most widespread feeding practices in Greece. At that period forage of natural pastures is dormant and depleted, and shepherds are forced to lead their flocks for grazing to barley and wheat stubble. At the low elevation zone (< 200 m) of northern Greece, such grazing takes place from the middle of June till early October. Stubble grazing coincides with the mating season and early pregnancy of sheep and goats. During the last years research has been focused on cereal stubble composition and production (Rihani et al., 1991; Landau et al., 2000), nutritive value and intake of sheep (Treacher et al., 1996; Brand et al., 2000; Avondo et al., 2000; Landau et al., 2000) and diet selection and grazing activities of sheep and goats (Yiakoulaki and Papanastasis 2003, Yiakoulaki et al., 2005). The aim of this paper was to study the intake of sheep and goats grazing in a mixed flock on cereal crop residues in northern Greece. Material and methods The study was conducted at the municipal department of Kolchiko in Lagadas county of Thessaloniki, northern Greece, during summer 2002. A mixed flock of 70 goats and 50 sheep of local breeds was placed on a cereal (wheat and barley) stubble field of 6 ha at the low elevation zone (<200 m) three days after harvesting. At the beginning of the experiment forage botanical composition was measured with the loop method (Cook and Stubbendieck, 1986) and forage species were categorized as stubble, forbs, grasses and woody species. Four 2 years-old female animals (two sheep and two goats) that weighed 305 kg. were marked with large visible numbers and were directly observed for three consecutive days by two well-trained observers. Each experimental animal was observed for a 30 min period from a certain distance to the animals in order not to affect its behavior. Bite frequency (bites min-1) and the time spent grazing (min day-1) were recorded. Simulated bite samples of the stubble, grasses, forbs and woody species were hand clipped in order to estimate the bite weight (g DM bite-1). Daily dry matter intake (g day-1) was determined as the product of bite frequency, bite weight and grazing time. The animals grazed for four hours per day during each experimental grazing day. A total of 18 individual observation periods of 30 min were obtained. On any grazing day, the animals were allowed to get settled for 30 min before observations were initiated. Supplement was not given to the animals during the experimental period. Water and salt were available ad libitum. All measurements were subjected to an analysis of variance (Steel and Torrie, 1980). The LSD test was used for detecting mean differences (p0.05). Results and discussion Stubble represented 53.36% of the botanical composition while woody species, present at the edges of the field, were the smallest component (3.21%). Forbs were dominated by Polygonum aviculare, a common summer plant on cereal stubble in Greece and contributed 29.23% while grasses were mainly composed of Cynodon dactylon, Avena fatua and Phleum phleoides and were 14.20%. Intake of sheep was 1151g day-1 while that of goats was 991g day-1. Similar values for intake of sheep grazing in cereal stubble (1230 g/ewe) were also reported by Avodo et al., (2000), while Landau et al., (2000) have found lower values (800 g) than those reported here. In our research by using the direct observation technique and following the animals continuously during the experimental days we obtained initial detailed information about the order of consumption of the feed items that have been identified in
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the stubble environment. Specifically, sheep consumed higher amount of forbs (p0.05) than goats but the bite weight of stubble of goats was higher (p0.05) than that of sheep. Also sheep didnt consume woody species compared with goats (Table 2). Table 2. Intake (DMI), bite frequency BF), bite weight (BW) and grazing time (GT) of sheep and goats for the four forage categories
Stubble Sheep DMI (g day-1) BF (bites min-1) BW (g DM bite-1) GT (min day-1) Goats DMI (g day-1) BF (bites min-1) BW (g DM bite-1) GT (min day-1)
a, b
Forbs 524b 37.2 0.08
Grasses 124 40.8 0.24
Woody -
Total Average 1151 35.8 0.22 52.0 991 27.7 0.29 48.0
503 29.3 0.34a
481 22.5 0.55b
315a 31.1 0.23
73 28.5 0.20
122 28.6 0.19
indicate significant differences in the same column (p0.05).
Average bite frequency was greater for sheep than goats, while the average bite weight of sheep was smaller than that of goats. However, both values were not significantly different at 95% level. In accordance with a previous study of Arnold and Dudzinski (1978), the decline of bite mass is compensated by an increase in bite frequency. The low bite frequency of stubble for both animal species could be explained by its morphological characteristics (long dry residual heads, dry leaves and hard stems).
Conclusions By using the direct observation technique initial detailed information were obtained about the order of consumption of the feed items that have been identified in the stubble environment. The higher bite frequency of sheep resulted in greater intake values compared with goats. References
Arnold, G.W. and Dudzinski, M.L. (1978). Ethology of free-ranging domestic animals. Development in animal and veterinary sciences.2. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 198p. M. Avondo, S. Bordonaro, D. Marletta, A.M. Guastella, G. DUrso. (2000). Effects of shearing and supplemental level on intake of dry ewes grazing on barley stubble. Small Rum. Res., 38: 237-241. Brand, T.S., Franck, F., Durand, A., Coetzee, J. (2000). The intake and nutritional status of sheep grazing wheat stubble. Small Rum. Res., 35: 29-38. Cook, C.W. and Stubbendieck, J. (1986). Range Research: Basic Problems and Techniques. Society of range management. Denver. Colorado. Landau, S., Perevolotsky, A.., Bonfil, D., Barkai, D. and Silanikove, N. (2000). Utilization of low quality resources by small ruminants in Mediterranean agro-pastoral systems: the case of browse and aftermath cereal stubble. Livestock Production Science., 64: 39-49. Rihani, S., Treacher, T.T., Goodchild, A.V. and Owen, E. (1991). Nutritive value of barley stubble. Annual Report 1990/91. ICARDA, Aleppo (Syria). pp.158-162. Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. (1980). Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw-Hill, New York. Treacher, T.T., Rihawi, S. and Owen, E. (1996). Stubble grazing by sheep. In Proc. of 2nd FAO Electr. Conference on Tropical Feeds. Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems. Yiakoulaki, M.D. and V.P. Papanastasis. (2003). Diet selection of sheep and goats grazing on cereal stubble in Northern Greece. In: E. Molina Alcaide, H. Ben Salem, K. Biala, P. Morand-Fehr (eds). Sustainable grazing, Nutritional Utilization and quality of sheep and goat products. Options Mediterraneennes, Serie A, No 67: 225-250, Zaragoza. Yiakoulaki, M.D., Ch.I. Pantazopoulos and V.P. Papanastasis. (2005). Sheep and goat behaviour grazing on stubble in northern Greece. n: Georgoudis A., A. Rosati and C. Mosconi (eds). Animal Production and Natural Resources Utilization in the Mediterranean Mountain Areas. Ioannina, Greece, EAAP publication, No. 115: 216-219.
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The impact of the management practices on the botanical composition and biodiversity of some half-natural grassland from the Surducului Hills (Western Romania)
Duru C. C.*, Moisuc A., Sreanu V. Banats University of Agricultural Sciensis and Veterinary Medicine, Timisoara-Romania *sch_carmen_1999@yahoo.com
Abstract Romania, after the 90, grassland management practices have become more defective. The reason that these land surfaces oare improper is due to the fact that the land has become private property and the new winners werent concerned about the applying of any management. All these aspects correlated with the decrease of the number of cattle whose grazing pressure has diminished have influenced the dynamics and biodiversity of the vegetation. The goal of this paper is to highlight the effects of underexploitation on some half-natural grassland from Surducului Hills. In this study are analysed four halfnatural grasslands during 2005-2008. The botanical composition was determined with the linear method and the biodiversity was calculated using the Shannon-Weaver index. In conclusion the dynamics of the vegetation has undertaken a certain trajectory and the biodiversity index tends to decrease from one year to another. Keywords: management, half-natural grassland, dynamics, biodiversity Introduction After 1989 and the fall of communism, many agricultural areas and especially grassland areas were abandoned in countries that were in transition. It was estimated that at least 30% of the grassland areas were abandoned in countries such as Romania and Bulgaria. At present, in some regions including mountain areas, the pastures were abandoned almost entirely. This can be illustrated also by the dramatic drop of the number of herbivores. (Peeters 2008).In the last years the number of research regarding the evaluation of management on the structure and composition of the flora of pastures have grown considerably (Krahulec et al., 2001; Marriott et al., 2002; Matejkov et al., 2003; Pavlu et al., 2003; Hofmann and Isselstein, 2004; Kohler et al., 2004 quoted by Pavlu et al. 2006). Mowing, animal load, mineral or organic fertilization but also animal species, and time of exploitation constitute the main managing variables that lead the vegetation dynamic of a pasture. The intensity of time changes of these processes result in the classification, composition of the flora and implicitly in changes in the ecosystems functionality. These explanations and the great interest for the monitoring of the impact of mowing and grazing on the vegetal communities have the purpose of keeping biodiversity, economical and esthetical values ( Jitka Klimenov et al. 2008). Material and methods The study took place in Western Romania on the hills of Surduc. The hills of Surduc are situated at the bottom of the Poiana Rusca Mountains, east from the Bega Luncani River and north from the terraces of the Bega River. The south limit towards Poiana Rusca follows the alignment of the Crivna, Hauznesti, Gladna, Zolt, Tomesti towns; the limit is formed by the Valley of Sasa River up to Crivna de Sus. The contact with the mountain is made through an abrupt unevenness and through a series of contact valleys. The vegetation was determined through the linear method (Daget and Possonet, 1971), the observation being made on five permanent samples present on each of the four analyzed pastures, and biodiversity was appreciated with the help of the Shannon-Weaver index. The four analyzed pastures are located near Lake Surduc, each of them being placed as it follows: the pasture of Festuca pratensis Huds., 123 m with exposition to the south-east, the pasture of Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. 198 m with south-west exposition, the pasture of Poa pratensis L. 260 m with south-west exposition, the pasture of Agrostis stolonifera L. 290 m with north-west exposition. As for the monitoring of the management of these pastures we can appreciate the following: the pasture of initially Festuca pratensis L. was mowed twice in the first year (2005) and once in 2006 and after this the owner fenced the field not allowing access to anyone. The pasture of Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. was mowed in the first year and in the following years it was occasionally grazed, the edified pastures of Poa pratensis L. respectively Agrostis stolonifera L. were mowed each one time in the first two years, more specifically in 2005 and 2006 and occasionally grazed.
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Results and discussion Facelli & Pickett (1990) appreciate that the trajectories that the dynamic of vegetation can follow, can be different and depend on a certain number of factors, and one of these factors is the initial composition of the vegetation. Regarding this we made an evaluation of the flora composition at the beginning of the study and also we monitored the exploitation method. From the analysis made in the four years of the study, for each of the analyzed pastures we conclude that each had a distinct trajectory regarding vegetation dynamics due to under exploitation. So, from the analysis of the evolution of the herbivorous layer of the pasture of Festuca pratensis L. 2005 we can say that in 2008 we saw the appearance of species from other botanical families as Cichorium inthybus L., Taraxacum officinale Weber, Plantago lanceolata L., and Carduus achanthoides L. From the present Graminaceae the one that significantly increased its coverage was Holcus lannatus L. The same aspect was seen in the initial Agrostis stolonifera L. respectively Poa pratenis L. pastures, where Holcus lannatus L. had the largest coverage in 2008, being followed by Anthoxantum odoratum L. The explanation for the modifications that occurred in the composition of the flora is given by the fact that besides the disruption connected to the lack of mowing and occasional grazing the contact with the agricultural fields cultivated in the near area contributes to the multiplication of weed in the detriment of valuable fodder species. We can see that in the pasture initially edified of Poa pratensis L., progressive coverage has Centaurea jacea L. and Crepis bienis L. From the vegetables present in the initially edified Poa pratensis L. pasture, the species that had significant coverage was Genista sagitalis L., the explanation being given by the tendency of soil to become acid correlated with low soil nutrients. The measures of improving the nutritive elements were missing. In the Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. pasture, if in the year 2005 we encountered some bushes of Holcus lannatus L., in 2008 became the dominant species together with Calamagrostis arundinacea L. The effects of under exploitation had repercussions on the biodiversity of the analyzed pastures. So if in the beginning of the study the analyzed pastures were characterized by an average biodiversity between 3.5 (the Festuca pratensis L. pasture) and 3.9 (the Poa pratensis L. pasture) the tendency of the index is to drop, although in 2008 three of the studied pastures (the Festuca pratensis L. pasture, the Poa pratensis L. pasture and respectively the Agrostis stolonifera L. pasture) remain in the limit that characterises average biodiversity. Species as Lotus corniculatus L. Potentilla erecta L. were no longer present in the analyzed herbivorous layer. We cant say the same thing about the Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. pasture, where in 2005 the biodiversity index was 3.4 and dropped at 2.3, the pasture entering in 2008 in the category of pastures with a low biodiversity and regarding vegetables present in the herbivorous layer in the year 2005, Vicia villosa L. was not found. Conclusions The analysis of the flora composition in the four years of study shows that because of disturbances connected to grazing or mowing the pastures are in an intermediary stage of succession and biodiversity has a descendent trend. In Romania, but especially in the chosen area (Banat, Surduc Hills) the studies regarding the dynamic of vegetation and also the aspects regarding biodiversity are still in an initial phase. Also, monitoring the management of these half natural pastures especially regarding grazing is very hard because we dont practice rational mowing. The new land owners and what is left of the ones that own herbivorous animals do not yet consider a priority the problems regarding management and the maintenance of biodiversity. That is why our goal to continue this study is to notify the specialists regarding implementation of some rehabilitation and maintenance measurements for the biodiversity of these half natural pastures. References
Daget P. & Poissonet J.(1971) Une mthode d'analyse phytologique des praires, Annales Agr., 22(1) p. 5-41. Facelli.J.M., Pickett S.T.A., 1990. Markovian chains and the role of history in succession. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5: pg. 27-30. Klimeov J, Latzel V., de Bello F. and van Groenendael J.M. (2008) Plant functional traits in studies of vegetation change in response to grazing and moving: towards a use of more specific traits. Preslia 80, 245-253. Pavl V.et.al. (2006) Changes in plant densities in a mesic species-rich grassland after imposing different grazing management treatments, Grass and Forage Science 61(1), p 42-51 Peeters A., 2008 Challenges for grasslands, grasslands-based systems and their production potential in Europe. Grassland science in Europe 13, p.11
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Nutritional value of some vetch forage grown under Mediterranean conditions.

Abdouli H.1, Gasmi-Boubaker A.2*, Hassen H.3, Hedhly A.2, Mosquera-Losada R.4, Rigueiro-Rodriguez A.4. 1 Ecole Suprieure dAgriculture de Mateur, Tunisia; 2Institut National Agronomique, Tunis, Tunisia 3 Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques, Tunisia 4 Ecole Polytechnique, Universidade Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain *azizaboubaker@yahoo.com
Abstract Research efforts are continuing in search of cheap and alternative protein sources to minimize feed expenditure, especially cost of dietary protein. To assess the nutritional value of forage from ten vetch (vicia) cultivars (Vicia amphycarpa, vicia sativa, vicia sanda, vicia Y98, vicia mghilla, vicia villosa 2535, vicia INRAT 303, vicia villosa sedjnen, vicia narbonensis and vicia Languedoc), grown in humid region of northern Tunisia, this study evaluated chemical composition, in vitro gas production after 96 h incubation in syringe (IVGP96) and in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD). The chemical composition of vicia forages differed significantly (p<0.05). In general, vicia sativa and vicia villosa sedjnen have the highest potential as a protein source (more than 210 g crude protein/ kg dry matter). The cell wall contents varied from 450 (vica villosa) to 496 g/ kg dry matter (vicia Languedoc ). The low neutral detergent fibre values in vicia villosa indicated that it contains more soluble materials which ruminants can benefit from. The IVGP96 and IVOMD varied (p<0.05) among vetch cultivars, with the IVGP96 highest (p<0.05) for Vicia amphycarpa, vicia sativa, vicia Y98, vicia sanda. The highest IVOMD was observed with Vicia mghilla (58.5%) and vicia sativa (58.3%), while this measurement was lowest in vicia villosa 2535 (52.9%) and intermediate in the other vetch cultivars. Key words: crude protein, gas production, in vitro digestibility, vicia. Introduction Research efforts are continuing in search of cheap and alternative protein sources to minimize feed expenditure, especially cost of dietary protein. Common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) is a leguminous, annual, and commonly used forage in the Mediterranean basin. Objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritive value of various forage vetch cultivars grown in Tunisia. Materials and methods Samples of leaves from ten vetch (vicia) cultivars (Vicia amphycarpa, vicia sativa, vicia sanda, vicia Y98, vicia mghilla, vicia villosa 2535, vicia INRAT 303, vicia villosa sedjnen, vicia na rbonensis and vicia Languedoc) grown in humid region of northern Tunisia (Mateur) were harvested during the flowering stage.
Dry matter (DM) was determined by drying the samples at 105C overnight and ash by igniting the samples in a muffle furnace at 500C for 8 h. Nitrogen (N) content was measured by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC 1990). Crude protein was calculated as N x 6.25. Lignin (ADL), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) content of samples were determined using the method described by Van Soest et al (1991). The in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) was determined following the procedure described by Aufrre (1982). The samples were incubated in the rumen fluid in calibrated glass syringes following the procedures of Menke and Steingass (1988). Rumen fluid was obtained from four fistulated sheep fed twice daily with a diet containing oat hay (70%) and concentrate (30%). Gas production was recorded before incubation (0) and 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after incubation. The ME of forages and SCFA produced in syringe were calculated as follows: ME (MJ / Kg DM) = 2.20 + 0.136 Gp + 0.057 CP (Menke and Steingass 1988), SCFA (mmol/syringe)= 0.0239.Gas -0.0601 (Getachew et al., 2000) Where ME is the metabolisable energy; SCFA: short chain fatty acids; CP, crude protein in % and Gp, the net gas production in ml from 200 mg dry sample after 24 h of incubation One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to compare gas production kinetics, IVOMD, ME and SCFA values using the General Linear Model (GLM) of Statistica for windows (1993). Significance between individual means was identified using the Tukey's multiple range test and mean differences were considered significant at P<0.05.
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Results and Discussion The chemical composition of vicia forages (Table1) differed significantly (p<0.05). In general, vicia sativa and vicia villosa sedjnen have the highest potential as a protein source (more than 210 g crude protein/ kg dry matter). The cell wall contents varied from 450 (vica villosa Sedjnen) to 496 g/ kg dry matter (vicia Languedoc ). The low neutral detergent fibre values in vicia villosa indicated that it contains more soluble materials which ruminants can benefit from. The highest IVOMD was observed with Vicia mghilla (58.5%) and vicia sativa (58.3%), while this measurement was lowest in vicia villosa 2535 (52.9%) and intermediate in the other vetch cultivars.
Table 1. Chemical composition (% DM) and in vitro organic matter digestibility (%) of the vetch forages
V.Mghilla V.Villosa 2565 V.Sativa V.Villosa Sedjnen V.Languedoc V.Narbonensis V.Amphicarpa V. Sanda V. Y98 V.INRAT 303 DM 16.7 16.8 15.2 17.3 14.4 18.3 13.3 14.5 18.8 16.5 OM 87.2 88.4 86.0 87.0 86.7 89.6 86.3 87.5 86.1 86.8 CP 20.63 18.23 21.93 21.80 19.43 19.63 19.93 18.83 17.53 20.63 NDF 47.66 48.43 49.33 45.00 49.63 48.43 47.73 49.53 47.90 47.83 ADF 17.66 15.23 18.63 15.25 17.93 17.36 16.73 18.06 16.03 17.96 ADL 6.03 6.93 8.46 6.45 6.8 6.7 6.16 6.46 6.83 6.3 IVOMD 58.50 52.96 58.30 55.42 56.72 53.37 56.01 57.37 53.83 56.70
The in vitro gas production (Gas24h), ME and SCFA (Table 2) varied (p<0.05) among vetch cultivars and were highest for Vicia narbonensis and Vicia sanda. The lowest values were observed with V.Villosa Sedjnen, V. Languedoc, V.INRAT 303 and V.Villosa 2565. Crude protein fractions in different forage vetch cultivars are under study to better characterize their potential as protein source. Table 2. In vitro gas production and parameters estimated from the gas production
Gas24h (ml/gDM) 67.5 59.7 58.1 54.8 56.5 89.9 72.0 86.4 74.1 59.1 Gas96h (ml/gDM) 97.0 92.8 71.4 91.9 80.6 110.0 97.2 108.7 115.9 75.8 ME (Kcal/kgDM) 1247 1163 1203 1180 1159 1379 1267 1345 1247 1192 SCFA (mmol/syr) 0.262 0.225 0.217 0.201 0.209 0.369 0.284 0.352 0.294 0.222
V.Mghilla V.Villosa 2565 V.Sativa V.Villosa Sedjnen V.Languedoc V.Narbonensis V.Amphicarpa V.Sanda V.Y98 V.INRAT 303
ME: Metabolizable energy; SCFA: short chain fatty acids.
Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by the Laboratory of Economie Agro-alimentaire and AECI (Agence Espagnole de Coopration Inter-universitaire). References
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) 1990 Official Method of Analysis. pp.66-88. 15th.edition Washington, DC. USA. Aufrre, J., 1982. Etude de la prvision de la digestibilit des fourrages par une mthode enzymatique. Ann.
Zootech. 31, 111130.

Getachew G, Makkar H P S and Becker K 2000 Tannins in tropical browses: Effects on in vitro microbial fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in media containing different amounts of nitrogen. Journal of Agricultural and Food. Chemistry. 48: 3581-3588. Menke K H and Steingass H 1988 Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and gas production using rumen fluid. Animal Research Development, 28: 7-55. Stastica 1993 Stastica for Windows release 4.3, StatSoft, Inc. Tulsa, OK Van Soest P J, Robertson J D and Lewis B A 1991 Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74:3583-3597.
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Nutritive value of vetch (vicia) seeds from different cultivars grown under Mediterranean conditions
Gasmi-Boubaker A.1*; Abdouli H.2; Mosquera Losada R.3; Hassen H.4, Hedhly A.2, Rigueiro-Rodriguez A.3 1 Institut National Agronomique, Tunis, Tunisia 2 Ecole Suprieure dAgriculture de Mateur, Tunisia 3 Ecole Polytechnique, Universidade Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain 4 Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques, Tunisia *azizaboubaker@yahoo.com
Abstract In Tunisia, the price of soybean meal as the main protein source for livestock is prohibitive. The potential to provide a cheap source of protein has long led to interest in vetch (vicia) seed for human and animal nutrition. The potential nutritional value of vetch (vicia) seeds from eleven cultivars (Vicia amphycarpa, vicia sativa, vicia sanda, vicia Y98, vicia mghilla, vicia villosa 2535, vicia INRAT303, vicia villosa sedjnen, vicia narbonensis, vicia Languedoc, and vicia villosa 3615) grown in the humid region of northern Tunisia were evaluated by chemical composition, in vitro gas production and in vitro digestibility techniques. The chemical composition of the cultivars of vicia seeds differed significantly (p<0.05). The content of organic matter ranged from 85.57 to 88.15 % DM From among studied cultivars, vicia villosa 3615 showed the best crude protein content (31.6% of dry matter) while vicia Languedoc had the lowest content (25% of dry matter). The organic matter digestibility ranged from 70.75% (vicia Languedoc) to 88.3% (vicia sativa). The gas production after 96 h incubation in glass syringe, ME and SCFA were significantly different among the cultivars (P<0.05), with the highest value recorded for V.villosa 2565 and vicia sativa and the lowest for V.villosa Sedjnen seeds. The ME and SCFA were highest (P<0.05) in V.villosa 2565 and V.sativa. The result of this study indicates that such cultivars of vicia seeds have the potential to be used as feed supplements for ruminants. Key words: crude protein, gas production, in vitro digestibility, vicia. Introduction In Tunisia, the price of soybean meal as the main protein source for livestock is prohibitive. The potential to provide a cheap source of protein has long led to interest in vetch (vicia) seed for animal nutrition. The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the nutritional value of vetch seeds from eleven cultivars grown in the humid region of northern Tunisia. Material and methods Vetch seeds were collected from eleven cultivars (Vicia amphycarpa, vicia sativa, vicia sanda, vicia Y98, vicia mghilla, vicia villosa 2535, vicia INRAT303, vicia villosa sedjnen, vicia narbonensis, vicia Languedoc, and vicia villosa 3615) grown in the region of Mateur. Seed samples were ground in a laboratory mill and thereafter analysed for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP). All chemical analyses were carried out in duplicate. Organic matter digestibility (OMD) was determined by enzymatic method as described by Aufrre (1982).To study the characteristics of in vitro gas production (Menke et al., 1988), rumen fluid was obtained from four rumen fistulated sheep fed oat hay (70%) and concentrate (30%). The inoculum was mixed with a buffer solution in a ratio of 1:2 (v/v). About 200 mg of dry samples were introduced into calibrated syringes, and 30 ml of the buffered inoculum were sucked through a silicone tube attached to the needle top of each syringe. Then the gas bubbles were removed and the silicone tube was clamped, the position of the lubricated piston was recorded, and the syringes were placed in the oven at 39oC. Gas production was recorded at 3, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84 and 96 hr. The ME of seeds and SCFA produced in syringe were calculated as follows: ME (MJ / Kg DM) = 2.20 + 0.136 Gp + 0.057 CP (Menke and Steingass 1988), SCFA (mmol/syringe)= 0.0239.Gas -0.0601 (Getachew et al., 2000) Where ME is the metabolisable energy; SCFA: short chain fatty acids; CP, crude protein in % and Gp, the net gas production in ml from 200 mg dry sample after 24 h of incubation. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to compare gas production, OMD and ME values using the General Linear Model (GLM) of Statistica for windows (1993). Significance between individual means was identified using the Tukey's multiple range test.
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Results and discussion The chemical composition and organic matter digestibility (Table 1) of the cultivars of vicia seeds differed significantly (p<0.05). The OM content ranged from 85.57 to 88.15 % DM. About 100% of the seeds used in the current study had a CP content of above 25%DM. Among studied cultivars, V.villosa 3615 showed the best CP content (31.6% DM) while V. Languedoc had the lowest content (25% DM). The OMD ranged from 70.75% (V.Languedoc) to 88.3% (V. sativa).
Table 1. Chemical composition (% DM) and organic matter digestibility (OMD;%) of vetch seeds
Cultivars V.Mghilla V.Villosa 3615 V.Villosa 2565 V.Sativa V.Villosa Sedjnen V.Languedoc V.Narbonensis V.Amphicarpa V.Sanda V.Y98 V.INRAT 303 OM 87.48 85.57 85.78 87.27 88.15 87.39 87.45 86.84 87.49 86.26 87.42 CP 27.4 31.6 28.6 29.2 26.5 25.1 28.9 28.6 27.3 29.4 27.7 OMD 87.69 83.67 86.18 88.30 86.27 70.75 87.78 86.02 84.82 87.39 85.64
Table 2 shows total gas production after 24 and 96 h, metabolisable energy (ME) and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced in syringe. Total gas production was significantly affected by the type of cultivar examined, with the highest value recorded for V.villosa 2565 and vicia sativa (196.7ml/g DM) and the lowest for V.villosa Sedjnen (133 ml/g DM) seeds. The ME and SCFA were highest (P<0.05) in V.villosa 2565 and V.sativa, lowest (P<0.05) in V. languedoc, and intermediate in the remaining cultivars. Table 2. In vitro gas production and parameters estimated from the gas production
Cultivars V.Mghilla V.Villosa 3615 V.Villosa 2565 V.Sativa V.Villosa Sedjnen V.Languedoc V.Narbonensis V.Amphicarpa V.Sanda V.Y98 V.INRAT 303 Gas24h (ml/gDM) 125.6 147.6 180.2 180.2 128.7 113.0 166.7 157.0 157.8 135.2 155.9 Gas96h (ml/gDM) 144.5 192.9 196.7 196.7 133.7 139.1 184.4 176.3 166.7 147.5 174.1 ME (Kcal/kgDM) 1717 1908 2089 2097 1.725 1604 2005 1938 1925 1807 1919 SCFA (mmol/syr.) 0.540 0.645 0.801 0.801 0.555 0.480 0.737 0.690 0.694 0.586 0.685
ME: Metabolizable energy; SCFA: short chain fatty acids.
Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by the Laboratory of Economie Agro-alimentaire and AECI (Agence Espagnole de Coopration Inter-universitaire). References
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) 1990 Official Method of Analysis. pp.66-88. 15th.edition Washington, DC. USA. Aufrre, J., 1982. Etude de la prvision de la digestibilit des fourrages par une mthode enzymatique. Ann. Zootech. 31, 111130. Getachew G, Makkar H P S and Becker K 2000 Tannins in tropical browses: Effects on in vitro microbial fermentation and microbial protein synthesis in media containing different amounts of nitrogen. Journal of Agricultural.and Food. Chemistryl. 48: 3581-3588. Menke K H and Steingass H 1988 Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and gas production using rumen fluid. Animal Research Development, 28: 7-55. Stastica 1993 Stastica for Windows release 4.3, StatSoft, Inc. Tulsa, OK
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Seed Yield from Birdsfoot Trefoil treated with some herbicides

Chourkova B.* Institute of Mountain Stockbreeding and Agriculture, 5600 Troyan, Bulgaria *bchurkova@abv.bg
Abstract During the 2006-2008 period in the experimental field of IMSA, Troyan the effect of herbicides Stomp 33 EC (3.5 and 4.0 l/ha), Furore Super (1.2 and 2.0 l/ha) and Tornado 5 EC (2.0 l/ha) on the seed yield and structural elements on birdsfoot trefoil seed was studied. It was found that the herbicide Tornado 5 EC applied at the 2-4 leaf stage of birdsfoot trefoil increased the raceme number per stem, pod number per raceme and seed number per pod. Its high herbicidal efficiency increased the seed yield by 58.2%, which makes it suitable to be used in practice. Key words: Birdsfoot trefoil, control of weeds, seed yield, structural analysis Introduction An important element of the technology for birdsfoot trefoil seed production is the establishment of weedfree stands (Winch, 1976). The competitive effect of the weeds reflects unfavourably on stand persistency and seed yield and quality. The main method of weed control in birdsfoot trefoil is the chemical one (Dimitrova, 1984; Boerboom et al., 1991; Dimitrova, 2007; Omafra, 2008). The kind of herbicide and properly selected rate are the major factor of weed suppression and killing (Pofelis et al., 2001; Mohammed et al., 2007). The treatment of the seed production stands during the initial stages of plant development contributed to obtain even stands, normal plant development and high seed productivity. The requirements for ecological conformity in herbicide application y ecological conditions (Cuomo, 2001; Nikolova, 2003). The objective of this study was to determine the effect of some herbicides and their doses on seed productivity of birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Material and Methods The study was conducted during the 2006-2008 period in the experimental field of IMSA-Troyan on light grey pseudopodsolic soil. The trial was laid out by the block method with 4 replications and harvest plot size of 5 m2 in the following variants: Birdsfoot trefoil (C) without weed control; 2. Stomp 33 EC (330 g/l pendimethalin) at the dose of 3.5 l.ha-1; 3. Stomp 33 EC 4.0 l.ha-1; 4. Furore Super (phenoxapron II-ethyl69 g.kg-1) 1.2 ml.ha-1; 5. Furore Super (phenoxapron II-ethyl-69 g.kg-1) 2.0 l.ha-1; 6. Tornado 5 EC (50 g/l quizalofol-p-ethyl) 2.0 l.ha-1. The treatment with Stomp 33 EC was conducted after sowing before birdsfoot trefoil emergence against annual grass and some broad-leaved weeds and the vegetation herbicides Furore Super and Tornado 5 EC were applied at the 2-4 leaf stage of birdsfoot trefoil. We applied the herbicides by a hand sprayer with 500 l/ha consumption of working solution. The sowing was conducted in spring with a sowing rate of 12.0 kg.ha-1, the area was rolled before and after it. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied before sowing at the dose of 60 kg.ha-1 a.i. and reserve phosphorus and potassium application was conducted at doses of 400 kg. ha-1. Seeds were harvested from the second cuts of sward. Seed harvesting was performed when 65-70% of the pods became brown. The following characteristics were studied: weed infestation degree by the quantity-weight method (g/ m2); seed yield (kg/ha-1); structural analysis of seed yield. The following weed species prevailed in the sward: Cihorium intybus L., Plantago lanceolata L., Amaranthus retroflexus L., Polygonum avicular L., Verbina officinalis L, Daucus carota L. The data processing was performed by the method of variance analysis (Lidanski, 1988). The meteorological conditions during the years of the experimental period differed substantially. In the first year, the precipitation was normal for the region, which contributed to normal seed setting of birdsfoot trefoil. In 2007 its quantity was higher, which impeded and delayed the ripening and in 2008 the scanty precipitation and high temperatures contributed to formation of a smaller number of racemes and faster seed ripening.
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Results and Discussion The herbicidal efficiency (Table 1) was most pronounced in 2006 with vegetation application of herbicide Furore Super at the dose of 1.2 l/ha. The strong effect of its application was due to its inhibitory action on the weeds and as a result their participation in the sward was reduced to 6.45 g/m2 with herbicidal efficiency of 75%. In the next two years the lowest degree of weed infestation (19 and 61 g/m2) and highest herbicidal efficiency (62 and 46%) were provided by the treatment of birdsfoot trefoil with herbicide Tornado 5 EC. A slighter effect on the competitive influence of the weeds was observed for the application of herbicide Stomp EC and Furore Super at the higher doses (3.5 and 2.0 l/ha) in 2006. In 2007 no significant difference in the weed infestation degree was found between the studied herbicides and their doses and in 2008 Furore Super showed the lowest effect 88 and 92 g/m2 weeds and herbicidal efficiency of 22.1 and 18.6%. The low degree of weed infestation of the stand treated with herbicide Tornado 5 EC was in unison with the greatest raceme number per stem (4.5) and seed number per pod (21.8). Among the structural elements of the seed yield the competitive effect of the weeds was most pronounced on the seed number per pod, the values of which were lower than the check by a number of 4 in the treatment with herbicide Tornado 5 EC. No significant differences were found in all characteristics of the structural elements with regard to herbicide kind, as well as with regard to the applied doses. The values of 1000-seed weight were closest. They varied from 1.01 to 1.08 g, again in favour of the seed production stand treated with herbicide Tornado 5 EC. In all three years of the experimental period the seed yield of the treated variants was higher than that of the check. This was explained by the positive residual effect shown by the applied herbicides on the degree of weed infestation of the stand. On average for the period of study, the seed yield from the treated stands was superior to the check by 16.8 t 58.2% with very high positive significance of the differences. The highest seed yield was recorded in the treatment of the seed production stand with herbicide Tornado 5 EC, which was higher than the yield obtained from the untreated variant by 58,2%. This was due to good selectivity shown by the herbicide and the absence of competition by the weed species. A higher seed yield than that in 2006 was recorded in 2007 in the stands treated with herbicide Stomp EC (var. 2 and 3) 0.22 and 0.23 kg/ha-1 as against 0.026 kg/ha-1 in 2007. Equal seed yields were found after treatment with herbicides Furore Super and Tornado 5 EC (var. 4, 5 and 6) in 2006 and 2007. The low rainfall values in July and August in 2008 were a major prerequisite for the obtained low seed yields. They varied from 0.018 t 0.026 kg/ha-1. But here also, except for var. 1, all other variants had very high significance of the differences.
Table 1. Weed infestation degree and efficiency of some herbicides for weed control in a seed yield stand of birdsfoot trefoil
2006 Herbicidal efficiency % 41.2 12.5 75.0 4.2 41.7 2007 Herbicidal efficiency % 54 40.0 34.0 44.0 62.0 2008 Herbicidal efficiency % 39.8 46.0 22.1 18.6 46.0
Variants Control-zero Stomp 33C-3.5 l/ha Stomp 33C-4.0 l/ha Furore super-1.2 l/ha Furore super 2.0 ml/ha ornado 5 C-2.0 l/ha
g/m 24 16 21 6 23 14
g/m2 50 23 30 33 28 19
g/m2 113 68 67 88 92 61
Table 2. Structural elements of the seed yield

Variants Control-zero Stomp 33 C-3.5 l/ha Stomp 33 C-4.0 l/ha Furore super-1.2 l/ha Furore super 2.0 l/ha ornado 5 C-2.0 l/ha Min Max Number of racemes/stem 3.1 3.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 4.2 3.7 3.1 3.9 Number of pods/raceme 3.3 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.5 3.8 3.3 4.5 Number of seeds/ pod 17.8 18.2 18.0 19.4 19.9 21.8 19.2 17.8 21.8 1000-seed weight 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.05 1.01 1.08
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Table 3. Seed yield, t.ha-1

Variants Control-zero Stomp 33C-3500 ml/ha Stomp 33C-4000 ml/ha Furore super-1200 ml/ha Furore super 2000 ml/ha ornado 5 C-2000 ml/ha LSD 5% LSD 1% LSD 0.1%
2006 t ha 0.016 0.022 0.023 0.026 0.028 0.031 0.001 0.007 0.003
-1
2007 t ha 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.028 0.0031 0.003 0.004 0.006
-1
2008 t ha 0.015 0.018 0.020 0.023 0.023 0.026 0.02 0.003 0.004
-1
% 100.0133.2142.5+++ 155.7+++ 166.6+++ 188.9+++ 21.6 29.9 41.3
% 100,0104.8106.4104.8112.0127.5+++ 12.5 17.3 23.9
% 100.0117,2+ 135.7+++ 150.0+++ 151.6+++ 173.0+++ 13.7 19.0 26.2
Mean for the period t ha-1 % 0.019 100.00.022 0.023 0.025 0.026 1.030 0.005 0.002 0.003 116.8+++ 125.0+++ 132.1+++ 139.5+++ 158.2+++ 7.7 10.6 24.7
*Fisher s LSD (Least Significant Difference)
Conclusions The applied herbicides reduced the weed species and increased the seed yield of birdsfoot trefoil by 16.8 t 58.2%. The treatment of the birdsfoot trefoil stand with herbicide Tornado at the dose of 2 l/ha applied at the 2-4 leaf stage of birdsfoot trefoil proved to be most efficient, resulting in an increase of the raceme number per stem, pod number per raceme and seed number per pod. Its high herbicidal efficiency contributed to increase of seed yield by 58.2%, which makes it suitable for application in practice. References
Dimitrova, Ts., 1984. Influence of weeds and the control with them on the seed yield of birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Plant science, 4: 87-93. Nikolova, ., 2003. Application of herbicides in sublimate doses alternative in the present agriculture. Plant science, 4: 99-102. Boerboom, C., N. J. Ehlke, D. L. Wyse, D. and A. Somers, 1991. Recurrent Selection for Glyphosate Tolerance in Birdsfoot Trefoil. Crop Science Society of America, 31: 1124-1129. Cuomo, G, G. Dennis, P. Johnson, A. William and Jr. Head. 2001. Interseeding Kura Clover and Birdsfoot Trefoil into Existing Cool-Season Grass Pastures Agronomy Journal 93: 458-462. Dimitrova, Ts., 2007. Control of Canadian fleabane (Erigeron Canadensis L.) in seed production (Lotus corniculatus L.). Plant science, 44: 464-567. Mohammed H., Abu-Dieyeh and Alan K. Watson, 2007. Population Dynamics of Broadleaf Weeds in Turfgrass as Influenced By Chemical and Biological Control Methods. Weed Science, 55, 7: 371-380. Omafra, S., 2008. Herbicide Recommendations for Pasture Renovation with Bird's-foot Trefoil: Postemergence Grass and Broadleaf Herbicides. Forage Crops, 6: 88-98 Pofelis, S., H. Le, and W.F.Grant , 2001. The development of sulfonylurea herbicide-resistant birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) plants from in vitro selection , Journal article, 83, 4: 480-488. Winch, J. 1976. Establishment of Bird's-Foot Trefoil, Crop Science, 18: 76-102.
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Evolution of an alpine pasture following the introduction of night and day grazing.
Bassignana M.*, Barmaz A., Turille E., Turille G. Institut Agricole Rgional, Rg. La Rochre 1/A, 11100 Aosta, Italy *m.bassignana@iaraosta.it
Abstract The Entrelor alpine pasture is located in the Grand Paradis National Park, in Valle d'Aosta (I). Since 1999 it has been directly managed by the Institut Agricole Rgional, with its herd of sixty dairy cows of the indigenous Aosta Red Spotted breed, as a production and experimentation site. Differently from traditional grazing management, the cows are not sheltered in a cow-shed but stay outside night and day and are milked on the pasture, using a prototype self-moving milking machine. The poster presents main management features and the variation of floristic composition and grass yield observed after ten years of night and day grazing. Keywords: alpine pastures, grazing management, floristic composition, yield. Introduction In Valle dAosta, on the Italian side of the western Alps, alpine summer pastures are mainly grazed by dairy cows. Following traditional herd management, cows are sheltered in a cow-shed nightly and during the central hours of the day, where they are also milked. Subsequently, most of their dejections are concentrated in the dung-pit near the cow-shed and, after being diluted with water, are then gravitationally distributed around the pastures using a widespread network of artificial rivulets. This system requires substantial investments on the cow-shed building, a huge labour contribution and implies a gradual transfer of soil nutrients from upper to lower sections of the grazing land. To reduce costs, labour and rationalize the grassland management, it is possible to adopt an alternative system, based on night and day grazing: cows remain on the pasture night and day and are also milked there. Since 1999, the Institut Agricole Rgional (IAR) has directly managed the Entrelor alpine pasture using this technique, as a production and experimentation site. This paper presents main management features and the variation of floristic composition and grass yield after ten years. Material and methods Entrelor is an alpine pasture measuring about 110 ha, in the Grand Paradis National Park, at an altitude ranging from 2050 to 2600 m a.s.l. In 1999, IAR took over the pasture management, with its herd of sixty dairy cows of the indigenous Aosta Red Spotted breed, and night and day grazing was introduced. All over the summer, animals remain on the grassland night and day and strip grazing is adopted: cows are fenced in paddocks whose forage production matches their nutritional demands for a meal and are given a fresh allocation of pasture twice a day. They are milked on the pasture, using a prototype, self-moving, four places milking machine, designed and manufactured by IAR technicians. Floristic relevs were carried out in 1999 and 2000, and again in 2007, according to Daget and Poissonets (1969) linear method. During the entire grazing season herbage was regularly sampled in fenced areas, oven dried at 60C in order to weight DM yield, and the main quality constituents of grass were determined. Analytical results were used to compute the nutritive value of forage, expressed in UFL (Feed Units for lactation), according to Vermorel (1989). Results and discussion In lower areas of the pasture, ranging from 2050 to 2150 m a.s.l., the grassland is dominated by fairly good forage species, namely Trifolium repens, Trisetum flavescens and Phleum alpinum, and species indicative of moist and rich soils, such as Alchemilla xanthochlora and Polygonum bistorta. In fact, in traditional management, these areas located at a lower altitude than the cow-shed used to receive a recurrent fertirrigation with liquid manure, taking advantage of a net fertility transfer. After the introduction of night and day grazing, the distribution of excreta on the whole grassland became more equitable. A diminution of these species was observed, especially of T. flavescens, in favour of mesotrophic ones (Tab. 1). Globally, the contribution of Gramineae decreased and that of Fabaceae increased, so that the pastoral value of these areas continued to be high (PV = 30.7).
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Tab. 1. Specific contribution (SC) of the main species in the lower areas of the pasture.
Species Festuca nigrescens Alchemilla xanthochlora Agrostis tenuis Plantago atrata Polygonum bistorta Phleum alpinum Trisetum flavescens Trifolium repens Potentilla aurea Achillea millefolium Others Pastoral Value SC 2007 (%) 10.7 9.4 7.3 7.1 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.0 2.5 41.6 30.7 Variation 2000-2007 (%) +6.8 -0.4 +1.7 +3.0 -1.5 +1.2 -11.3 +3.4 +2.8 -0.7 -5.1 -0.3
Tab. 2. Specific contribution (SC) of the main species in the intermediate areas of the pasture.
Species SC 2007 (%) 6.9 6.7 6.7 6.3 5.4 5.4 5.3 4.8 4.4 3.6 44.6 26.4 Variation 2000-2007 (%) +1.2 +1.8 -0.7 -3.1 -9.3 +0.5 +5.3 +2.4 +0.4 +1.6 -0.1 -3.8
Anthoxanthum odoratum Plantago atrata Festuca nigrescens Leontodon hispidus Anthyllis vulneraria Plantago alpina Potentilla crantzii Ranunculus montanus Phleum alpinum Poa alpina Others Pastoral Value
The pasture sectors located above the cow-shed, from 2150 to 2400 m a.s.l., whose fertility was depleted in the past, are dominated by species of minor forage value such as Anthoxanthum odoratum, Plantago atrata and Festuca nigrescens. Current management, with cows remaining on the pasture overnight and returning their excreta on the spot, enhances nutrient availability for plants. As a consequence, so far, we have registered a global decrease of the contribution of Fabaceae, especially of Anthyllis vulneraria, and the increase of some Poaceae and other species (Tab. 2). In spite of the slight reduction of the PV, the yielding potential has been constant in lower sectors and improved in intermediate ones (Tab. 3). Tab. 3. Yield and nutritive value in the lower and intermediate areas of the pasture.
Maximum DM yield (kg ha-1) Mean 1999-2000 4647 2282 2008 4628 2879 Mean nutritive value (UFL kg-1) Mean 1999-2000 0.851 0.890 2008 0.888 0.916 Maximum feeding availability (UFL ha-1) Mean 2008 1999-2000 3914 4169 2020 2591
Lower areas Intermediate areas
Conclusions The aim of our work is to study the effects of the adoption of night and day grazing in an alpine pasture in real conditions. The floristic evolution of the different sectors of the pasture is still ongoing , but it was surely influenced by the different distribution of excreta following the management shift. This variation was clearer especially in the areas where the nutrient depletion stopped. So far, the new management technique has had good effects on the overall productivity of the pasture. Acknowledgments The Authors gratefully thank the Laboratories at CRA-FLC "Colture foraggere" - Lodi and at R.A.V.A. Assessorato Agricoltura e Risorse naturali Aosta, for the analysis of the herbage samples. Part of this work was carried out as part of the ProAlpe research project, co-funded by MEF, MIUR, MiPAAF and MATT Ministries. General coordinator E. Piano, CRA-FLC Lodi. Pubblication n. References
Daget P., Poissonet J., 1969. Analyse phytologique des prairies. Applications agronomiques. CNRS-CEPE, Montpellier, Doc. 48, 67 pp. Vermorel M., 1989. Energy: the Feed Units systems. In: Jarrige R. (ed), Ruminant nutrition: recommended allowances and feed tables. INRA-J. Libbey Eurotext, Montrouge, 390 pp.
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Improvement of Degraded Pastures from Mountain Pine Layer Invaded by Hillocks

Mocanu V.*, Hermenean I., Marusca T. Research Development Institute for Grasslands Brasov, Romania *vasmocanu@yahoo.com
Abstract In this paper the technological solutions for improving the degraded pastures from mountain pine layer by valuable species reseeding are presented. Depend on pedologic- climatic conditions the necessary works and suitable farming machinery, fertilization and liming level, seeding mixture are presented. Through improvement workings, both pasture yield and crude protein content increased medium over 4.3 times, respectively 5.9 times. Keywords: Degraded pastures, improvement, hillocks. Introduction The grassland area from subalpine zone of our country, located over 1500 m altitude, is about 221 thousands hectares (4.5 % of total grassland area). During the time, an irrational management of these pastures induced their degradation because of invasion with non value vegetation, hillocks and affected of erosion. Neither annual maintenance (clearing the mole-hills and non value vegetation) and unfertilization of these pastures leaded the establishment of invaluable species like: Nardus stricta, Deschampisa caespitosa etc. providing annual accumulation of high organic matter quantity because of their dense bushes and low feeding value. This organic matter accumulation has a slowly mineralization process because of the specific climatic conditions (excess of humidity kept by grass sward, oxygen absence, lower temperatures etc.). These slow process, in addition with the hoof effect of animals searching good forage plants, produce good conditions for performing the earth hummocks. With passage of time, these earth hummocks grow and succeed to cover all grassland area. In this paper is presented the main technological solution for getting on the good utilisation of these degraded grasslands by reseeding method. Material and methods The trials were carried in experimental fields from Bucegi Mountain Plateau. For getting on the good utilization of these degraded grasslands have been necessary a lot of operations focussed on: providing optimum conditions for plant growing, reseeding fodder grass plants with high feeding value and good management of these areas after improvement period. The realisation of optimum conditions for plant growth involved the following operations: clearing the hillocks, liming, fertilization, destruction of the old sward and seedbed preparing. After sowing it was operated a heavy rolling (Hermenean et al, 1988). Where it was possibly complex farming aggregates were used providing the realization of two or more operations by one pass machine (Mocanu V, Hermenean I, 2008). The hillocks clearing were made by two perpendicular passes with heavy disc harrow. Fertilization was simultaneously made with heavy rolling operation after sowing. The destruction of the old grass sward, seedbed preparing and sowing were operated by one pass machine, using improved rotary tiller-drill machine MCT 2,5 type (Mocanu et al, 2008). The liming was done with CaCO3, 8 t/ha and fertilization with complex fertilizers N100P50K50 kg/ha. The used seed mixture consisted in: Phleum pratense 65%, Festuca rubra 27% and Trifolium repens 8%, in a ratio of 26 kg/ha. Results and discussion The evaluation of botanical composition of new improved grassland was made both in the establishment year, after plant growing start and in the next years, when the forage yields were also quantified.
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The botanical composition in the second year of vegetation was the following: Phleum pratense 58%, Festuca rubra 19%, Trifolium repens 10%, Nardus stricta 7% and other species 6%. In these condition the total fuel consumption is 88.5 l/ha and necessary work force of 9.46 man hours/ha. Based on experimental data (table 1) result the following: the forage yields of control area (un operated) ranges of 0.88 and 0.92 t DM/ha; the forage yields of improved (operated) grassland varies between 3.6 and 4.04 t DM/ha; the forage crude protein content of control area varies between 68 and 72 kg/ha; the forage crude protein content of improved grassland varies between 379 and 432 kg/ha.
Table 1. DM yield and crude protein content

Specification 0 DM yield, control area DM yield, operated area Crude protein content , control area Crude protein content, operated area UM 1 t/ha t/ha Kg/ha Kg/ha II 2 0.92 4.04 72 432 Year after improving III 3 0.88 3.90 68 420 IV 4 0.90 3.60 71 379
Conclusions For improving the degraded pastures are necessary the farming works of cleaning of hillocks, liming, fertilization, destruction of the old grass swards, seedbed preparation, sowing and heavy rolling after sowing. The suitable seed mixture for these pedologic-climatical conditions consists in Phleum pratense , 65%, Festuca rubra 27%, Trifolium repens 8%. For successful operation, during the first year of pasture establishment, the grazing is not allowed. Due to the improvement of pasture, the medium increasing of forage production and crude protein content were higher of 4.3 times respectively 5.9 times. Therefore the annual production of fresh matter is 18-20 t/ha on improved areas, in comparison with 3-4 t/ha of control areas (un operated). The costs for getting on the good utilization of these degraded pastures, exclusively farming machine and material transport to the working location ( in the mountains), are about 3385 lei/ha, respectively 816 E/ha. A good management of improved pasture provides a maximum efficiency for a long period (over 20 years), without other farming operations, excepting the annual N100 and biannual P50 and K50 fertilization and liming operations in according with evolution of soil acidity. References
Hermenean I., Brezean I., Mocanu V., Punerea n valoare a pajitilor degradate nvadate de muuroaie din etajul jnepeniurilor. Revista de zootehnie i medicin veterinar Nr. 5, Bucureti, 1988. Maruca T., Mocanu V., Blaj V.A., Hermenean I. - Systems for improvement of Nardus stricta subalpine grasslands from Carpathian Mountains. Proceedings of the 14th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation ,,PERMANENT and TEMPORARY GRASSLAND- Plant, Environment and Economy Ghent, Belgium, 3-5 september 2007. Mocanu V., Hermenean I., Maruca T. - Ecological and economical technology for mechanization of grassland improvement works. Procedings of the 22nd General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation ,,Biodiversity and Animal Feed Future Challenges for Grassland Production, Uppsala, Suedia, 9-12 June 2008.
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Innovations for agro pastoral system improvement in the high semi-arid zones of Algeria
Abbas K.*, Madani T., Laouar Mr, Mhamedi Bouzina Mr, Abdelguerfi A., Makhlouf M., Tedjari N. INRA, 19000 Stif, Algrie *abbaskhal@yahoo.fr
Abstract Within a global objective of pastoral improvement in crop-livestock system, two trials were carried out in field conditions of Algerian semi arid zone. Annual dominated and perennial dominated seed mixtures were used to establish 1) 1 ha of new natural reseeding fallow pasture (NFP) on a fallow-cereal parcel, and 2) 1 ha of artificial perennial meadow (AM) replacing a degraded one. In each trial biomass yield values and botanical composition were compared with those of similar natural plots of respectively fallow (NF) and meadow (NM). In 2006, DM biomass productivity average of NFP was 3.79 T ha -1 vs. 1.36 T ha -1 in NF. In 2006, 2007 and 2008, it was successively for AM vs. NM, 1.41 vs. 6.24, 8.37 vs. 8.32 and 7.05 vs. 3.56 T ha -1. Botanical composition in NFP vs. NF in % was 49.42 vs. 50.55 for grasses, 25.25 vs. 3.18 for legumes and 25.43 vs. 46.34 for others. Concerning AM vs. NM, a significant annual variation is observed and we assisted to a decrease of legume component in AM the third year. At this time the two swards showed approximately similar composition. Introduction The rainfed semi-arid cereal - fallow - sheep systems in Algeria showed during the last years intensification tendency witch had load natural spaces degradation, decrease of multiannual and annual pasture surfaces (Abbas and Abdelguerfi, 2005, Abbas et al., 2005, Abbas et al., 2006). In order to propose technical packages allowing pastoral fallow valorization and permanent meadows improvement, this work present the productivity and the botanical richness of two fodder mixture artificial pastures in the aim to study innovations opportunities for agriculture systems sustainability, natural field valorization and European fodder resources adaptability in local conditions. Material and methods In farm conditions, two similar trials were carried out, the first on cereal fallow and the second on natural meadow. The site is Stif area, (200 to 400 mm/yr, 1000 m of altitude). In each trial 1 ha of closed parcel of new pasture is compared with an other spontaneous one (new fallow pasture (NFP) vs. natural fallow (NF) and artificial meadow (AM) vs. natural meadow (NM)). The seed is a mixture of annual and perennial grasses and legumes made by a European seed company. Annuals dominate in the first trial mixture and perennials in the second. 46 kg P2O5/ha have been brought to the two trials. Sowing was carried out in late autumn on a depth from 0.5 to 1 cm followed by rolling. The amount of sowing for fallow new pasture is 33.81 kg/ha and for artificial meadow 28.33 Kg/ha. A watering by sprinkling of equivalent of approximately 30 mm of rain water was done after sowing on the first trial artificial pasture in order to ensure sward establishment. For the two parcels of meadow, a meadow pasa flush irrigation is done by water of rivers and follows farm practices usually done on the exploited natural meadow. Mowing was made using manual sickles and an experimental mower of 1m of cutting bar and fodder drying by drying oven during 48h at 75c. Measures of DM biomass productivity and botanical composition were done during 2006, 2007 and 2008 on closed 8 square meters/ha in the four experimental parcels. The work on the first trial was stopped the first year because of relevant weed encroachment. Statistics were made by simple pair average comparison (statistical analysis macro of excel 2003). Results and discussion Table 1 present average values of DM biomass productivity of the two new pastures. New fallow pasture (NFP) has shown a significant better potential the first year. The artificial meadow (AM) doesnt produce lot the first year (establishment year) because of vegetation undergrowth under traditional irrigation practices and local climate conditions. In 2007 and 2008, its fodder productivity increased significantly. It reached control one (NM) in 2007 and was higher in 2008. Productivity general level (AM and NM) decreased in 2008 under rainfall level variation.
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Table 1: DM productivity of the new and control pastures in T ha-1

2006 NFP NF AM NM 3,79 a 1,36 b 1,40 a 6,24 b 2007 8,37 a 8,32 a 2008 7.05 a 3.56 b
Letters a, b different = significant difference at = 0.005 NFP: new fallow pasture, NF: natural fallow, AM: artificial meadow, NM: natural meadow
Figure1 give botanical composition of the new pastures during the three years. In 2006, NFP showed more equilibrated botanical composition (BC) compared to NF. In the same year AM had also a better BC than NM specifically with a lower weed percentage. This balance continues in 2007 and the legume part increased in AM. With reason of lot of duress conditions (pasture management, irrigation type, rainfall level etc) we note a rapprochement between NM and Am in term of BC in 2008.
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% NFP NF 2006 AM NM AM 2007 NM AM 2008 NM others legumes grasses
NFP: new fallow pasture, NF: natural fallow, AM: artificial meadow, NM: natural meadow Figure 1: botanical composition in % in the new an control pastures
Conclusions Multiannual pastures seems like a possible technical innovation witch could ensure more sustainability to agriculture systems in term of animal feeding autonomy, soil preservation and improvement, biodiversity and environment improvementetc. This innovation must be supported by socio-economic studies and more thorough agro-techniques in the aim to define the optimal farm integration factors. The experiment has to continue using animals to improve management and exploitation practices under local conditions. References
Abbas K., Abdelguerfi A., 2005. Perspectives davenir de la jachre pture dans les zones cralires semi-arides, Fourrages, 184, 533-546. Abbas K., Abdelguerfi-Laouar M., Madani T., Mebarkia A., Abdelguerfi A., 2005. Rle et usage des prairies naturelles en zone semi-aride daltitude en Algrie. Fourrages (2005) 183, 475-479 Abbas K., Abdelguerfi-Laouar M., MadaniT., MHammedi Bouzina M., Abdelguerfi A., 2006. "Place des lgumineuses dans la valorisation de lespace agricole et pastoral en regions nord dAlgrie", Diversit des fabaces fourragres et de leurs symbiotes : applications biotechnologiques, agronomiques et environnementales, Workshop int. Alger 19-22 fvrier 2006, A. Abdelguerfi d., 309-320.
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Evaluation of a forage farming system of Nebrodi Mountains

Testa G.*, Cosentino A.D., Copani V. Dipartimento di Scienze Agronomiche, Agrochimiche e delle Produzioni Animali, Universit degli Studi di Catania, Italy *gtesta@unict.it
Abstract The multiyear research carried out in the Nebrodi mountains (Sicily island, Mediterranean region) have shown scattered and occasional use of agronomic inputs in relation to the altitude and grazing management and a high variability of the climatic conditions. Because of this, strongly degraded areas, due to soil erosion and over-grazing, are diffused. Stabilization of forage seasonal yield even in low rainfall years are among the most important problems related to pasture of this area. This is a prerequisite to the survival of livestock sector in an environment characterized by high instability. To this aim a research was carried out, in representative farms, in order to evaluate the curve of daily growth, the seasonal yield. Keywords: Mediterranean environment, Nebrodi Mountains, Forage farming system, Fodder crops, Farming self-sufficiency. Introduction The Nebrodi Mountains is one of the most interesting environment of Sicily (Southern Mediterranean island) for the strong interactions between land areas, climate, vegetation and social factors. The pastoral activity represents the primary income source of local people. It should be noted, however, that the pressure exerted by animals, often excessive and prolonged, had an impact on the stability of grass determining the depletion and the low quality of the grass. The phenomena of degradation are related to particular pastures at lower altitudes, where the presence of animals does not allow the regrowth of the canopy. At higher altitudes, the vegetation is characterized by a higher pabular value (Copani et al., 2008) The setting up of Nebrodi Park Institution, in 1993, has enabled to safeguard this area. Keeping these environments efficient is an objective of National and European policies, both aimed to an integrated development to create new income opportunities, enhancing the natural and cultural heritage of mountain communities. One of the most important problems that the pastures of this environment have to face is the stability of production due to rainfall variability. A study has been carried out with the aim to define the animal feeding balance of some representative farms of the territory. Material and methods The study was carried out between 2006 and 2008 in 7 forage-livestock farms falling in the Nebrodi Park at latitude ranging from 1423'20'' to 1447'00'' and longitude ranging from 3744'20'' to 3756'50'' and altitudes between 583 and 1220 m asl. The following data were measured: the area for each forage resource, the number of Livestock Units (LU) and fodder production estimated by the Corrall-Fenlon method (Corrall and Fenlon, 1978). The animal feeding balance was calculated between the availability of fodder resources and the needs of livestock (Cassaniti et al., 2002). The daily requirement of 1 LU was considered equal to 18 kg d.m. for animals in lactation and 13.5 kg d.m. for animals not in lactation (Bittante et al., 1997). The graphical representation of the feed system was made according to Pardini and Rossini (1997). Results and discussion The forage cropping systems of the studied farms are specialized in extensive husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle, up to the line cow-calf, and the almost exclusive source of fodder is provided by the pasture. The productivity of pasture ranges between 2.03 and 3.42 t ha-1 of dry matter (Tab.1). The availability of green fodder are concentrated in a very short period, no more than 47-55 days, during which the animals graze in the best conditions of forage quality of grass (Fig. 1). During the remaining grazing season poor quality resources are used such as dry pasture (standing hay), the grazing of shrubs and low trees (acorns of Quercus pubescens, autumnal fruits of Pyrus piraster, Ulmifolius rubus, Morus nigra). Under these conditions, the annual load of the animal varies between a minimum of 0.39 LU ha-1 and a maximum of 1.26 LU ha-1, with an average of 0.82 years LU ha-1.
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The degree of self-sufficiency is equal to the average of two years to 56%, between 38 and 85%. Table 1 - Representative farms characteristics and feeding sel-sufficiency degree in the two years period.
Farm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Average Altitude m (asl) 913 1202 836 645 1156 856 938 935.1 ha 102 87 54 33 102 40 92 72.9 LU 128 87 49 13 84 30 55 63.7 LU ha-1 1.26 1.00 0.91 0.39 0.82 0.75 0.60 0.82 Yield -1 (t ha ) 2.92 3.42 2.04 2.03 2.19 2.75 2.57 2.56 Grazing (days) 50 49 52 54 49 55 47 50.9 Ratio a*/n** 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.6 Days with Self-sufficiency a*>n** (%) 63 38 119 57 42 37 70 85 42 44 56 59 56 71 64.0 55.9
*a = feed available; **n = feed need
In order to show the use the resources during the year data from the farm n7 as example are reported in Fig. 1. The natural pasture covers animal needs in the spring and in the most difficult periods as well (January-February and July-August); between May and June, the animals gradually move towards the pasture of higher altitude where they remain until August. Between September and October they go back to the natural pasture where they use the standing hay and then, between November and December, they use again the pasture among trees and fruit trees.
8000 7000 High productive pasture Under tree pasture Low productive pasture Forage system production Daily needs Grazing Standing hay High productive pasture Under tree pasture Meadow Forage system production Daily needs Grazing Standing hay 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 Jan Feb Mar G G Apr May Jun Jul Aug Set Oct G
Meadow Under tree pasture
kg ha-1 d-1 d.m.
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 G
Nov
Dec
Jan
Pasture
Feb G
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug G
Set
Oct
Nov
Dec
Pasture
G G
G G
Under tree pasture
Figure 1 Forage system and single resources daily growth curves, daily needs curve and time of resources utilization in 2007 (left) and 2008 (right).
Conclusions In this context, the husbandry focused on the cow-calf or on the sheep line, fits very well with the interannual variation of forage availability and possible shortcomings, both quantitative and qualitative. The studied farms appear self-sufficient and able to provide products from herds with high degree of 'naturalness' and environmental sustainability, as a matter of fact like the products from organic farming. However, simple technical and agronomic measures (pasture fertilization) and use of annual intensive forage crops (like sweet vetch) would enable to raise the pasture and products quality. References
Bittante G., Andrighetto I., Ramanzin M. 1997. Fondamenti di zootecnia. Liviana editrice. Cassaniti S., Cosentino S., Copani V., Riggi E. 2002. Disponibilit di risorse foraggere e movimenti zonali degli animali in allevamento nellarea dei Monti Nebrodi. I Georgofili. Atti della Accademia dei Georgofili. VII serie Vol. XLVIII, Disp. III-IV, p.573-608. Copani V., Riggi E., Cosentino S.L., Testa G., Virgillito S. 2008. Ecological and pastoral value of pastures of Sicilian mountains. In Sustainable Mediterranean Grasslands and their Multi-Functions. Elvas (Portugal), p.59-63. ISSN: 1016-121-X, ISBN: 2-85352-378-0. Corrall A.J., Fenlon J.S. 1978. A comparative method for describing seasonal distribution of production from grasses. J. Agric. Sci. Camb., 91,6, p.1-67. Pardini A., Rossini F. 1997. Sistemi pascolivi nellItalia centro-meridionale. Riv.Agr., 31, 89-100.
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kg ha-1 d-1 d.m.
First application of the Radiation Use Effiecincy (RUE) model for pastures of the Nebrodi Mountains
Bocchi S.1*, Testa G. 2, Cosentino A.D. 2, Copani V2. Dipartimento di produzione vegetale, Universit di Milano, Milano, Italy 2 Dipartimento di Scienze Agronomiche, Agrochimiche e delle Produzioni Animali, Universit degli Studi di Catania, Italy *gtesta@unict.it
1
Abstract Data recorded in four fodder-livestock farms located in the Nebrodi Mountains (Sicily) at different altitude (856-1202m a.s.l.) were used to evaluate the validity of the Radiation Use Efficiency Model in southern Italy semi-arid Mediterranean environment. The model using the photosynthetically active radiation and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) allowed to estimate the cumulated dry matter, the biomass yield and the radiation absorbed by the crops. The use of the RUE model can be an efficient tool for dynamic pastures yield analysis in different areas as it is shown in the first results of this experiment carried out in the Nebrodi Mountains. Keywords: Yield evaluation, RUE model, Mediterranean pastures, NPP assessment Introduction Nebrodi Mountains are one of the most interesting environments of Sicily (Southern Mediterranean island). The pastures of this area are located at an altitude between 1000 and 1400 m above sea level and are also characterized by a high naturalness and biodiversity. In this context, information and communication technology systems may open new horizons for solving problems related to the monitoring and management of large area connected to the maintaining of environmental and cultural heritage of the mountain communities. Material and methods In 2007 agronomic data were recorded in livestock farms of Nebrodi Mountains Regional Park. Yields of the pastures were used to verify the model based on solar radiation and reflectance measurements. The basic concept of this methodology is related to the emission of electromagnetic radiations from any external body surface at temperature higher than absolute 0C in relation to the body temperature and the surface properties. The surface reflects, absorbs or transmits the electromagnetic radiation coming from outside. The satellites measure the amount of energy reflected by the various bodies on the surface of the soil. It is necessary to establish a link between the quantity and quality of energy reflected and the nature or the status of the body or of the surfaces from which the reflected energy comes; this interaction is the "spectral signature" of an object. The values of each wavelength allow to calculation the NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) for each vegetation case. The Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE) model, proposed by Wilson and modified by Monteith in 1977, is based on the assumption that under optimal growing conditions, plant growth is directly proportional to solar radiation absorbed by the plant: DM = APAR where DM (g m-2) is the dry matter yield in a specific time interval, APAR (MJ m-2 day-1) is the photosynthetic active radiation (PAR, ranging between 300nm and 700nm) absorbed by plant and (g MJ-1) is the coefficient of conversion of the radiation into dry matter. This initial formulation of the model, suitable for crops grown in optimal conditions, was later extended to take into account the reduction of the efficiency of conversion of radiation into dry matter determined by the constraints, in first approximation temperature and water availability, acting on most of the agricultural and forest ecosystems. The extended formulation is the following :
NPP( t1 t2 ) = fAPAR(t ) PAR(t )dt

t1
t2
NDD =
NPP APAR
where: : coefficient of conversion of radiation into biomass (g dm/MJ). Within this study was used a RUE of 0.48 g MJ estimated in researches carried out in the Sardinia region a Mediterranean island in the similar vegetation characteristics.
137
fAPAR: fraction of the photosintetically active radiation absorbed by vegetation estimated by the NDVI for pastures. NPP: aboveground net primary productivity
Results and discussion The Fig. 1C shows the trend of daily values of 5.00 Savoca 4.50 1 NE Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR). The values, Fazio 2 NE 4.00 starting from September, tend to decrease, passing DiGloria 6 NE 3.50 -2 -2 from an average value of 10 MJ m to 4-5 MJ m 5 NE Cacciato 3.00 2.50 between December and January. Afterwards the 2.00 values gradually rise until reaching the maximum 1.50 -2 values of 16 MJ m at the beginning of June. 1.00 0.50 A In Fig.1B the values of the radiation intercepted by 0.00 vegetation are reported, obtained multiplying the 16 photosynthetic active radiation for the APAR-NDVI Savoca 14 Fazio index, whose values vary between 0 and 1, in relation 12 DiGloria to vegetation coverage level and intensity of colour. 10 Cacciato The amount of radiation really intercepted by the 8 vegetation is low in early winter, between 1 and 4 MJ 6 m-2, different in the four experimental conditions. The 4 model shows a stasis period between the beginning 2 B of January and the beginning of February, in this 0 period the plant growth stop due to the low 18 16 temperatures. Afterwards, the values tend to rise 14 following the trend of the PAR, without differences 12 between the studied farms. In May the studied 10 situation differ according to different period of growth 8 6 of vegetation, earlier in the farms 1,2,6 and later on 4 the farm 5NE. 2 C In Fig. 1A the cumulated dry biomass yield are 0 reported. The values are obtained by cumulating the daily values. The cumulated biomass follows an upward trend, reaching 1-1.5 t ha-1 in December. Biomass increases until May where it reaches values Figure 1 Dry matter yield simulated by model (A), between 3 and 4 t ha-1, comparable to those really radiation intercepted by vegetation (B), photosyntetically active radiation (C) in the time of obtained in the field experiment. Against biomass biomass accumulation. value equal to 3.38, 3.33, 3.82 and 4.57 t ha-1 the RUE model estimated value equal to 3.62, 4.43, 3.71 and 4.76 t ha-1. In three cases the simulated value are very similar to Table 1 Production measured and those observed and only in one case there is a difference simulated by the RUE model in the that does not exceed the 25%. Monti Nebrodi area.
-1 D.M. t (ton/ha) S.S ha
no v06
m ar -0 7
ap r-0 7
fe b07
se t- 0 6
ot t-0 6
di c06
-0 7
ge n
APAR (MJ/m2)
no v06
ar -0 7
ap r-0 7
fe b07
PAR (MJ/m2)
Mar.07 ap r-0 7
6 Sept.06 ot t-0 6 Oct.06 no v06 Nov.07 di c06 Dec.06 ge n07
Apr.07 m ag -0 7
Feb.07 m ar -0 7
Jan.07 fe b07
Conclusions The integrated use of remotely sensed data and RUE 1NE model may be a useful tool for the grassland production 2NE processes analysis (grazing maps) in the different areas 6NE 5NE investigated. The results obtained with this test applied to the Nebrodi Mountains are promising, even considering that the simplified version of the model RUE (without correction for limiting factors and with low resolution data of PAR) was used. Further studies are required in order to use this approach on a large scale.
Farm
Altitude (m asl) 910 1202 856 1156
Yield -1 (t ha ) 3.62 4.43 3.71 4.76
Yield simulated (t ha-1) 3.38 3.33 3.82 4.57
References
Bocchi S. Applicazione integrate di tecniche GIS, remote sensing e indagine agro-ecologica per la caratterizzazione delle risorse foraggere e la produzione di cartografia tematica. Quaderni della ricerca Dir. Agricoltura Regione Piemonte. Progetto MASO-GIS, volume 1, pagg: 55-67. Boschetti M., Bocchi S., P.A. Brivio. 2007. Assessment of pasture in the Italian Alps using spectrometric and remote sensing information. Agric., Ecosys. Environment., 118, 2007, 267 - 272. Monteith, J.L. 1977. Climate and the efficiency of crop production in Britain. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B 281:277294.
138
May 07
se
t-0
m ag -0 7
se t-0 6
ot t-0 6
ge n07
di c06
ag -
07
Effect of small nitrogen rate on dry matter and protein yield of red clover, italian ryegrass and their mixtures
Alibegovic-Grbic S.*, Bezdrob M, Civic H. Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 8, Bosnia and Herzegovina. *s.alibegovic-grbic@ppf.unsa.ba
Abstract An experiment was established with the aim to determine dry matter (DM) and protein yield of red clover (Trifolium pratense L) and italian rygrass (Lolium italicum Lam) in pure stands, as well as their mixures under reduced nitrogen fertilisation (30 kg ha -1). Results indicated that nitogen effected positively on DM and protein yields. Its efficiency was higher in pure stands for both species than in mixtures. Over two years, total DM yield was similar for red clover in pure stand (34,5 t ha -1) and for mixtures (33,3 to 31,6 t ha -1) with proportion of red clover up to 50%, while yield of Italian ryegrass was only 19,1 t ha -1 DM. Differences in protein yield were even higher. Keywords: Red clover, Italian ryegrass, N, yield Introduction Red clover is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions, which is of special interest for Bosnia and Herzegovina where large area is characterized by heavy and acid soils. On the other hand, red clover cultivation contributes to reduce inputs of nitrogen fertilisers thanks to symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Deprez et al. (2004) underline that red clover can fix from 256 up to 545 kg N ha-1. This also supports integrated and ecological agriculture. However, red clover in pure stand causes bloating as green forage and is difficult to dry for hay making. That justifies sowing red clover in mixtures with grasses. Italian ryegrass suits well to red clover because it is also short-lived, grows fast and has similar demands for soil. Sowinski and Nowak (2003) indicated that red clover in pure stands as well as in mixtures with hybrid ryegrass, without N fertilization, gave stable and high yields. An experiment was established with the aim of determining the effect of small N amount (30 kg ha -1) on dry matter and protein yield of red clover as well as italian rygrass in pure stands, and their mixures (with three different portion of red clover in it). Material and methods The field experiment was established in Butmir near Sarajevo (518 m a s l.) with an average annual precipitation of 902 mm and an average annual temperature of 9,5C. Soil of the experimental field is loamy-clay, characterized by pH-5,6 (in H2O), P-11 mg, K-14,6 mg and 160 mg in 100 g of soil. We used a randomised complete blocks design with four replications and plot size of 5 m2. Experiment was set up in spring 2004, with following variants: red clover 100%; red clover 75% + italian ryegrass 25% (S1); red clover 50% + italian ryegrass 50% (S2); red lover 25% + italian ryegrass 75% (S3) and italian ryegrass 100%. Nitrogen (30 kg ha-1) was applied in spring. The sward was harvested at the beginning of flowering of red clover. In 2004 we made three and in 2005 four cuts. Protein yield was calculated on the basis of dry matter (DM) yield and protein content (N 6.25). Total N was determined using the Kjeldahl method. Results were subjected to ANOVA and compared by LSD test. Results and discussion Due to favourable weather conditions in 2004, all plots established well. DM yield ranged from 8,3 (italian ryegrass) to 11,8 t ha-1 (red clover) as presented in table 1. DM yield was higher in the mixtures with the highest proportion of red clover. However, significant differences were not found. Applied N resulted in 2,5 for red clover and 2,2 t ha-1 for italian ryegrass. Differences in DM yield between mixtures were rather small. While August 2004 was dry, in 2005 the temperatures were average and the precipitations plentiful throughout the vegetation season. That had a positive influence on plant growth and resulted in extremely high DM yields. Red clover was most productive (22,6 t DM ha-1) and italian ryegrass had the lowest yield (10,9 t DM ha-1). The differences are highly significant. Efficiency of applied 30 kg N resulted in 5,6 and 5,0 t ha-1 DM for red clover and italian ryegrass, respectively, while the DM for the mixtures was half of that. High DM yield was obtained in red clover and mixtures in which Italian ryegrass contributed up to 50% (similar to Kessler and Lehmann, 1998).
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Table 1. Dry matter yield (t ha-1)

Variants N30 Red clover 100 % Red lover 75 % + Italian ryegrass 25 % (S1) Red clover 50 % +Italian ryegrass 50% (S2) Red lover 25 % + Italian ryegrass 75 % (S3) Italian ryegrass 100 % Lsd 0,001
11,83 11,68 10,65 9,87 8,27 7,24
2004 N0
9,36 11,43 10,39 8,08 6,03
2005 N30
22,62*** 21,66*** 20,91*** 16,68*** 10,83 3,84
N0
19,51 19,35 18,76 16,09 8,07
Total N30 N0
34,45*** 33,34*** 31,56*** 26,55*** 19,10 5,85 28,87 30,78 29,15 24,17 14,10
Crude protein content ranged from 6,9 to 18,4%.depending on several features (species, mixtures composition, N-level). The crude protein content was highest in red clover and lowest in Italian ryegrass. It increased with increasing proportion of red clover in mixtures, as well as from first to the last cut in general (tab. 2). Applied N had, in most cases, some positive effect on crude protein content Interesting is that in 2005 Italian ryegrass had less crude protein in the N fertilised treatment. Table 2. Crude protein content (%) in DM
Year 2004 2005 N0 N30 N0 N30 1 cut 9,0 12,0 11,9 11,6
st
2 cut 13,7 13,2 10,7 11,2
nd
3 cut 9,3 14,3 11,6 14,4
rd
4 cut 15,6 15,1
th
Small rate of applied N (tab.3) had positive effect on protein yield, even in red clover in pure stand. In 2004 applied N in red clover resulted in 553 and in 2005 even 1093 kg ha-1 more protein. Differences in protein yield decreased with increasing portion of grass component in mixtures. Although Italian ryegrass yielded more in 2005 with applied N, protein yield was higher when N was not applied. Differences were, in most cases highly significant among red clover and its mixtures compared to pure Italian ryegrass. Table 3. Protein yield (t ha-1)
Year Variants Red clover 100 % Red clover 75 %; Italian ryegrass 25 % (S1) Red clover 50 %; Italian ryegrass 50% (S2) Red clover 25 %;Italian ryegrass 75 % (S3) Italian ryegrass 100 % Lsd 0,001 N30 1,84*** 1,66*** 1,37** 1,19 0,74 0,86 2004 N0 1,28 1,48 O,88 0,72 0,54 N30 3,52*** 3,14*** 2,38*** 1,95*** 0,97 0,48 2005 N0 2,43 2,40 2,07 1,73 1,08 Total N30 5,35*** 4,80*** 3,75*** 3,14*** 1,71 0,70 N0 3,71 3,88 2,95 2,46 1,62
Conclusions Results of these investigations showed that small rate of applied nitrogen had positive effect on DM and protein yield of red clover, italian ryegrass and their mixtures. In similar conditions the application of such small rate of N in order to achieve higher DM and protein yield would be reasonable. References
Deprez, B., Lambert, R., Decamps, C., Peeters, A. (2004) Nitrogen fixation by red clover (Trifolium pretense) and luzerne (Medicago sativa) in Belgian leys. In Luscher, A. et al. (eds) Land Use Systems in Grassland Dominated Regions. Grassland Science in Europe. Vol.9 pp. 469-471. Elgersma, A., Schlepers, H. (2001) Nuse efficiency in grass-clover mixtures. In Isselstein, J. et al (eds) Organic Grassland Farming. Grassland Science in Europe. Vol.6. pp. 73-75. Frame,J., Charlton,J:F:L., Laidlow, A.S. (1997) Temporate forage legumes. CAB International, pp181-224. Hartwig, U.A., Soussana, J.-F. (2001)Ecophysiology of symbiotic N2 fixation in grassland legumes. In Isselstein, J. et al (eds) Organic Grassland Farming. Grassland Science in Europe. Vol.6. pp. 1-10. Kessler, W., Lehmann, J. (1988) Evaluation of grass/clover mixtures for leys. In Nagy., g and Peto , K. (eds) Ecological Aspects of Grassland Management. Grassland Science in Europe. Vol.3. pp. 231-235. Sowinski, J., Nowak, W. (2003) Yield potential of red/grass mixtures in southwest Poland. In Kirilov, A. et al.(eds) Optimal Forage systems for Animal Production and environment. Grassland Science in Europe. Vol.8. pp. 111-114.
140
Different grassland types for high quality Asiago mountain cheese in the Upland of Seven Communes (North East Venetia)
Paoletti R.*, Gremigni P., Aceto P., Piano E. CRA-FLC LODI, Research Centre for Fodder Crops and Dairy Productions, Italy *renato.paoletti@entecra.it
Abstract The Upland of the Seven Communes belongs administratively to the Province of Vicenza and is included in the mountain Community Spettabile Reggenza dei Sette Comuni, located at Asiago 999 m a.s.l., mean annual rainfall 1500 mm. The rangeland covers a very large area, where several grazed units named Malghe are stocked from June to September each year with mainly milking cows and young cattle or milking sheep. Over a threeyear period the pasture resources of the representative Malga Dosso di Sotto were studied in the framework of the National System Project Pro-Alpe by our CRA-FLC LODI Research Unit. The main results of the identification and characterization of two characteristic vegetation facies are presented here, as a contribution to support and improve the Asiago dAllevo typical cheese production. Keywords: dairy cattle, forage yield, grassland types, grazing, summer farm Introduction The alpine and sub-alpine pasturelands in Northern Italy are essential agricultural and ecological resources that need to be managed and protected now and in the future (Haussmann,1976; van Dorland et al., 2006). In recent years many investigations on natural swards were carried out by Universities and Research Centres at different representative locations of the Italian Alps and a detailed description of the numerous vegetation types is available to researchers, technicians and farmers (Cavallero, 2007 and Ziliotto, 2004). The CRA-FLC LODI, in particular, coordinates the National System Project Pro-Alpe, which investigates the main components of the food chain pasture-milk-cheese (Piano 2008). In this paper we present two different types of natural swards with corresponding offered herbage grazed by dairy cattle at a representative summer farm involved in the DOP typical Asiago dallevo cheese making and ripening. This research is part of the Pro-Alpe project activities and was carried out by the Lodi Research Unit. Material and methods The study site is located in a sub-alpine environment of the Upland of the Seven Communes (N.E. Venetia, Province of Vicenza, main Commune Asiago) belonging to the summer farm Malga Dosso di Sotto at the mean altitude of 1647 m a.s.l. The plant inventories were carried out in two fenced paddocks according to Daget & Poissonet (1971) using transects of 50 point quadrats. Forage on offer was calculated on sward cut with a manual electrical grassmower and according to the sward cutting method. Dry matter (DM) of forage was recorded before and after the dairy cattle grazing in the two paddocks. The movements and the time spent in the pasture by two animal groups of eight cows each during the day (12 hours) were also recorded. The corresponding milk production per animal group was measured daily during the grazing period. Results and discussion The plant inventory showed the existence of two vegetation types (Facies P = Rich Pasture and Facies M = Rough Pasture) with a different total number of species (42 in P, 52 in M, data not shown) and frequency (Table 1, 13 most represented species). The calculated pastoral value (PV) proved to be higher for P (36,6) than for M (23,2), with highly variable CV values in both (Table 1). The forage on offer was 3.59 and 2.53 t ha, whilst the ungrazed forage was 2.33 and 1.57, t ha for P and M respectively. The movement of cattle during the day was the same in the two Facies, on average 45% for grazing and 52% for resting or rumination. The daily milk production per head was not significantly different for the two Facies (21,48 and 21,35 l) but only for the two grazing groups. The relatively high rainfall during the summer grazing did not affect swards growth. Some feed supplement (3 kg/head/day) was given to dairy cows anyway and this can explain the lower grassland utilization.
141
Table 1 Characterization of the two vegetation Facies at Malga Dosso (CS: Specific Contribution, SD: Standard Deviation, CV: Variation Coefficient, according to Pignatti, 1982).
Facies P Agrostis tenuis Achillea millefolium Trifolium repens Festuca gr. rubra Poa pratensis Alchemilla vulgaris Phleum alpinum Ranunculus acris Taraxacum officinale Trifolium pratense Agropyron repens Veronica chamaedrys Carum carvi Total no. of Species PV CS SD 15.1 2.8 11.6 1.8 11.1 2.9 9.5 5.0 8.6 3.9 7.5 2.4 6.2 1.9 3.5 1.8 3.4 1.8 2.9 1.1 2.3 2.7 1.9 1.2 1.8 1.2 42 36,61,6 CV 19 16 26 52 46 33 32 53 53 38 116 61 63 Facies M Festuca gr. rubra Agrostis tenuis Potentilla crantzii Trifolium repens Alchemilla vulgaris Carex ornithopoda Trifolium pratense Nardus stricta Ranunculus acris Galium lucidum Carduus carlinaefolius Potentilla aurea Plantago media Total no. of Species PV CS SD 14.0 1.9 9.2 3.6 8.4 3.8 5.0 1.9 4.9 3.1 4.8 1.9 4.6 2.6 4.2 4.3 3.8 1.3 2.7 2.5 2.6 0.6 2.6 3.0 2.5 0.3 52 23,23,5 CV 14 39 46 37 64 40 58 102 35 91 24 114 14
Conclusions Results presented here confirm the great biodiversity in the natural grazed swards at the Malga Dosso, with similar composition but different frequency of plant species in the two grazed Facies. The plant species abundance can be maintained through a wise management of the pastureland. Grazing with dairy cattle or other ruminants is the key to conserve and protect the Alpine environment. The related animal productions, mainly mountain typical cheeses, will assure the activity and life of mountain people from the economic and social point of view, as recommended by the new European Community policy. Acknowledgements This work is part of the 'Pro Alpe' Project supported by MEF, MIUR, MiPAAF and MATT. Manuscript n. 28. References
Cavallero A, Aceto P, Gorlier A, Lombardi G, Lonati M, Martinasso B, Tagliatori C (2007). I tipi pastorali delle Alpi piemontesi. Alberto Perdisa Editore, Bologna, 467 pp. Dalla Costa S., Gianni Rigoni Stern (2007), La Via delle Malghe, C.M. Spettabile Reggenza dei Sette Comuni, Asiago, C.M. Spettabile Reggenza dei Sette Comuni, Asiago e DallAstico al Brenta, Breganze (eds), 143 pp. . Daget P, Poissonet J (1971). Une mthode danalyse phytologique des prairies. Critres dapplication. Annales Agronomiques 22: 5-41. van Dorland H.A., Wettstein H.-R. and.Kreuzer M (2006). Species-rich swards of the Alps. Constraints and opportunities for dairy production. In A.Elgersma, J.Dijkstra and S. Tamminga (eds), Fresh Herbage for Dairy Cattle, Springer Verlag, Netherlands, 24-43. Haussmann G. (1976) Pascoli e Allevamento. Carta della Montagna I. Geotecneco. Vol 1, 262-344. Piano E (2008) I terroir delle Alpi per la caratterizzazione e la difesa delle produzioni casearie dalpeggio (Pro-Alpe). http://proalpe.entecra.it/Atti_workshop.htm Pignatti S (1982). Flora dItalia. Edagricole. Bologna. 3 Voll, 2324 pp. Ziliotto U, Andrich O, Lasen C, Ramanzin M (2004). Tratti essenziali della tipologia veneta dei pascoli di monte e dintorni. Regione Veneto, Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali, Venezia. 2 Voll, 472 pp.
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SESSION 3 High quality animal products and landscapes stakes
Effect of feeding system on growing lamb performance, on meat macronutrients, -tocopherol and fatty acid content
Spada S., Fiori M., Addis M.*, Fois N., Sitzia M. AGRIS Sardegna, Dipartimento per la Ricerca nelle Produzioni Animali, 07040 Olmedo, Italy *maddis@agrisricerca.it
Abstract The effects of feeding system on growth performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality in terms of macronutrients, -tocopherol and fatty acid composition were evaluated on Sarda x Ile de France lambs slaughtered at 125 days of age. Forty-three lambs (21 3.3Kg), after a suckling period of 58 days, were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments: PL (pasture lambs, 15 animal), fed at pasture on Italian ryegrass sward for 8h/day and supplemented with hay and commercial concentrate; HL (housed lambs, 14 animals) fed with hay and commercial concentrate, TL (total mixed ration lambs, 14 animals) fed with a total mixed ration based on hay, maize silage, concentrate, beet pulp and soya bean meal. All diets offered were isoenergetic (0.95 UFL/kg of DM) and isoproteic (18 g/100 g DM of crude protein). The feeding system did not affect daily weight gain, slaughter weight or cold carcass weight. Cold carcass yield was significantly higher in PL and HL groups than TL. Meat from grazing lambs (PL group) was characterized by a significantly higher dry matter, protein, -tocopherol and rumenic acid (CLA 9c 11t) content and by a lower 6/3 ratio than in TL and HL groups. In conclusion, meat quality was higher in PL than in the other groups. Keywords: meat lamb, -tocopherol, fatty acids, feeding system. Introduction Ruminant meat and meat products are currently considered an unhealthy part of the human diet as it is a major source of fat and especially of saturated fatty acids, which are responsible for the increased risk of coronary heart diseases (Mensink et al., 2003). However meat is also a good source of essential amino acids, fatsoluble and B-complex vitamins, and minerals. In addition meat is rich in essential fatty acids and their long-chain 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (3-PUFA) metabolites, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA), substances beneficial to consumer health (Gebauer et al. 2005). Besides the 3-PUFA, interest in conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs), especially rumenic acid (CLA 9cis, 11 trans), has increased considerably because of their potential beneficial effects on human health including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, onset of diabetes, and body fat mass (Belury, 2002; Ip et al., 1999; Lee et al., 1994; Parodi, 1997). An animals diet can play a significant role in improving meat quality in terms of nutraceutical compounds beneficial to consumer health. The changes in fatty acid composition of body fats are linked to the respective fatty acid content in the feed offered, though rumen biohydrogenation has a considerable impact in reducing PUFA concentrations in sheep and cattle. The meat of lambs reared on pasture contained less total lipid than that of lambs fed with a concentrate based diet (Aurousseau et al., 2004). When compared to grain feeding, pasture increases the 3-PUFA content in meat of lamb and decreased the C18:2-6/C18:3-3 ratio (Popova, 2007; Santos-Silva et al., 2002). Likewise, French et al., (2000) demonstrated that, when grown at the same rate, muscle from cattle which had a high grass intake had a higher PUFA/SFA ratio and a lower 6/3 PUFA ratio than that of muscle from cattle fed concentrates rich in barley and maize grain. The aim of the present study was to compare the effect of three different dietary treatments on growth performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality in terms of macronutrients, -tocopherol and fatty acid content on Sarda x Ile de France lambs. Materials and methods Forty-three Sarda x Ile de France lambs were raised at pasture together with their mother until 58 days of age and a live weight of 21 3.3 kg. After weaning they were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments: PL (pasture lambs, 15 animals), fed at pasture on Italian ryegrass sward for 8h/day and sheepfold supplemented with italian ryegrass hay (87 g DM/head day) and commercial concentrate (260 g DM /head day); HL (housed lambs, 14 animals) fed with alfa alfa hay (610 g DM/head day) and commercial concentrate (522 g DM/head day), TL (total mixed ration lambs, 14 animals) fed with a total mixed ration based on italian ryegrass hay, maize silage, commercial concentrate, beet pulp and soya bean meal (365, 252, 183, 183 and 131 g DM/head day, respectively). All diets offered were isoenergetic (0.95 UFL/kg of DM) and isoproteic (18 g/100 g DM of crude protein). The animals were weighed weekly and they were slaughtered at 125 days of age. The carcass weight was recorded after 24 hours at 4C
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and M. longissimus dorsi was taken for chemical analysis and intra muscular fatty acid (FA) composition. Meat samples were analysed for dry matter, fat, ash, protein in accordance with ASPA indications (1996). Fatsoluble (-tocopherol) vitamins and cholesterol were determined by HPLC (High Performance Liquide Chromatography) according to the methods of Panfili et al., (1994), and Manzi et al., (1996) respectively. Muscle lipids were extracted by means of a chloroform/methanol solution (2:1 v/v), according to modified Folch method as described by Hamilton et al., (1992). Fatty acid were converted to methyl esters (Chin et al., 1992), separated and quantified using a Varian 3900 gas chromatograph, with a SP2560 capillary column (100m x 0.25mm x 0.2m). To evaluate the effect of feeding treatments all data were analysed by GLM (General Linear Model, =0.05) using Minitab statistical package, release 15 (Minitab Inc., USA).
Results and discussion The feeding treatments did not affect lambs growth and slaughter performance except for the cold carcass yield which was significantly lower in the TL than the PL or HL treatments (table 1).
Table1. Effects of feeding treatments on slaughter performance
TL 21.7 35.3 0.203 16.8 47.4 b 5.76 Treatments HL PL 20.9 20.9 35.6 35.4 0.218 0.216 17.4 17.8 49.0 a 50.2 a 5.69 5.73 SEM 0.50 0.70 0.01 0.36 0.32 0.02 Effect feeding system ns ns ns ns *** ns
Weaning weight(kg) Slaughter weight (kg) Daily weight gain (kg head-1) Cold carcass weight (kg) Cold carcass yield(%) pH at 24 hours
ns: not significant. *p <0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
a-c
Means within row with different superscript letters differed significantly.
The proximate composition, cholesterol and -tocopherol concentrations, determined on lamb meat samples, are shown in table 2. Dietary treatments had no significant effect (P>0.05) on meat fat, ash and cholesterol content. Meat of lambs reared on pasture (PL) showed a significantly higher content of dry matter and protein compared to that of lambs from other groups (HL, TL). Meat from grazing lambs is characterised by a higher content of -tocopherol (P<0.001, 3.42 g/g of meat) than that of HL and TL groups (0.74 and 0.54, respectively). The content of -tocopherol in meat from ruminants depends on the animals diet. As reported by Descalzo et al. (2007) the grazing is a key factor in increasing the natural content of antioxidant in meat than other diets as green forage has a high content of -tocopherol. The muscle content of -tocopherol found in this study were higher to those previously described in meat of crossbred lambs reared at pasture (Salvatori et al., 2004). -tocopherol exerts a protective effect on the unsaturated fatty acids in tissues and its presence within muscle cell membranes reduces lipid oxidation, improving the quality characteristics of meat such as colour, flavour, texture and nutritional value, and also extending its shelf life during retailing (Morrisey et al., 1994). Feeding management affected fatty acid composition of lambs intramuscular fat (table 3). Grazing treatment (PL) produced a significantly lower fat content of linoleic acid (C18:2 9c 12c, P<0,01) respect than that of housed lambs (HL) and total mixed ration lambs (TL) whose diet is mainly grain based. Similar results are obtained from Popova (2007) in natural pasture grazed and housed indoor lambs. It is known that grass-based diets increased linolenic acid (C18:3 9c 12c 15c) content .in lamb tissues (Bas et al., 2000). In the current experiment feeding system did not affect the intramuscular fat content of linolenic acid, the expected increase of linolenic acid, in lambs reared at pasture (PL) compared to other groups, did not occur. The reasons for this behavior could be either because the grazing was not continuous, in fact lambs of PL group are grazing part of the time and they were brought during night and supplemented with hay and concentrates, or because the transfer of linolenic acid from the diet to milk and meat fat is often low, due to its extensive biohydrogenation in the rumen (Harfoot et al., 1997). The last hypothesis is supported also by the significantly higher content of C18:2 11t 15c and C18:1 11t (P<0.001), both ruminal metabolites of linolenic acid, in PL intramuscular fat respect to that of TL and HL groups. Feeding to pasture leads to a higher content of CLA 9c, 11t, beneficial to human health, compared to other two feeding treatments (HL and TL), consequently to the high content of CLA precursor (linolenic acid) in ingested grass (Schmid et al., 2005). The lowest linoleic acid content in intramuscular fat from lambs reared at pasture, determined lower content of 6-PUFA (P<0.01) and a proportionally lower 6/3 ratio (P<0.05) than that of the other groups. It is recommended that the 6/3 ratio of the human diet should be less than 4 (Department of Health, 1994), in this experiment meat from the pasture-fed lambs, was below the recommended value.
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When expressed as absolute amount (mg per 100 g of edible meat), fatty acids were minimally affected by feeding system, due to the high variability, within group, of the meat fat content. Nevertheless pasture treatment determined in meat a significantly highest content of ruminal metabolite of linolenic acid: C18:2 11t 15c (6.1, 2.8, and 2.2 in PL, HL and TL respectively) and C18:1 11t (36.4, 17.4 and 17.5 in PL, HL and TL, respectively). Table2. Chemical composition of meat from lambs
TL 24.47 2.22 1.17 21.2 0.5b 629
a-c
Dry Matter (%) Fat (%) Ashes (%) Protein (%) Alpha tocopherol (g/g of meat) Cholesterol (g/g of meat)
ns: not significant. *p <0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
Treatments HL PL 24.94 25.36 2.06 2.14 1.19 1.20 21.7 21.9 0.7b 3.4a 643 679
SEM 0.15 0.15 0.01 0.10 0.33 12.0
Effect feeding system * ns ns * *** ns
Means within row with different superscript letters differed significantly.
Table 3. Fatty acid composition (mg/g of fat) of intra muscular fat

FAME (mg/g fat) C18:2 9c,12c (6) C18:3 9c,12c,15c (3) C18:2 11t 15c C18:1 11t CLA 9c,11t SFA MUFA PUFA UFA PUFA/SFA 3-PUFA 6-PUFA 6/3
a-c
TL 46.2a 8.4 0.95b 7.9 b 2.7 b 323 292 85 377 0.26 15.2 60.0 a 4.01 a
Treatments HL 48.1 a 8.6 1.38b 8.5 b 3.1 b 325 310 91 401 0.28 16.7 62.9 a 3.91 a
PL 38.1 b 9.5 2.76a 17 a 4.5 a 317 308 83 391 0.26 16.8 48.2 b 3.01 b
SEM 1.59 0.41 0.22 1.0 0.22 4.0 7.0 3.0 7.8 0.01 0.93 2.39 0.19
Effect of feeding system ** ns *** *** *** ns ns ns ns ns ns ** *
ns: not significant. *p <0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. Means within row with different superscript letters differed significantly. SFA: Saturated fatty acids; MUFA: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids; PUFA: Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids; UFA: Unsaturated Fatty Acids.
Conclusions Pasture is an important feed for grazing animals and in growing lambs it represents a tool to improve meat quality in terms healthiness because of the highest -tocopherol content and lowest 6/3 ratio. Moreover, the high -tocopherol content, a natural antioxidant, in meat from grazing lambs can be effective in improve its nutritional value, quality characteristics and extend the product shelf-life reducing lipid oxidation and improving meat colour during retailing. References
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15th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures French P., Stanton C., Lawless F., ORiordan E.G., Monahan F.J., Caffrey P.J., and Moloney A.P., 2000. Fatty acid composition, including conjugated linoleic acid, of intramuscular fat from steers offered grazed grass, grass silage, or concentrate-based diets. Journal of Animal Science, 78, 2849-2855. Gebauer S., Harries W.S., Kris-Etherton P.M., Etherton T.D., 2005. Dietary n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio and health. In: Healthful lipid (ed. C.C. Akoh and O.M. Lai ) pp. 221-248. AOCS Press, Champaign, IL. Harfoot, C.G., Hazlewood, G.P., 1997. Lipid metabolism in the rumen. In The rumen microbial ecosystem. II edition (ed. P.N. Hobson and D.S. Stewart) pp 382-426. Chapman and Hall, London. Hamilton S., Hamilton R.J., Serwell P.A., 1992. Extraction of lipids and derivative formation. In Lipid analysis: A practical approach. 1st edition (ed. R.J. Hamilton and S. Hamilton) pp 22-24. IRL Press/Oxford.. Ip C., Banni S., Angioni E., Carta G., McGinley J., Thompson H.J., 1999. Conjugated Linoleic acid enrich butter fat alters mammary gland morphogenesis and reduces cancer risk in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 129, 2135-2142. Lee K.N., Kritcheviski D., Pariza M.W., 1994. Conjugated Linoleic acid and atherosclerosis in rabbit. Atherosclerosis 108, 19-25. Manzi P., Panfili G., Pizzoferrato L., 1996. normal and reversed-phase HPLC for more complete evaluation of Tocopherols, Retinols, Carotenes and Sterols in dairy products. Chromatographia, 43, 89-93. Mensink R.P., Zock P.L., Kester A.D.M., Katam M.B., 2003. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta- analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:1146-1155. Morrisey P.A., Buckley D.J., Sheehy P.J.A., Monahan F.J., 1994. Vitamin E and meat quality. Proceedings of the nutrition society July, 53, 289-295. Panfili G., Manzi P., Pizzoferrato L., 1994. High-performance Liquid Chromatographic metod for the simultaneous determination of Tocopherols, Carotenes, and Retinol and its geometric isomers in Italian cheeses. Analyst, 119, 1161-1165. Parodi P.W., 1997. Cows milk fat components as potential anticarcinogenic agents. Journal of Nutrition, 127, 10551060. Popova T., 2007. Effect of the rearing system on the fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of the M. longissimus lumborum and M. semimembranosus in lambs. Small Ruminant Research, 71, 150-157. Salvatori G., Pantaleo L., Di Cesare C., Maiorano G., Filetti F., Oriani G., 2004. Fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of muscles as related to genotype and vitamin E treatment in crossbred lambs. Meat Science, 67, 45-55. Santos-Silva J., Bessa R.J.B., Santos-Silva F., 2002. Effect of genotype feeding system and slaughter weight on the quality of light lambs II. Fatty acid composition of meat. Livestock Production science, 77, 187-194. Schmid A., Collomb M., Sieber R., Bee G., 2005. Conjugated linoleic acid in meat and meat products: A review. Meat Science, 73: 29-41.
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Cheese textural properties and fatty acids composition of milk from cows fed hay-based diet and mountain pasture managed under continuous or rotational grazing
1
Coppa M.1-2*, Ferlay A.2, Monsallier F.3, Pradel P.4, Farruggia A.2, Lombardi G.1, Martin B.2 Department AGROSELVITER, University of Turin, Via L. da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy 2 INRA, UR 1213 Herbivores, 63122 Saint-Gens-Champanelle, France 3 INRA, UR 545 Fromagres, Route de Salers, 15000 Aurillac, France 4 INRA, UE 1296 Unit exprimentale des Monts dAuvergne, 15190 Marcenat, France *mauro.coppa@unito.it
Abstract The objective of this work was to compare Cantal cheeses obtained either from cows fed a hay-based diet (H) or grazing 2 different mountain grasslands: a very diversified pasture (74 species) of 12.5 ha managed under a continuous mode (E) and a less diversified pasture (31 species) of 7.7 ha, an old temporary grassland managed under a rotational mode (R). A total of 36 Montbeliarde cows was used (3 equivalent groups of 12). Cheese manufacture was achieved during 3 consecutive days in early June, early July and late August (27 cheeses in total). Both the sensory panel (10 trained assessors) and the instrumental measurements indicated that H cheeses were on average, firmer, less melting and less yellow than pasture ones but no differences could be evidenced between E and R cheeses. In parallel, total SFA and MUFA were respectively higher and lower in H milks than in pasture milks (+8.3 g/100g fat and -7.8 g/100g fat respectively). Vaccenic and oleic acid, PUFA and cheese colour decreased during the season in E while they remained constant in R because of a combined effect of the grass development stage and the cows grazing selection. Keywords: cheese sensory proprieties, mountain pasture, milk fatty acids, cheese colour, cheese texture Introduction Changes in cheese characteristics are frequently reported by cheese-makers as related to the type of forage supplied to dairy cows. On this basis, several studies have been carried out to identify, quantify and understand the potential effects of animal feeding on milk fatty acid (FA) profile and cheese sensory properties. The effects of forage type (maize silage, hay, grass silage, pasture) are now well known (Chilliard et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2005). However, even if differences in milk FA profile between pasture types have been proven (Falchero et al., 2008) little is known about the relative importance of the grassland type on cheese sensory proprieties, especially under experimental conditions Nevertheless, some effects of pasture botanical composition have been evidenced in farm studies; important modifications of the sensory properties of cheeses have been observed when cows are moved from one paddock to another with a different vegetation (Bugaud et al., 2002). The aim of this work was to compare the texture and its relations with the fatty acid profile of milk and cheese deriving from a hay-based diet (H) with those of one deriving from two different grazing systems: continuous grazing of high biodiverse pastures (E) or rotational grazing of grasslands intensively managed (R). Material and methods The experiment was carried out at INRA experimental farm of Marcenat (mountain area of central France) where three equivalent groups of Montbeiliarde dairy cows of which: the first group (H) was kept indoors and fed with a concentrate and hay-based diet; the second one (E) exploited, by continuous grazing at low stocking density (0.96 LU/ha), a species-rich pasture (74 species) with vegetation within the plot (12.5 ha) belonging to both a fertile and a poor type; the third one (R) exploited by rotational grazing at higher stocking density (1.56 LU/ha) an old hay grassland (7.7ha), less species diverse (31 species). Milk of 2 consecutive milkings was collected and cheese manufactured (27 cheeses overall) during 3 days in succession in early June (P1), early July (P2) and late August (P3). Small size Cantal type cheeses (10 kg) were produced with full-fat unpasteurised milk. Tanker milk FA composition was determined by gas chromatography according to Ferlay et al. (2008). A panel of 10 trained panellists analysed the cheeses after 3 months ripening for a precise description of the chesse texture and colour (8 attributes). The analyses of milk and cheese are described in Verdier-Metz et al. (2005). The data were treated by analysis of variance to assess the differences among feeding systems, periods and their interaction.
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Results and discussion Milk fat, protein and calcium content increased during the season because of the evolution of the stage of lactation (Table 1). Milk protein was significantly lower in E (32.9 g/l on average) than R (34.1 g/l) and H (34.1 g/l), especially during P2 and P3, probably because of the lower grass quality or low energy intake. Consequently E milk had higher fat/protein ratios as compared to R and H (1.23, 1.14 and 1.13, respectively), mainly because the ratio with E increased during the season. The high urea content observed in R (436 mg/l) revealed a high nitrogen intake. Milk phosphorous was higher in E than in H milk, with intermediate values for R milk (0.81, 0.78 and 0.79 g/l, respectively).
Table 1: Seasonal variation of milk and cheese characteristics according to diet.
E P1 P2 P3 P1 Milk characteristics Fat (g/l) 38.9 39.3 43.5 37.0 Protein (g/l) 33.2 32.2 33.4 33.0 Fat/Protein 1.17 1.22 1.30 1.12 Somatac Cell Count (*1000/ml) 309 499 306 436 Urea (mg/l) 368 383 363 402 Phosphorous (g/l) 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.79 Calcium (g/l) 0.99 0.99 1.02 0.98 Cheese characteristics pH 5.21 5.21 5.17 5.26 DM (%) 61.4 62.2 60.7 61.0 Fat/DM 52.7 52.8 53.9 52.2 Calcium (% of DM) 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.61 Phosphorous (% of DM) 0.43 0.44 0.40 0.42 Clorides (% of DM) 1.63 1.77 1.90 1.77 Strength (N/cm) for 50% def. 4.81 5.19 4.23 4.53 Yellow index (b) 22.8 22.6 19.9 21.6 Cheese sensory properties (0-10) Firm texture 5.43 4.93 5.00 4.86 Soft texture 3.96 3.81 4.35 4.28 Melting texture 4.60 4.49 4.80 4.49 Adhesive texture 2.43 4.02 3.81 2.72 Paste colour 7.24 6.36 5.64 6.14 SEM = Standard Error of the Mean T = treatment; P = period. R P2 39.1 34.3 1.14 449 427 0.79 1.02 5.28 61.5 51.6 0.62 0.45 1.70 6.11 23.1 5.14 4.34 4.68 3.00 5.93 P3 40.4 35.3 1.14 279 480 0.78 1.05 5.22 60.5 51.6 0.62 0.44 1.87 6.21 22.1 5.28 5.23 4.27 3.55 6.72 P1 36.6 31.8 1.15 232 312 0.79 1.00 5.34 62.6 52.2 0.67 0.47 1.53 6.40 17.9 5.44 4.32 4.40 2.69 4.45 H P2 38.9 33.9 1.15 316 343 0.83 1.04 5.30 62.6 51.6 0.66 0.47 1.80 7.84 18.0 5.53 4.19 4.19 3.45 3.54 P3 40.6 36.5 1.11 342 288 0.82 1.09 5.22 61.2 50.6 0.66 0.47 1.90 7.32 15.7 6.50 4.93 3.80 3.71 4.25 0.46 0.31 0.01 216 11.9 0.01 0.09 0.018 0.28 0.21 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.30 0.51 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.13 0.05 SEM T ns * *** ns *** * ns ns ns *** *** *** ns ** *** *** * ** ns *** Effect P *** *** ns * ns ns ** ns ns ns ns * * ns *** ns * ns *** *** TxP ns * * * * ns ns ns ns t ns ** ns ns t ** ns ns ns ***
As far as milk FA profile was concerned (figure 1), the main saturated FA (myristic and palmitic acids) and the sum of saturated FA (SFA) were higher in H milk than in E and R (65.3, 62.4 and 70.7 g/100 g, for E, R and H respectively), as reported also by Chilliard et al. (2007). On the contrary, the sum of MUFA (29.6, 29.6 and 23.8 g/100 g for E, R and H, respectively) and PUFA (5.3, 5.3 and 3.3 g/100 g for E, R and H, respectively) were higher in grass-fed milk (E and R). For grazing cows, no differences were observed between E and R for SFA, MUFA and PUFA but milk from pasture during P1 had a lower SFA and a higher MUFA content because of the earlier phenological stage of ingested grasses in P1. In E milk, the higher content of -linolenic acid (0.94, 0.73, 0.72 g/100 for E, R and H, respectively; P<0.001) could indicate a lower rumen bio-hydrogenation of PUFA as suggested for species-rich pastures (Chilliard et al., 2007) or a higher ingested linolenic acid amount from the grass linked to animal selection. The E milk also had the richest content of stearic acid (11.5, 9.5 and 7. 7 g/100g of FA for E, R and H, respectively), which probably came from mobilisation of the animals fat that may have occurred in E, at least in P3. The milk content of rumenic acid (1.6, 2.2 and 0.6 g/100 g for E, R and H, respectively; P<0.001) and vaccenic acid (3.8, 4.3 and 1.1 g/100 g for E, R and H, respectively; P<0.001), its precursor in the mammary gland (Chilliard et al., 2007), were higher in R than E milk, especially in P2 and P3 when animals could exploit vegetative re-growth in R while more aged phytomass was available in E. For rumenic, vaccenic acids and PUFA overall, the interaction between treatment and period was significant (P<0.001). The content of such fatty acids decreased slightly or remained stable during the season in R, while it decreased sharply in E, probably because of a combined effect of herbage phenologic stage and cow grazing selection. In fact in R plot cows could exploit herbage at vegetative stage all over the season. On the contrary, continuous grazing management (E) allowed herbage phenology development and consequently forage quality decrease. In P1, the cows managed in E plot were free to select more appetising species at vegetative stage, of high palatability and quality (Coppa et al., 2009).
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73.0 71.0 69.0 67.0 65.0 63.0 61.0 59.0 14.0 13.5 13.0 12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0 10.5 10.0 34.0 32.0 30.0 28.0 26.0 24.0 22.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0
SFA
T:*** P:*** I:*
34.0 32.0 30.0 28.0 26.0 24.0 22.0 23.0 22.0 21.0 20.0 19.0 18.0 17.0
MUFA
T:*** P:*** I:**
7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
PUFA
T:*** P:** I:***
C14:0
T:*** P:* I:*
c9-C18:1 T:*** P:** I:***
C18:2n-6 T:*** P:*** I:*** 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 C18:3n-3 T:*** P:*** I:*** 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 c9t11-CLA T:*** P:*** I:*** 2.4 1.9 1.4 0.9 0.4
C16:0
T:*** P:*** I:*
t11-C18:1 T:*** P:*** I:*** 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 c9-C18:1/C16:0 T:*** P:*** I:** 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50
C18:0 T :*** P:ns I:ns
P1
P2
P3 E
P1
P2 R
P3 H
P1
P2
P3
Figure 1: Seasonal variation of milk fatty acid profile according to diet. E = continuous grazing system; R = rotational grazing system; H = Hay-based diet; T = treatment; P = period; I = interaction TxP.
During P2 and P3, the re-growth of the already grazed patches was not sufficient to cover animal requirements so that cows also had to exploit mature patches which resulted in decreased quality and consequently PUFA intake. The oleic/palmitic acids ratio, which is a good indicator of milk fat melting point was higher in E and R milk than in H milks (0.84, 0.78 and 0.54 for E, R and H, respectively; figure 1). Cheese pH and DM contents did not vary with treatment and period, while fat/DM ratio was higher in E than in R and H cheese (53.1, 51.8 and 51.5 for E, R and H, respectively), because of the higher fat/protein ratio in E. The trend of calcium and phosphorous in cheese was similar to the one in milk (Ca: 0.58, 062, 0.66% and P: 0.42, 0.44, 0.47 % in E, R and H in cheese, respectively). The panel test showed that H cheeses were firmer (5.8 for H and 5.1 for E and R) and less melting (4.6, 4.5 and 4.1 scores for E, R and H, respectively) than E and R ones. In parallel, on average, the instrumental texture measurement indicated that a 7.19 N/cm force on H wheels was necessary to obtain 50% deformation of the samples while 4.74 and 5.62 N/cm were sufficient on E and R respectively. The firmer texture of hay-based diet vs pasture cheeses had been already observed by Martin et al. (2005), in relation to the higher melting point of H milk fat. Indeed, the proportions of FA having a high melting point (C14:0; C16:0; C18:0) and a low melting point (MUFA and PUFA) were higher and lower in H milks, respectively. The higher Ca and P content of the cheese from pastures (E and R) and the higher fat/DM content of E cheese could have re-enforced the effect of milk FA composition. Although the texture of E and R cheese was similar on average during the season, a significant interaction between period and treatment was observed: during P1, E cheeses were firmer than R, while reverse results were observed during P3. The same trend was also observed for milk PUFA and for the oleic acid/palmitic acid ratio (results not shown). E cheese also had a softer texture than R and H (4.0, 4.6 and 4.5 for E, R and H, respectively; table 1) which could be related to fat/DM ratio of E cheeses.
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In average, the paste colour evaluated visually by the panel and instrumentally (b index) was less yellow for H than for pasture cheese. During the season the panel scored 6.4, 6.3 and 4.1 the colour of E, R and H cheese respectively, confirming literature data (Martin et al., 2005). Pasture cheese yellowness was mainly due to carotenoids content of fresh grass, especially -carotene (Nozire et al., 2005), which is degraded during herbage drying and hay conservation. When cheese colour was evaluated by the panel, a significant interaction was found between treatment and period: R cheese colour score was constant over the season while it decreased in E. Instrumental measurements confirmed such result (b parameter; tabel 1). Interaction could be explained by the forage content of -carotene which decreased with sward maturity, especially in E, while cows could always exploit better quality swards in R.
Conclusions The experiment confirmed that cheese texture and colour are affected by cows diet (hay vs pasture) and that milk FA profile may affect texture. Cheese texture and colour were less sensitive to the combined effects of grazing management and botanical composition. Nevertheless, interactions between the grazing system and the period of exploitation had an influence on cheese characteristics and milk FA composition. Differences of sward phenology and animal feeding behaviour between grazing systems were proposed to interpret these interactions. Rotational grazing resulted in dairy products with a stable FA profile and colour during the season, while continuous grazing was more variable, according to herbage maturity and grazing selection. Acknowledgements Research funded by the French Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries on the occasion of a CASDAR project managed by the Ple Fromager AOC Massif Central The authors thank J. Lepetit (UR Qualit des Produits Animaux - INRA Clermont-Fd/Theix) for Instron rheological measurements. References
Bugaud, C., Buchin, S., Hauwuy, A. & Coluon, J.B. (2002) Texture et flaveur du fromage selon la nature du pturage: cas du fromage dAbondance. INRA Productions Animales, 15 (1), 31-36. Chilliard, Y., Glasser, F., Ferlay, A., Bernard, L., Rouel, J., & Doreau, M. (2007). Diet, rumen biohydrogenation and nutritional quality of cow and goat milk fat. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 109, 828-855. Coppa, M., Farruggia, A., Pradel, P., Lombardi, G. & Martin B. (2009). How does grazing management influence selection and foraging behaviour of dairy cows on upland pastures?. 15th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network. 7-9 October, Les Diablerets, Switzerland. Falchero, L., Coppa M., Fossi, A., Lombardi, G., Lonati, M., Cavallero, A. (2008). Variation of milk fatty acid th composition depending on the alpine vegetation type grazed by dairy cows. 5 IDF symposium on cheese ripening. 9-13 March, Bern, Switzerland. Ferlay A., Agabriel C., Sibra C., Journal C., Martin B., Chilliard Y. 2008. Tanker milk variability of fatty acids according to farm feeding and husbandry practices in a French semi-mountain area. Dairy Science and Technology. 88: 193215. Martin, B., Verdier-Metz, I., Buchin, S., Hurtaud C. & Culon, J.B. (2005). How do nature of forages and pasture diversity influence the sensory proprieties of dairy livestock products?. Animal Science, 81, 205-212. Verdier-Metz, I., Martin, B., Pradel, P., Albouy, H., Hulin, S., Montel, M.C.,. & Coulon, J.B. (2005). Effect of grasssilage vs. hay diet on the characteristics of cheese: interactions with the cheese model. Lait, 85, 469-480.
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Comparing quality characteristics of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese from traditional and intensive production systems
1
Tornamb G.1*, Di Grigoli A.1, Alicata M.-L.1, De Pasquale C.2, Bonanno A.1 Dipartimento di Scienze Entomologiche, Fitopatologiche, Microbiologiche agrarie e Zootecniche, Sezione di Produzioni Animali, Universit di Palermo, Italy 2 Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-forestali, Universit di Palermo, Italy *gtornambe@unipa.it
Abstract The Caciocavallo Palermitano is a typical stretched curd (pasta filata) cheese, made mainly in the Palermo area, in the Western Sicily, from cow milk. The aim of this investigation was to verify the influence of the on-farm production system (traditional vs. intensive) on some qualitative characteristics of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese, with particular regard to fatty acid (FA) profile. On June 2008, 1month aged cheeses were sampled from 6 traditional farms (TRD) and 5 intensive farms (INT). In TRD farms, local cow breeds (Cinisara, Modicana or Siciliana) were fed pasture-based diet and cheeses were manufactured using artisanal wood tools by following the traditional technique. The INT farms were characterized for rearing Brown or Holstein cows, fed mostly hay and concentrate, and for implementing a more advanced and rapid cheese-making process with the modern steel tools. Chemical and physical cheese characteristics showed high variability within each farming system, and did not significantly differ between TRD and INT farms. Cheeses from TRD farms, compared to INT cheeses, have a higher amount of unsaturated FA (P<0.01), due to C18:1, C18:3n3, and especially to C18:2c9t11 (CLA, 1.14 vs. 0.66 g/100 g FA; P<0.05). Moreover, TRD cheeses were characterized by a higher content in odd and branched chain FA (P<0.05). The results of this study highlight an influence of farming system on FA composition of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese. Key words: typical cheese, local breed, production system, cheese fatty acids Introduction The presence of the Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese in the markets of Palermo, in the Western Sicily, has been well documented since the 1412, and some papers dated 1500 and 1679 claim it was largely used in Palermo inside diets of religious communities and noble families (Bonanno, 2006). The Caciocavallo Palermitano is a typical stretched curd (pasta filata) cheese, produced with cow whole milk coming from both early morning and late evening milking; it has a firm paste, and a characteristic parallelepiped shape. The further the cheese progresses in the maturing process, the more its distinctive straw-coloured hue tends to ochre (Bonanno et al., 2004). The Caciocavallo Palermitano is historically bound to the inland farming cows of indigenous breeds, especially Cinisara, which have been able to exploit productively the natural pasture located in the hills or even in the steepest areas of the island (Bonanno et al., 2004; Bonanno, 2006). Therefore, this cheese is produced traditionally in small size farms, where local cows are fed at pasture, according to an artisanal manufacturing procedure based on the use of wood tools and the action of native microflora. In the last years, the agriculture and animal production in the area of Palermo has undergone an increase, and this dairy product is obtained also in more intensive farming systems; here, high milk-producing cows of selected allochthonous breeds are reared intensively and, in compliance with the EU rules regarding the requirements of dairy factories, a more advanced cheese making process is adopted, using stainless steel equipment and, sometimes, commercial starter culture. This paper shows the first results of a preliminary investigation, that is a part of a project focusing on this typical Sicilian cheese, not yet enough studied, carried out on a group of farms producing Caciocavallo Palermitano. The main goal of this investigation was to evaluate the physical-chemical and nutritional quality of the Caciocavallo Palermitano, with particular regard to fatty acid (FA) composition, by considering the on-farm production systems, traditional or intensive. In the traditional systems, autochthonous breeds are fed mainly with natural pasture and cheese is made with traditional wood-based equipment, whereas in the intensive system, milking-specialized cows are fed mainly with hay and concentrate and the newer steel-based hardware is used for cheese manufacture. Material and methods On June 2008, 1-month aged cheeses were sampled from 6 traditional farms (TRD) and 5 intensive farms (INT) located in the typical area of Caciocavallo Palermitano production. In TRD farms, local breeds (Cinisara, Modicana or Siciliana) were fed pasture-based diet and cheeses were manufactured using artisanal wood tools by following the traditional technique. The INT farms were characterized for rearing Brown or Holstein cows, fed mostly hay and concentrate, and for implementing a more advanced
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and rapid cheese-making process with the modern steel tools. Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese making process lasts two days; in the first day, raw milk from 24h is added at 35/37C with lamb rennet paste in a wood vat (tina) (Fig. 1a). After 40-50 min, coagulated curd is broken by a wood tool called rotula (Fig. 1a) and then separated from whey using also the pressure exerted by a traditional wood tool (cisca) (Fig. 1b). Successively, the curd is cut in big slices and placed on a plane made with natural reeds in order to eliminate the residual whey. The curd slices are thereafter relocated in the tina and covered by hot whey from ricotta cheese fabrication (Fig. 1c) for about 3h. At the end of cooking, the cheesemaker presses the curd for drawing the whey (Fig. 1d and 1e), and hangs it on a stick (Fig. 1f) until the following day. In this time, there is a great activity of lactic microbial flora that acidifies the caseous mass. During the second day, the acidified mass is cut in little slices of about 100-200 g, according to the streech lines, and located in a truncated conical wood vat (piddiaturi) in which the mass is covered by hot whey from ricotta fabrication and so streched by a wood pale (maciliatuma) (Fig. 1g). At the end, air and residual whey are eliminated by typical manual work (accuppatina) (Fig. 1h) and the cheese is located in a wood form (tavuleri) (Fig. 1i) where the cheese take the typical parallelepiped form. In the third day, cheese is dropped in a saturated brine where is kept for 1 day/kg. Caciocavallo Palermitano can be aged from 2 to 4 months for the semi-ripened type, or more than 4 months for ripened cheese. All cited wood tools are replaced by steel equipment in INT farms.
Figure 1. Phases of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese manufacture.
Cheese samples were analysed for determining dry matter (DM), fat, total and soluble nitrogen (N), ash, NaCl, Ca and P (MAF, 1986). Colour (L*, a*, b*) was measured by a Minolta chroma meter (CR-300) and resistance to compression (compressive stress, N/mm2) by an Instron 5000 equipment. FA were methylated in lyophilized cheese. FA methyl esters were recovered in 1.5 mL hexane. Samples were injected by auto-sampler into a HP 6890 GC system equipped with a flame ionization detector (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara CA 95051, United States). Methyl esters from all samples were separated by using a 100 m length, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 m fused Mega10 capillary column (CP-Sil 88, Chrompack, Middelburg, The Netherlands). Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) hexane mix solution C4-C24 (Supelco, Bellafonte, PA, USA) was used in order to indentify FA from C4:0 to C24:1. The identification of conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) was performed by using commercial mixture of cis- and trans 9,11 and 10,12-ocdecadienoic acid metyl esters (Sigma-Aldrich, Milano, Italy). All the analytical procedures for FA quantification were performed in accordance with the method previously described by Loor et al. (2005). Statistical analysis was a one-way ANOVA (SAS 9.1.2) comparing TRD and INT farms.
Results and discussion Chemical and physical cheese characteristics (Table 1) showed high variability within each farming system, and did not significantly differ between TRD and INT farms. Nevertheless, TRD cheeses showed a slightly higher DM content and a higher resistance in compression test (0.20 vs. 0.14 N/mm2 of compressive stress at 40% of strain), which seem to indicate how traditional wood equipment and native microflora are linked to a more firm curd. TRD cheeses showed also a higher fat value, even if not significant, probably related to a lower milk yield. Indeed, in comparison with higher milk-producing specialized breeds, cows of autochthonous breeds reared in traditional farming systems are less productive, also because their feeding is based on the almost exclusive exploitation of natural pasture, often not supplemented by concentrate at milking time (Bonanno et al., 2006).
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TRD cheeses showed a better FA composition if compared with INT cheeses (Table 2). Indeed, cheeses from INT farms had a higher incidence in saturated FA (SFA), particularly due to the percentage of C16:0. Instead, TRD cheeses were richer in unsaturated FA (UFA), as consequence of higher but not significantly C18:1c9 and C18:3n3, and of significantly higher C18:2c9t11 (CLA) which was almost twice as high as INT cheeses. This higher amount in UFA and CLA in cheeses from TRD farms accords with the enrichment in -linolenic acid, CLA, MUFA and PUFA contents observed in milk from cows when pass from preserved feeds to a pasture-based diets (Chilliard et al., 2001). It is interesting to underline that TRD cheeses were characterized by a higher content in odd and branched chain FA (OBCFA), considered beneficial for human health (Banni et al., 2002), in line with Vlaeminck et al. (2006) that report an increase of OBCFA amount in milk when dietary forage content increases. Finally, TRD cheeses were characterized by a slightly lower and more favourable n6/n3 ratio. The lower atherogenic index (AI) of TRD cheeses indicates a less detrimental effect of fat for human health. Table1. Means of cheeses chemical (g/100 g DM) and physical characteristics.
INT DM, % Fat Total N Soluble N Ash NaCl Ca P
2
TRD 40.12 7.51 1.17 8.38 4.34 1.46 1.15 0.20 79.38 4.88 23.86
2
SEM 2.58 0.35 0.12 0.52 0.39 0.07 0.09 0.04 1.66 0.32 1.41
RMSE 8.91 7.70 0.42 1.82 1.36 0.26 0.28 0.12 5.74 1.11 4.91
37.45 7.93 1.11 8.74 4.65 1.50 1.39 0.14 80.96 4.83 23.26
CS 40%, N/mm2 L*, Lightness a*, red index b*, yellow index
Not significant differences were found for all parameters; Compressive stress at 40% of strain.
Table 2. Cheese fatty acid composition (g/100 g FA).

INT SFA MUFA PUFA UFA UFA/SFA C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C16:1tr9 C16:1c9 C18:0 C18:1c9 C18 :1t11 C18:1c11 C18:2n6 C18:2c9t11 C18:3n3 C20 :5n3 C22 :6n3 n3 n6 n6/n3 Total trans OBCFA 1 AI 25.56 4.53 30.10 0.44 3.41 11.56 31.03 0.19 1.67 10.09 19.34 2.30 0.15 2.33 0.67 1.05 0.02 0.04 1.27 2.59 2.40 2.64 4.73 2.68 TRD 28.06 5.44 33.06 0.50 2.98 10.59 26.48 0.28 1.52 12.16 20.96 2.98 0.25 1.94 1.15 1.39 0.08 0.08 1.74 2.54 1.54 3.65 5.22 2.16 SEM 0.88 0.53 0.68 0.02 0.22 0.35 0.68 0.02 0.08 0.85 0.85 0.54 0.07 0.16 0.15 0.23 0.01 0.01 0.28 0.18 0.32 0.60 0.12 0.10 RMSE 2.10 1.25 1.60 0.04 0.52 0.83 1.60 0.04 0.19 1.65 2.00 1.27 0.16 0.38 0.37 0.55 0.03 0.03 0.65 0.44 0.76 1.40 0.29 0.26 P>f + ns ** ** ns + ** ** ns + ns ns ns ns * ns ** * ns ns + ns * **
Lauric Miristic Palmitic Palmitoleic Stearic Oleic Transvaccenic Vaccenic Linoleic Rumenic CLA -Linolenic EPA DHA
ns = P>0.10; + P0.10 ; * P 0.05; ** P 0.01; 1 Atherogenic index, calculated according to Ulbricht and Southgate (1991).
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Conclusions Due to high variability emerged among producing farms, the farming system did not affected the chemical and physical cheese characteristics. Nevertheless, in spite of the large variability, the results of this study highlight an influence of farming system on FA composition of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese. Particularly, the traditional production systems, associated to cheesemaking with traditional wood equipement, seem to lead to an enrichment of cheese with unsaturated FA, CLA and OBCFA, known to be beneficial for human health. On the other hand, these peculiar characteristics appear to be linked to a feeding regime based on fresh forage and high forage:concentrate ratio. Further researches have been planned in controlled experimental conditions in order to distinguish the proper contribution of breed, feeding type and cheese making technology on main quality traits, including sensorial characteristics, of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese. This research was supported by Regione Siciliana, Assessorato Agricoltura e Foreste, project PROLACTIS References
Banni S., Murru E., Angioni E., Carta G., Melis M.P. 2002. Conjugated linoleic acid isomers (CLA): good for everything? Sci. Aliments 22(4):371-380. Bonanno A., Di Grigoli A., Tornamb G., Formoso B, Alicata M.L., Procida G., Manzi P., Marconi S., Pizzoferrato L. th 2004. Effects of feeding regime on nutritional and aromatic characteristics of Caciocavallo Palermitano cheese. 6 International Meeting on Mountain Cheeses. Ragusa, 1-2 June, Cheese Art 2004, CoRFiLaC, 43-50. Bonanno A. 2006. I prodotti caseari di qualit della Provincia di Palermo. I formaggi tradizionali. Capitolo 5.2. in Mangio sicuro mangio meglio, qualit alimentare qualit della vita. Provincia Regionale di Palermo, Assessorato Agricoltura, Caccia e pesca, pp 151-288. www.provincia.palermo.it/provpalermo/allegati/575/Parte_5.pdf Chilliard Y., Ferlay A., Doreau M. 2001. Effect of different types of forages, animal fat or marine oils in cows diet on milk fat secretion and composition, especially conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Liv. Prod. Sci. 70:31-48. MAF (Ministero Agricoltura e Foreste), 1986. Decreto ministeriale 21/4/1986. Metodi ufficiali di analisi dei formaggi (Italian official methods of analysis on cheeses). Suppl. G.U. n. 229, 2/10/1986. Di Grigoli A., Bonanno A., Cifuni G.F., Tornamb G., Alicata M.L. 2008. Effetto del regime alimentare delle bovine sulla composizione in acidi grassi del formaggio Caciocavallo Palermitano. Scienza e Tecnica Lattiero-casearia, 59 (6): 457-461. Loor J.J., Ueda K., Ferlay A., Chillard Y., Doreau M. 2005. Intestinal flow and digestibility of trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) in dairy cows fed a high-concentrate diet supplemented with fish oil, linseed oil, or sunflower oil. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 119:203-225. SAS, 2004. SAS/STAT Qualification Tools Users Guide (version 9.1.2). Statistical Analysis System Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA. Ulbricht T.L.V., Southgate D.A.T. 1991. Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors. Lancet 338:985-992. Vlaeminck B., Fievez V., Cabrita A.R.J., Fonseca A.J.M., Dewhurst R.J., 2006. Factors affecting odd- and branchedchain fatty acids in milk: A review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 131:(3-4)389-417.
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Landscape qualities as a potential for alpine agriculture

Bele B.1*, Sickel H.1,4, Lunnan T.1, Norderhaug A.1, sterlie M.2, Abrahamsen R.K.3, Nilsen L.S.1, Ohlson M.4 1 Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research (Bioforsk), The Grassland and Landscape Division, 7500 Stjrdal, Norway 2 Sr-Trndelag University College, Department of Food Technology, 7004 Trondheim, Norway 3 Norwegian University of Life Science (UMB), Department of chemistry, biotechnology and food science, 1432 s, Norway 4 Norwegian University of Life Science (UMB), Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, 1432 s, Norway * bolette.bele@bioforsk.no
Abstract The landscape and the old semi-natural habitats shaped by alpine farming represent important potentials both for local farmers and rural development. The projects referred focus on local food production with added values, which represent picturesque landscapes, high biodiversity, and demanded food quality. Local food products such as sour cream, brown whey goats cheese, cow milk, mutton and beef are analyzed for specific sensory properties, fatty acid composition and the amount of antioxidants. Plant preferences among the livestock, botanical composition of pastures and management effects of grazing are also investigated. Preliminary results show higher levels of -3 fatty acids, CLA and antioxidants in milk and meat products with attractive sensory properties. These results are likely caused by distinctive properties of alpine pasture plants. Other Bioforsk projects show that production of high quality food products in addition may maintain high biodiversity and mountain summer farming landscapes, and that these added values make it possible to sell the food as labeled products, thus strengthening the farmers economy. Keywords: added values, alpine farming, local food, terroir-effects, biodiversity Introduction The alpine summer farming systems was of utmost importance for the traditional Norwegian farming, but today summer farming has lost most of its agricultural and economical importance. The process of summer farm abandonment started about hundred years ago and has accelerated since the 1950-ies. Today vast areas of alpine grassland are overgrown, resulting in loss of pastures, fragmentation of valuable habitats, local plant extinction and endangered species and vegetation types. Cultural monuments, traditional buildings as well as local traditions based on ecological knowledge and sustainable use of natural resources are also lost. However, in recent years more attention has been given to the added values like beautiful rural landscapes and biodiversity. Today's consumers want their food to contribute to their health (Mollet and Rolland 2002) by for instance unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants considered as important nutraceuticals on account of many health benefits (Valko et al. 2007). In addition, todays consumers want the food to have a good story and high ethical as well as ecological standard. The potentials for local farmers to document and use these added values in marketing and branding of their products, and thereby get a higher price in the market, are so far utilized only to a small extent in Norway. The production costs in Norwegian mountain areas are high, and agriculture thus needs to produce food with added value and demanded quality, making the consumers willing to pay a higher price. The objective of several Bioforsk projects is therefore to document added values of food production, terroir-effects (i.e. specific chemical compounds in mountain plants which go into milk or meat when grazed) and demanded food quality. In two ongoing projects in the alpine region sour cream, brown whey cheese from goats milk and whey, cow milk, mutton and beef are analyzed for specific sensory properties, fatty acid composition and the amount of antioxidants. Some of the preliminary results are presented here. Material and methods
Study areas The studies are carried out in two representative Norwegian summer-farming areas, Valdres in SouthEastern Norway, and the valley Budalen in Central Norway. Both study sites are situated in the northern boreal zone (Moen 1999) (at altitude 600-900 m a.s.l in Budalen and 950 m a.s.l. in Valdres). The bedrock in Budalen consists mainly of micacedous gneiss and mica schist while phyllite is the most common bedrock in the study area in Valdres. The high weathering capacity of these bedrocks gives soils of intermediate or good nutritional quality for plants. The climate in both regions belongs to the transitional
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section, between the weak oceanic and the weak continental section (Moen 1999) characterized by an annual precipitation of 500-800 mm, frost in late spring and early autumn and low winter temperatures. The landscape pattern shows a mosaic of open grasslands, intermediate and rich mires, grazed birch woodlands and heathlands. In addition some of the woodlands in Valdres consist of spruce. Both areas are influenced by long and continuous summer farming practice and characterized by high species diversity. Today, 20 farmers produce on farm dairy products from cow and goat in Budalen, while Valdres is the region in Norway with the highest number of summer farms, approximately 260 with milk production. The production period is from early July to early September. Subalpine/alpine pastures are the main fodder source in the summer farming period, but all farmers use supplementary feeding consisting of concentrates in different quantities (3 kg - 7.5 kg per day). In Valdres they also use infield pastures for grazing at night. The test products are produced at the summer farms by the farmers. The reference product is industrially produced (TINE) based on different types of pastures, including high productive, species poor pastures and supplementary feeding by concentrates. In Valdres the summer farming landscape is also used for beef production by steers. The steers graze fenced in outfields nearby a summer farm. In the autumn the steers are slaughtered after only a short period on pastures down in the valley.
Field methods Field data for Budalen is so far obtained for two seasons (2007 and 2008). The vegetation of the pastures was recorded and classified using the method presented by Fremstad (1997). In the last week before milk samples (for production of the test products) were taken in the middle of August, herbs and grass samples from pastures were collected by cutting quadrates (10 x 10 cm) in grazed areas. Leaves and bark were also collected in the goat pastures, and mixed with grass and herbs. Collected plants were frozen (dry ice) and transported together with samples of sour cream, goat milk and brown whey cheese from each summer farm to the laboratory. Also in Valdres data from two seasons (2007 and 2008) have been collected. The area use and grazing preferences of the dairy cattle in the outfields are investigated by GPS studies of the cattle (Sickel et al. 2003) combined with aerial photo interpretation of the vegetation, field observations and microhistological analysis of faecal samples. The composition of the grazed vegetation is also documented by pin-point and plot analysis. For analyses of beef, samples from 4 animals have been taken in 2007 and 2008. Products and analysis methods Sour creams from two summer farms in Budalen, Forollhogna with both old and modern dairy breeds and Tejavollen with modern dairy breed (Norwegian Red, NR) were analysed for composition and content of a range of fatty acids and carotenoids, and content of total polyphenols. Sour cream from TINE factory was used as a reference. Brown whey cheeses, from another summer farm in Budalen and from TINE factory (reference product) were also analysed for composition and content of a range of fatty acids. In Valdres unpasteurized milk from one summer farm was analysed for composition and content of a range of fatty acids and carotenoids. On this summer farm milk-samples were taken from ten animals, once in July and once in August. All the individuals belonged to the breed Norwegian Red (NR) and calved during the winter/early spring. Pooled samples from the milk tank were taken from the same farm also in March. At this time of the year the herd is inside in the cow barn and fed with concentrates and grass-silage. The steer beef samples of subcutaneous adipose tissue and the longissimus dorsi muscle were analyzed for fatty acid composition. In the Budalen study extractions of lipids and water soluble bioactive substance in sour cream, brown whey cheese and pasture were extracted as described by Bligh & Dyer (1959), with slight modifications. Fatty acid methyl esters were analysed on an Agilent Technologies gas chromatograph (with a flame ionization detector). The content of individual fatty acid was expressed as percents of the total. Carotenoid composition and content were determined by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). Total phenolic contents (TPC) were estimated colourimetrically using the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Sensory analyses were carried out by ranking according to ISO-standard 8587 (ISO 2006). Differences in means were detected using one-way and two-way ANOVA. Statistical significance on 5% basis (P<0.05) between groups was analysed by Students t-test. In the Valdres study fatty acid composition of milk was analysed by the method used by Taugbl et al. (2008). Carotenoids in milk were determined by an almost identical method described by Brevik et al. (2004). Results and discussion Common and often grazed species are Agrostis capillaris, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Deschampsia cespitosa, Avenella flexuosa, Festuca rubra ssp. rubra, Phleum alpinum, Carex bigelowii, C.nigra, C. flava, C. pallescens, C. panacea, C. vaginata, Thalictrum alpinum, Viola biflora, Veronica chamaedrys,
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Leontodon autumnalis, Campanula rotundifolia, Astragalus alpinus ssp. alpinus, Alchemilla alpina, Galium boreale, Gentiana nivalis, Lotus corniculatus, Parnassia palustris, Bistorta vivipara and Vaccinium myrtillus. The red-listed species Botrychium boreale, Pseudorchis albida and Gentianella campestris ssp.campestris are also found in the pastures. Salix-species as S.glauca, S.myrsinifolia, S. phylicifolia, S. arbuscula, S.lanata and S.lapponum are common and grazed, especially by goats. Fatty acids and carotenoids in dairy products have been recognized as potential tracers of animal feeding regimes (Martin et al. 2005) and quality properties are possibly connected to the botanical composition of subalpine/alpine pastures in different regions. Sour cream from the two summer farms in Budalen and from TINE did contain between 0,6% and 0,9% -linolenic acid (C18:3). The amount of -linolenic acid in the pasture was about 56.0%.The sour cream from one of the summer farms, Forollhogna, had significantly more of the beneficial polyunsaturated fatty acid (C18:3) (results not presented here). This result may be explained by differences in use of supplementary feeding of concentrates (7.5 kg versus 3 kg), differences in plant composition of the pastures, differences in grazing preferences or perhaps differences in metabolism in the two herds (the modern, moderate yielding dairy breed Norwegian Red (NR) at Tejavollen versus low yielding Norwegian dairy breeds in addition to NR at Forollhogna). Only small amount of CLA is generally found in the pasture. However, sour cream from Forollhogna had nearly the double amount of CLA (0,5%) compared to sour cream from Tejavollen (0,3%), and the industrial produced sour cream from TINE (0,25%). Amounts of polyphenols and carotenoids in sour cream and pastures from the mountain area were also compared. The more polyphenols and carotenoids in the grazing land the more were found in the sour creams. In addition mountain sour creams from the two summer farms and TINE factory sour cream were analysed in a sensory ranking test. No significant differences (P<0.05) in preference between the three sour creams were found. Goat cheese from Budalen contained significantly more of both -linolenic acid and conjungated linolenic acid (CLA) than the cheese from TINE (results not presented here). However, in a sensory ranking test the brown whey cheese from TINE was preferred before the cheese from Budalen. Some of the results on fatty acid composition in milk and beef from Valdres are presented in Table 1. The amounts of -linolenic acid, CLA, and unsaturated acids were much higher in milk from the summer farm than in tank milk from the farm in March. The same pattern was observed in the recorded antioxidants (Table 2). The content of unsaturated fatty acids, CLA and -linolenic acid was also high in the steer meat. Low content of saturated fatty acids and high content of CLA in grass-fed beef is found also in other investigations, e.g. French et al. (2000). Table 1. Mean values 1 SD (g/100g fatty acids) of alfa-linolenic acid, CLA, saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids in unpasteurized milk from the summer farm in Valdres (n=9-10 cows) and from the main farm (n=2 samples from milk tank) in March 2007. Samples of steer meat (n=8) from Valdres 2007 and 2008.
Valdres, July Valdres, Aug Valdres March Steer meat -linolenic acid 0.70 0.08 0.68 0.04 0.43 0.00 1,20 0.12 CLA 1.03 0.31 1.13 0.28 0.58 0.03 2,3 1,3 Saturated fatty acids 53.6 4.9 53.8 4.1 64.7 1.1 47,0 5,1 Unsaturated fatty acids 37.2 4.6 36.9 3.8 27.8 1,0 53,1 5,0
Table 2. Mean values 1 SD (n=9-10 cows) of some antioxidants in unpasteurized milk from the summer farm in Valdres in July and August, and from the farm (n=2 samples from milk tank) in March 2007.
Valdres, jul Valdres, aug Valdres, mar lutein (M) 0.08 0.024 0.136 0.027 0.017 0.001 zeaxanthin (M ) 0.011 0.007 0.024 0.005 ND -caroten (M ) 0.268 0.084 0.373 0.156 0.259 0.013 -tocopherol (mg/L ) 0.700 0.181 1.026 0.185 0.509 0.009 C-vit (mg/L) 0.797 0.244 0.943 0.280 0.703 0.223
Summing up So far, these ongoing projects show interesting tendencies which will be further investigated. Milk products and beef produced on species-rich pastures in the alpine summer farming areas of Budalen and Valdres seem to have special properties, probably due to vegetation types and composition of plants species in mountain pastures. Other projects that both Bioforsk and Sr-Trndelag University College are involved in, show that such food production based on outlaying land can maintain high biodiversity and summer farming landscapes, and strengthen the economy of Norwegian mountain farming.
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References
Bligh, E.G. and Dyer, W.J. 1959. A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification, Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology 37: 911-117 Brevik, A., Andersen, L.F., Karlsen, A. Trygg, K.U., Blomhoff, R., and Drevon, C.A. 2007. Six carotenoids in plasma used to assess recommended intake of fruits and vegetables in controlled feeding study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 58(8):116673 Fremstad, E. 1997. Vegetasjonstyper i Norge. NINA Temahefte 12:1-279 French, P., Stanton, C., Lawless, F., ORiordan, E. G., Monahan, F. J., Caffrey, P.J. and Moloney A. P. 2000. Fatty acid composition, including conjugated linoleic acid, of intramuscular fat from steers offered grazed grass, grass silage, or concentrate-based diets. J. Anim. Sci. 78: 2849-2855. ISO, 2006. Sensory analysis Methodology Ranking Second edition - 2006-11-01. Martin, B., Corny, A., Kondjoyan, N., Ferlay, A., Verdier-Metz, I., Pradel, P., Rock, E., Chillard, Y., Coulon, J.B. and Berdagu.2005. Milk indicators for recognizing the types of forage eaten by dairy cows in Indicators of Milk and Beef Quality. (Eds; Hocquette, J.F. and Gigli, S.) EAAP Publ. no 112. Waagningen Academic Publishers, Nederland : 127-136. Moen, A.1999. National Atlas of Norway: Vegetation. Norwegian Mapping Authority, Hnefoss. Mollet, B. and Rolland, I. (2002). Functional Foods: At the frontier between food and pharma. Cuurent Opinion in Biotechnolog 13 : 483-485. Sickel, H., Ihse, M., Norderhaug, A. & Sickel, M. 2003. How to monitor key habitats in relation to grazing preferences of cattle in mountain summer farming areas? An aerial photo and GPSmethod study. Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004): 67-77. Taugbl, O., Karlengen, I.J., Bolstad, T., Aastveit, AS.H., Harstad, O.M. 2008. Cobalt supplied per os reduces the mammary Delta9-desaturase index of bovine milk. J Anim. Sci. 86(11):3062-8 Valko, M., Leibfritz, D., Moncol, J., Cronin, M. T.D., Mazur, M. and Telser, J. (2007) Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology 39: 44-84.
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Differences in spatial grazing behaviour of sheep and goats in a heterogeneous high alpine environment
1
Leiber F.1*, Kaulfers C.2, Schmid S.1, Kreuzer M.1, Liesegang A.2 ETH Zurich, Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland 2 Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland *fleiber@ethz.ch
Abstract The aim of the study was to evaluate behavioural differences between sheep and goats freely ranging in a large mountainous area in the Swiss Canton of Grisons, which is botanically and topographically highly diverse. Fifteen adult non-lactating ewes and 15 adult non-lactating goats were grazing these pastures located at altitudes of 2000 to 2600 m a.s.l. They were trained to return every evening to the barn. During daytime, the animals had access to the pastures for 11 hours without spatial restrictions. Six ewes and six goats were equipped with GPS receivers in order to calculate daily tracks and the movement patterns of the animals in relation to the spatial arrangement of the habitats with different botanical composition. Sheep grazed mainly in Poaceae and Cyperaceae dominated habitats, located at a much higher altitude than the bush and heather communities preferred by the goats. Diurnal movement of the sheep was clearly more evenly distributed over the day than the one of the goats. On average, sheep and goats walked 4.3 and 3.2 km per day, respectively; the corresponding daily altitudes surmounted by sheep and goats were 312 m and 222 m. Keywords: alpine pasture, small ruminants, grazer, browser, forage selection Introduction Mountain pastures are a feed resource for livestock ruminants, but they are also maintained and modified by the nutritive and digestive activity of these animals. Accordingly, it was shown that the distribution of soil nutrients (Edwards et al., 2004) as well as the biodiversity and composition of the flora (Peter & Lscher, 2009) and fauna (Laiolo et al., 2004) are significantly influenced by grazing as such, management of the pasture rotations and by animal species exploring distinct areas. Doubtless, pastures develop differently if they are grazed by preferentially browsing or by predominantly grazing herbivore species, because these animals behave and select differently. Alpine pasture areas are often very heterogeneous in topography and botanical composition. Therefore, high alpine areas offer feeding opportunities for both, grazers and browsers. The proportion of livestock herbivores pasturing alpine sites without intensive area management is increasing and leads to significant changes in soil nutrient availability and plant species distribution (Edwards et al., 2004; Jewell, 2002). Thus it is important to evaluate the spatial and selective feeding behaviour of different ruminant species in order to develop strategies for either conservation or goal-oriented development of the ecosystem. Keeping in mind that the transfer to high alpine sites requires certain metabolic adaptations of the ruminants (Bianca & Kunz, 1978; Leiber et al., 2006), it is of further interest, how the feeding behaviour of browsing and grazing ruminants differs if they are exposed to such sites. Sheep as typical browsers are expected to select the open grass-dominated areas, while goats as intermediate feeders are more likely gnawing shrubby and woody vegetation. This was expected to result in different areas to be grazed by the two species as well as in differences in maintenance requirements and digestibility of the forages ingested. The open and very heterogeneous 430 ha large area of the ETH research station Alp Weissenstein, located at an altitude of 2000-2600 m a.s.l., where pastures are botanically very well described (Keller, 2006; Schmid, 2007), gave the opportunity to study grazing and browsing behaviour of sheep and goats at this altitude. Material and methods Fifteen ewes of the East Friesian breed and 15 goats of the Saanen breed were transferred to the ETH research station Alp Weissenstein at the end of June 2008. All animals were in their dry period after lactation. The animals of each species constituted a flock within which they were well acquainted with each other. The initial body weight of the sheep was 65.1 (13.4) kg; the respective weight of the goats was 67 ( 10.9) kg. Prior to the experiment, the animals had been kept at 450 m a.s.l. in barns with access to small pastures. The animals had been fed mainly on hay and concentrate. The barn of the research station Alp Weissenstein is located at 2026 m a.s.l. in the Eastern Swiss Alps on the northern alpine slope. The pasture area ranges from 2000 up to 2600 m a.s.l and was not fenced for
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small ruminants. Thus, the animals had access to the entire area. They were allowed to graze for 11 h each day, but were always kept together in the barn over night. In the morning, sheep and goats were turned out together and thus had the same starting point every day. Besides a very small amount of concentrates, which served to attract the animals to return to the barn in the evening, the only feed was offered by the pastures. Animals had ad libitum access to water at several watering places and NaCl, as well as a mineral mix offered in bowls distributed across the entire area. Six animals of each species were equipped with a GPS receiver (Wintec, G-Rays WBT-201, Taiwan). Every night, the track data was downloaded and was used for evaluation from weeks 3 to 12 of the high alpine sojourn. Prior to the transfer to Alp Weissenstein and, subsequently, every 2 weeks, body weight was measured and blood samples were taken from the vena jugularis. In experimental weeks 7-10, plant samples were collected weekly by mimicking the animals feeding behaviour. On the same days, faeces samples from each species were collected in the morning when the animals left the barn. Feed and faeces samples were analysed for proximate contents by standard procedures as described by Leiber et al. (2006). For estimation of digestibility, native alkanes were quantified in feed and faeces samples as described by Berry et al. (2000). Nutrient digestibility was estimated based on the average relative recoveries of C33 and C35, which were shown to have the highest recovery (Dove & Mayes, 1996). Urea in blood plasma was analysed on a COBAS-MIRA with Kit AXON00072 (DiaSys Diagnostic Systems GmbH, Holzheim, Germany). Statistical evaluation was done with a repeated measurements-model on Systat 11 (Systat Software, inc., Point Richamond, CA 94804-2028, USA). Significance of differences was tested with a KruskalWallis-Test.
Results and discussion During an adaptation time of approximately 2 weeks, both species showed difficulties to adapt to the new environment, and intensive management was required to train the animals to return to the barn every evening. After that period, the two species developed a very distinct grazing behaviour. Animals within species moved as one flock. The sheep flock was, however, much more closed and narrow in space during the day than the goat flock.
N E W S
Igl Compass 3016m a.s.l.
Grazing area of sheep Grazing area of goats
Alp Weissenstein (barn) 2026m a.s.l.

Figure 1: Areas used for grazing and browsing by sheep and goats within 10 weeks of monitoring.
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Sheep grazed mainly in habitats dominated by Poaceae (Sesleria caerulea and Festuca violacea.) and Cyperaceae (Carex sempervirens), located much higher in altitude than the location of the barn. Every morning they passed through a shrubby area, but did not remain there. By contrast, the goats preferred this area dominated by bush and heather communities (rich in rich in Luniperus communis ssp. nana, Calluna vulgaris and Erica carnea) and did never explore the high located pastures reached by the sheep flock. The distinct areas where sheep and goats grazed are illustrated in Figure 1. The diurnal movement of the sheep was much more evenly distributed over the day than the one of the goats. While sheep moved onwards consecutively with time, regardless of the weather situation, goats moved downwards at each rainfall event and subsequently upwards again (Figure 2). Sheep continuously increased the explored area. In weeks 1-3 sheep grazed the western part of the area shown in Figure 1 and from week 4 on they moved continuously eastwards. The most Eastern parts were reached by the sheep not before week 11 of the experiment. Further, within their grazing area, goats showed more individual movement patterns than sheep. This resulted in a difference in total daily kilometres covered, which was smaller than could be expected from Figure 1. On average, sheep and goats walked 4.3 and 3.2 km per day, respectively; the difference between the species was significant (P<0.01) in almost every week. The respective daily altitude surmounted by sheep and goats was 312 m and 222 m, a difference being always significant at P<0.01. The average slope of the upward movement was 14.5% for the sheep and 13.8% for the goats (not significantly different).
Altitude above sea level (m)
Sheep
Goat
distance passed (km)

Figure 2. Typical vertical movement pattern of a sheep and a goat, during one day, with a rainfall event in the afternoon.
The forages grazed by sheep and goats were different in nutrient composition, too. The feed of the sheep contained clearly higher concentrations of crude protein (sheep: 12.5% DM, goats: 9.8% DM; p<0.001). Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) did not significantly differ between the forages selected by the two groups (sheep: 49.2% DM; goats 54.0% DM; p>0.1), but the lignin fraction (acid detergent lignin; ADL) was nearly three times higher concentrated in the shrubby feeds selected by the goats (sheep: 7.5% DM; goats 21.3% DM; p<0.001). Gross energy (GE) concentration was higher in the feed of the goats (sheep: 18.8 MJ/kg DM; goats: 20.3 MJ/kg DM; p<0.01). The estimated digestibility of GE was 75% in the sheep flock and 72% in the goats group. This resulted in a calculated concentration of digestible energy (DE) of 14.1 MJ/kg DM in the forages selected by sheep and 14.6 MJ/kg DM in the feed consumed by the goats. The estimated digestibility of NDF was clearly higher for sheep (75%) than for goats (67%), probably because of the higher proportion of lignin in the goats feed. However, the estimated apparent digestibility of ADL was clearly better in goats (48%) than in sheep (34%), which is in accordance with Iason & van Wieren (1999), who compiled data showing increasing ability to digest lignin in the order grazers < intermediate feeders < browsers. The apparent digestibility of crude protein was estimated to be 65% for the sheep and 63% for the goats.
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One of the questions of the study was, whether differences in walking behaviour and the related energy expenditure do correspond with higher or poorer nutritive quality of the feed consumed by the respective animal species. The energy expenditure for moving upwards is quite the same for domestic sheep and goats (Lachica & Aguilera, 2005). Based on the equations for energy costs of walking on slopes, as given by Lachica et al. (1997), the estimated average net energy costs for passing the daily tracks by sheep and goats were 1.36 MJ and 1.02 MJ, respectively. The effective metabolisable and net energy concentrations of the feeds consumed by the species could not be determined. However, from the estimated data presented above, it is obvious that the sheep, compared to the goats, spent more energy for walking, which was not covered by additional energy ingested with the corresponding feed. Because of the higher crude protein content and apparent digestibility in their feed, the sheep were assumed to have had a more positive ruminal N-balance than the goats. This was, however, not reflected by differences in blood urea concentrations.
Conclusions The affinity of sheep and goats to very different forage environments was demonstrated with this experiment. The expected behaviour of grazers (sheep) and intermediate feeders (goats) was expressed very clearly. In an open and heterogeneous environment, as presented by the pastures of the research station Alp Weissenstein, it appears to be necessary and successful to use different herbivore species if the whole area as well as the whole flora shall be periodically grazed and browsed. Specific goals could be either to decelerate or avoid open grazing area to get covered by woody vegetation (goats are helpful) or to distinctly protect areas with upcoming woody patches (sheep are quite save to be used). However, the current results are based only on one breed per species. Since the explorative activity of goats was anyhow lower than expected, the result concerning the habitat selection might have been less pronounced with different breeds. References
Berry N.R., Scheeder M.R.L., Sutter F., Krber, T.F. & Kreuzer M. 2000. The accuracy of intake estimation based on the use of alkane controlled release capsules and faeces grab sampling in cows, Annales de Zootechnie 49: 313. Bianca W. & Kunz P. 1978. Physiological reactions of three breeds of goats to cold, heat and high altitude. Livestock Production Science 5: 57-69. Dove, H. & Mayes, R.W. 1996. Plant wax components: A new approach to estimating intake and diet composition in herbivores. Journal of Nutrition 126: 13-26. Edwards, P.J., Berry, N.R., Gsewell, S., Jewell, P.L. & Kreuzer, M. 2004. Long-term effects of cattle grazing upon the phosphorus status of alpine pastures. Grassland Science in Europe 9, 302-304. Iason, G.R. & van Wieren, S.E. 1999. Digestive and ingestive adaptations of mammalian herbivores to low-quality forage. In: Olff, H., Brown, V.K. & Drent, R.H. (Eds): Herbivores: Between Plants and Predators. Blackwell Science Publishing, England, 337-369. Jewell P. 2002. Impact of cattle grazing upon the vegetation of an Alpine pasture. Ph.D. thesis 14547, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. Keller P. 2006. Vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen und Ertrag der Grnlandflchen im Gebiet der ETHForschungsstation Alp Weissenstein GR. Diploma Thesis; Geographic Institute, University of Zurich Lachica, M. & Aguilera, J.F. 2005. Energy expenditure of walk in grassland for small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research 59: 105-121. Lachica, M., Prieto, C. & Aguilera, J.F. 1997. The energy costs of walking on the level and on negative and positive slopes in the Granadina goat (Capra Hircus). British Journal of Nutrition 77:73-81. Laiolo, P., Dondero, F., Ciliento, E & Rolando, A. 2004. Consequences of pastoral abandonment for the structure and diversity of the alpine avifauna. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 294-304. Leiber F., Kreuzer M., Leuenberger H. & Wettstein H.-R. 2006. Contribution of diet type and pasture conditions to the influence of high altitude grazing on intake, performance and composition and renneting properties of the milk of cows. Animal Research 55: 37-53. Peter, M. & Lscher, A. 2009. Floristic evolution of nutrient-poor grasslands in the Alps. Agrarforschung 16 (3): 76-81. Schmid S. 2007. Funktionelle und pflanzensoziologische Charakterisierung der alpin-subnivalen Vegetation im Gebiet der ETH-Forschungsstation Alp Weissenstein am Albulapass (GR, Schweiz). Diploma Thesis at the Institute of Plant Science, ETH Zurich.
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Milk fatty acid profile in relation to botanical and chemical composition of Alpine pastures
1
Falchero L.1*, Coppa M.1, Lonati M.1, Odoardi M.2, Lombardi G.1 Department AGROSELVITER, University of Turin, via L. da Vinci 44, 10095, Grugliasco (TO), Italy 2 CRA FLC, Viale Piacenza 29, 26900 Lodi (LO), Italy *luca.falchero@unito.it
Abstract In this paper the results of an experiment aimed at analysing the influence of pasture chemical and botanical composition on milk fatty acid profile in different in vivo farming conditions are reported. Five mountain dairy farms were involved in the trial, exploiting globally three different vegetation types considered interesting as summer feeding for typical Alpine dairy productions. Keywords: milk fatty acids, pasture, botanical composition, plant chemical composition Introduction Fatty acid (FA) composition of milk has been widely investigated in the past both to determine its effect on human health and to verify its role as skilful tool in tracing the origin of dairy products. In experimental conditions, it has been shown that both the botanical and the chemical composition of pasture vegetation may affect milk FA profile (Collomb et al., 2002). This was probably due to the inhibitory effect of plant secondary metabolites (PSM), whose mean concentration is affected both by plant species and growth stage, on fatty acids ruminal biohydrogenation (Rochfort et al., 2008). However, there is a lack in data confirming experimental evidence in different farming conditions. Thus, bulk-tank milk derived from the exploitation of different pasture types exploited by dairy cows at different phenological stages was collected at five summer sites located in southwest Alps and analysed. Material and methods In each of the five selected summer sites, the areas covered by the pasture types interesting for dairy production were fenced. Their botanical composition was evaluated with Daget and Poissonet (1969) phyto-ecological method. Dairy cattle exploited paddocks vegetation during 5 days (d 15) at a stocking density of about 9 LU ha-1 (30-80% of carrying capacity). Before exploitation, two series of bulk vegetation samples were collected (500g) and immediately refrigerated. To the laboratory, the first series of samples were oven-dried at 60C, ground in a Cyclotec mill (Foss Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden) to pass a 1 mm screen, and then analysed to determine dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP, calculated as 6.25 x total nitrogen; Kirsten, 1983), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF). The second series of samples were stored at -20C to determine forage fatty acid composition. Forage fat fraction was obtained through extraction with petroleum ether according to Thiex et al. (2003). After dissolution of pure fat in isooctane, glycerides were transesterified to the corresponding methyl esters (FAME - UNI ISO 5509:2000), then separated with a GC equipped with SP-2330 fused-silica capillary column (60 m x 0.25 mm, 0.2 m; Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) on an Agilent 7890A (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Quantification was performed using reference standards (Supelco 37 component FAME mix; Larodan AB CLA 9c,11t). Results were expressed in absolute values in g FAME per 100g fat. Bulk-tank milk samples (250ml) were collected after morning milking at day 3, 4, 5 during pasture exploitation, then immediately refrigerated, transferred to the laboratory and stored at -20C. Milk samples were thawed and submitted to cold alkaline hydrolysis (ammonia). Lipids were extracted with diethyl ether and petroleum ether (method Dec. CEE 92/608 14/12/1992 GU CEE L407 31/12/1992 All. II Met. II). After extraction, milk fat was analysed with the same methodology used for forage. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to test the differences between milk FAs composition in relation to forage chemical composition and vegetation composition. Results and discussion The effect of vegetation composition on milk seemed restricted to few secondary fatty acids (Table 1). The exploitation of pastures dominated by Fabaceae resulted in milk enriched of linear odd chain fatty acids (e.g. C15:0, C17:0). These FAs were ingested in higher amount by cattle grazing Trifolium alpinum dominated pastures (data not shown). Higher quantities of short chain FAs in milk (C4:0 to C12:0) occurred when cattle exploited grass dominated vegetation, such as Festuca gr. rubra.
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Table 1: significance of ANOVA test of milk FA profile in relation to pasture botanical composition (pasture) and to increasing values for forage chemical parameters (dry matter = DM; neutral detergent fibre = NDF; acid detergent fibre = ADF; crude protein = CP).
15:0 16:0 17:0 c9 17:1 18:0 c9 18:1 t11 18:1 c9,c12 18:2 c9,t11 18:2 c9,c12,c15 18:3 V/S V/R 6/3 pentadecanoic acid palmitic acid margaric acid heptadecenoic acid stearic acid (S) oleic acid vaccenic acid (V) linoleic acid rumenic acid (R) -linolenic acid pasture ** *** DM * ** *** ** *** *** ** ** NDF ADF *** * * * ** * ** ** * *** * ** * * ** CP *
: increasing concentration;: decreasing concentration; : irregular trend. ANOVA Sign.: P < 0.1; * P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001.
Changes of forage chemical composition had more remarkable effect on milk FA profile than botanical composition: higher DM, NDF and ADF contents in the ingested forage resulted in milk richer in C16:0, C17:0, C17:1, and total saturated FAs (SFA), and poorer in C18:0, vaccenic, rumenic and alpha-linolenic acid. In particular the ratio vaccenic/stearic acid, which estimates the efficiency of the third step of biohydrogenation made by group B bacteria in the rumen, decreased when forage DM and fibre content increased. Such process causes vaccenic acid accumulation and its transfer to animal products consequently, suggesting that when cows ingested a fiber rich forage (i.e. at late phenological stage), this step of FA biohydrogenation by ruminal bacteria appeared more inhibited. This could be related both to shift in ruminal microbial patterns (Dehority, 1991) and also to processes involving forage PSM content and their effect on ruminal microflora (Leiber et al., 2005). Instead, the increase of forage CP resulted in an accumulation of vaccenic, rumenic, alpha-linolenic acid, total long chain fatty acids, increasing of vaccenic/stearic ratio in milk, and decrease of C16:0 and SFA. Though the need of improving the measurement in vivo of forage intake by grazing cows, results confirmed that even in ordinary and diversified farming conditions, both pasture chemical and vegetation composition may influence milk FA profile. These clear effects have to be confirmed by further in vivo research, in order to better understand the faith of forage FAs, chemical traits and PSM content in ruminal environment and the related nutritional quality of milk and dairy products.
References
Collomb M., Butikofer U., Sieber R., Jeangros B., Bosset J.O. (2002) Correlation between fatty acids in cows' milk fat produced in the lowlands, mountains and highlands of Switzerland and the botanical composition of the fodder. International Dairy Journal, 661-666. Daget P. & Poissonet J. (1969) Analyse phytologique des prairies - Applications agronomiques. Montpellier, France: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Dehority B.U. (1991) Effects of microbial synergism on fibre digestion in the rumen. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 50, 149-159. Kirsten W.J. (1983) Rapid, automatic, high capacity Dumas determination of nitrogen, Microchem. J. 28, 529547. Leiber F., Kreuzer M., Nigg D., Wettstein H.R., Scheeder M.R.L. (2005) A study on the causes for the elevated n-3 Fatty acids in cows' milk of Alpine origin. Lipids 40\2, 191-202. Rochfort S., Parker A.J., Dunshea F.R. (2008) Plant bioactives for ruminant health and productivity. Phytochemistry 69, 299-322. Thiex N.J., Anderson S., Gildemeister B. (2003) Crude Fat, Hexanes Extraction, in Feed, Cereal Grain, and Forage (Randall/Soxtec/Submersion Method): Collaborative Study Journal of AOAC international vol. 86, no. 5.
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Salt as management tool for unguarded livestock in mountain pastures

Eliceits P.*, Ruiz R., Mandaluniz N. NEIKER, A.B., Apdo. 46, 01080 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, *nmandaluniz@neiker.net
Abstract Eastern European heathlands are located in mountain areas where livestock has traditionally ranged. It is demonstrated that livestock exert an important effect upon these natural resources. Thus, management alternatives are sought to conduct them and improve pasture utilization of these vegetal mosaics. In this sense, the provision of different nutrients is expected to attract animals and consequently, control the expansion of dense heathlands. Current paper focuses on the use of salt to attract unguarded livestock to Atlantic mountain heahtlands. Study was carried out to assess the effect of different salt rates on: soil, vegetation and livestock use. According to the results, livestock is attracted to salt just after application and faecal accumulation returns to initial values one moth later. This fact has no effect on soil parameters and on pasture sodium content. Moreover, an increase of grass/shrub ratio is observed in high salt plots, which is beneficial to control shrub expansion. These tendencies should be confirmed in longer monitoring studies in order to have information for the management of these communities, integrating livestock as a tool to preserve the natural resources and landscape values. Keywords: livestock management, mountain pastures, salt, soil, vegetation. Introduction It is demonstrated that livestock exert an important effects upon natural resources. However, unguarded livestock makes a heterogeneous habitat selection which causes a non-uniform use of the ranges, with a succession towards shrub invasion in certain areas. Thus, management alternatives (non-invasive, easy to carry out and cheap) are sought to conduct livestock and improve pasture utilization of vegetation mosaics. In this sense, the provision of different nutrients such as salt is expected to attract animals and consequently, control the expansion of shrubs. Therefore, a study was carried out to assess the effect of different salt doses on livestock attraction and to assess the effect of different salt doses on soil and vegetation. Material and methods The study was carried out in the Natural Park of Gorbeia (43N 2.5W), an Atlantic region of the Basque Country, Northern Spain. In this area, grassland is combined with heathlands at altitudes above 800 m, shaping a particular environment that has traditionally been ranged by mixed and unguarded livestock. In September 2007 and 2008, different salt doses (0, 50, 100 and 200 kg/ha) were spread directly onto the soil on plots of 0.2ha. Soil, vegetation and livestock parameters were monitored at fixed transects in each plot in order to assess the effect of salt application. 1. Upon soil: samples were taken from 7 cm depth, dried 30 C/48h, and pH, organic matter (OM), macronutrients (N, P and K), and sodium (Na) content were determined. 2. On vegetation: (i) pasture height was measured by means of a sward stick (H.F.R.O., 1979); (ii) vegetation composition (%) was determined by the point intercept method (100 contacts per transect). Plants were grouped into: swards including graminoids and non-graminoids; shrubs including heather species and gorse, and others including ferns and litter, dead material, bare ground, dung, etc; (iii) nutritive value was estimated in terms of crude protein (CP) determined by Kjeldalh (A.O.A.C., 1999) and fibres (neutral and acid detergent fibres: NDF and ADF) (van Soest, 1982). Finally, the content of Na in the sward was estimated. 3. On animal behaviour: livestock pressure was estimated as faecal accumulation (Lange and Willcocks, 1978), that of cattle and mares by counting faeces numbers/plot (standardised to n faeces/ha) while that of sheep and goats was collected by plot, dried in an oven (40 C/48h) and weighed (standardised to kg dry matter (DM) ha-1). 4. Data were analysed by a general lineal model (SAS, 2003) considering the following fixed effects: year (2007 vs 2008), moment (D-0 vs. D-30 for soil and vegetal parameters and D-0, D-10, D-20, and D-30 for livestock use) and salt dose (0, 50, or 100 kg ha-1).
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Soil Average values for pH, OM, N, P, K, and Na were 4.20.2, 26%4, 1.14%0.16, 12.15.9 ppm, 327101 ppm, and 0.350.15 meq/100g, respectively. According to the statistics, salt application had not significant effect upon any of the soil parameters (Table 1). Vegetation Average sward height was de 5.10.9 cm and the area was composed of 20%4 sward and 53%11 shrubs. The average CP, NDF, and ADF values and the Na content of the pasture were 9.7%1.5, 43%2, 6%1, 74%2 y 0.380.15 meq/100g, respectively. According to the statistic, a tendency of a lower shrub and others cover and a better nutritive value were observed on pasture after salt application (Table 1), which could be due to livestock attraction but also to autumn regrowth. Moreover, a tendency of higher sward/shrub ratio, a higher cover of others and a higher NDF values were observed on 200 kg salt/ha plots. Livestock use The average faecal accumulation was 1.61.5 kg DM small ruminant/ha; 5147 cow faeces/ha and 13999 mare faeces/ha. Salt plots attracted significantly livestock as cited in the literature (Phillips et al., 2000) with an exponential accumulation in D-10 (Table 1). Finally, a tendency of a higher presence of small ruminants and cattle on 200 kg salt/ha plots was observed, while mares faecal presence was similar in all plots (Table 1). Table 1. The effect of the year (Y), moment (M) and salt dose (D) upon soil, vegetation and livestock (kg DM/ha or n faeces/ha) parameters. (ns: P>0.05; *: P<0.05; **: P<0.01)
D-0 1.23 15.7a 400a 0.30 4.9 18 51 30 9.3a 74 0.31 1.0a 42ab 108 Moment D-10 D-30 1.08 8.6b 256b 0.41 5.5 22 53 25 10.0b 74 0.47 3.1b 0.5 87b 32 197 124 0 1.1 12.7 306 0.38 5.0 19 48ab 32ac 9.7a 73a 0.39 1.1 48 103 Dose (kg/ha) 50 100 1.3 1.1 12.4 10.0 369 341 0.30 0.27 5.4 4.9 20 17 62a 60a 17b 23ab 8.6b 9.9a 72a 73a 0.31 0.39 0.7 2.0 33 45 153 157 200 1.2 12.6 297 0.46 5.3 25 37b 37c 10.4a 77b 0.38 2.4 88 159 Y ns ns ns ns ns ns * * * ns ns ns ns * P value M D ns ns * ns * ns ns ns ns ns 0.07 ns ns 0.06 ns 0.08 * 0.08 ns ** ns ns ** ns ns ns ns ns
Soil Sward (cm) Vegetal structure (%) Nutritive value (%)
Faecal accumulation
N (%) P (ppm) K (ppm) Na (meq) Height Sward Shrubs Others CP NDF Na Small Cattle Mares
Conclusions In short term, livestock were attracted to the plots treated with salt, resulting in higher grass/shrub ratio. There was no significant effect of the salt dose, which could be due to the ingestion of the salt by livestock just after its application. A longer monitoring approach is necessary to assess the effect on soil, vegetal, and livestock parameters, in order to adjust the use of these tools to conduct livestock and improve pasture conservation. References
A.O.A.C. (1999) Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Gaithersburg, MD, USA. H.F.R.O. (1979) Science and hill farming. HFRO 1954-79. Penicuik, Scotland. Lange R.T. and Willcocks M.C. (1978). Austr. J. Exp. Agric. and Animal Husbandry 18, 764-767. Pfiste J.A. and Manners G.D. (1991). Journal of Range Management 44, 105-111. Phillips C.J.C., Chiy P.C., Arney D.R. and Kart O. (2000). Journal of Dairy Research 67, 1-12. S.A.S. (2003) S.A.S. Users guide: statistics, Version 9.1. Cary, NC, U.S.A. 1028. San Miguel, A. (2003) Pastos, Desarrollo y Conservacin. Reunin Cientfica de la SEEP, 409-421. Van Soest P.J. (1982) Nutritional ecology of the ruminant: O & B Books. Corvallis, Oregon, 374.
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Ruminal fatty acid transformation in cattle caused by high alpine pasturing

Khiaosa-ard R., Soliva C.R., Kreuzer M., Leiber F.* ETH Zurich, Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland *florian.leiber@inw.agrl.ethz.ch
Abstract A rumen-fistulated Brown Swiss cow (housed at 400 m a.s.l.) was fed a conventional mixed diet (MR) consisting of grass and maize silage and concentrates. Subsequently, the same cow was grazed on biodiverse high alpine pastures (2000 m a.s.l.) for 10 weeks. Finally, the cow was fed the conventional diet again (400 m a.s.l.). Rumen fluid samples were withdrawn through the fistula at the start with the MR diet, then 2 weeks and 10 weeks after changing to high alpine grazing and 2 weeks after returning to the MR diet. With all rumen fluid samples a Hohenheim gas test was conducted. The same standard test feeds (pure ryegrass hay, alpine pasture hay and a grass-maize silage mix) were used at each period. Linseed oil was used as a supplement in all runs at 0 and 2.5% of forage DM. Thus, the only dietary factor varied across repetitions was the feed basis of the rumen fluid donor cow. In none of the test feeds was there a significant effect of the alpine rumen fluid on -linolenic acid (ALA), but trans vaccenic acid (TVA) was clearly increased in alpine pasture based fluid compared to the MR based rumen fluid. Linseed oil did not increase ALA recovery but significantly increased TVA. Keywords: -linolenic acid, trans vaccenic acid, high alpine pasturing, biohydrogenation Introduction Milk from cows fed forages of high alpine origin is known to have a comparably high concentration of ALA, although ALA intake by cows is rather limited with such forages (Leiber et al., 2004; Leiber et al., 2005). One reason for that might be sought in the high diversity of herbs and leguminous plants occurring in alpine pasture supplying substantial amounts of plant secondary compounds, which possibly could inhibit ruminal biohydrogenation (BH) of ALA (Khiaosa-ard et al., 2009). Alteration of BH may lead to accumulation of the substrate (e.g. ALA) as well as the BH intermediates, mainly TVA, which then might promote the endogenous synthesis, in mammary tissue, of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) considered to be beneficial for human health. Ruminal fermentation processes always represent an interaction between the ruminal microorganisms, adapted to a certain feed basis, and the respective feed itself. The objective of the present study was to test whether or not the proportion of dietary ALA remaining intact in the rumen is influenced by this interaction between feed and status of adaptation of the ruminal microorganisms and whether there is a difference in TVA accumulation. Therefore, after changing feeding conditions of the donor cow, incubation experiments with rumen fluid and different feeds were carried out. Both feeding conditions and in vitro test feeds were chosen in order to evaluate the distinct effects of typical high alpine and lowland feeding systems on the recovery of ALA and the production of BH intermediates. Material and methods The incubation was done in triplicate using the in vitro Hohenheim gas test apparatus. The test feeds incubated (200 mg, DM) were i) pure ryegrass hay, ii) alpine pasture hay, and iii) a grass-maize silage mix, a typical conventional lowland dairy forage type. In order to test different levels of ALA supply, all forage treatments were conducted with both, 0 and 2.5% added linseed oil. The incubation liquid was 30 ml of a mixture of ruminal fluid and buffer solution (1:2, v:v). The incubations were performed at 39 C for 24 h. Ruminal fluid for the incubations was collected from a fistulated Brown Swiss cow subjected to changing feeding conditions. At the beginning of the experiment, the donor cow was located in the lowlands (400 m a.s.l.) and received a conventional diet consisting of grass and maize silage and concentrates (Lowland 1). Subsequently, the cow grazed on a biodiverse highland alpine pasture (2000 m a.s.l.) for 10 weeks. In this period, rumen fluid was taken for the in vitro incubations 2 weeks (Highland 1) and 10 weeks (Highland 2) after transfer to the alpine pastures. The swards on the alpine site presented 71 plant species comprising 36% grasses, 23% legumes and 40% herbs (Leiber et al., 2005). Finally, the cow returned to lowland feeding and rumen fluid was collected 2 weeks later (Lowland 2). Thus, the only dietary factor varied across repetitions of the incubation was the feed basis of the donor cow for the ruminal fluid. After 24 h of incubation, incubation fluid samples were collected for fatty acid composition analysis using gas chromatography (without complete cis- trans- isomer separation) as explained in Khiaosa-Ard et al. (2009). Statistical analysis of the data was done using the GLM procedure of SAS (version 9.1 for window, SAS institute Inc., Cary, NC. USA) with donor cow feeding, incubated
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forages and linseed oil level treated as fixed effects in the model. The respective interactions were also considered. The means were compared with Tukeys method.
Results and discussion In this study, we focused on ALA and on predominant intermediates and the end product (18:0) of ALA biohydrogenation. Contrary to what might have been expected (Leiber et al., 2005) neither the alpine pasturing of the donor cow nor the alpine hay tested in vitro led to higher ALA concentrations in rumen fluid after 24 h of incubation. Even the addition of 2.5% linseed oil did not result in higher ALA concentrations in the rumen fluid, indicating that the hydrogenation capacity was high enough to equalize the initially different levels of ALA. In the rumen, free ALA is rapidly transformed to conjugated 18:3, subsequently to non-conjugated 18:2, and to 18:1, mainly TVA, as the last intermediate. These steps are rapid (Kellens et al., 1986). Thus very small portions of 18:3 and 18:2 intermediates, including ALA, are available for post-ruminal absorption (Loor et al., 2004). By contrast, ruminal TVA concentration was increased by the alpine grazing of the donor cow by 41% compared to lowland 1, on average of both alpine samplings (p<0.001). This might have been either the result of a higher TVA production or of an inhibition of the terminal BH step, which results in 18:0 synthesis from TVA, or both. Since differences in 18:0 between lowland 1 and highland 1 and 2 were absent, it is more likely to have been the former reason. However, the concentration of the required substrates (ALA or linoleic acid) was not higher in the highland compared to the lowland samples of the collected rumen fluid. Thus, the real reason for the increase of TVA found with the highland rumen fluid samples remains unclear. Overall, the results showed that changing the diet of the donor cow and changing the level of ALA by adding linseed oil had a higher impact on the C18 fatty acid profile than the type of forages tested in vitro. That means that the adaptation of the ruminal environment to the feed plays a distinct role, and that particularly the ruminal adaptation to alpine pasture clearly changes the pattern of C18 fatty acids after fermentation. However, the presumed effect of alpine pasture feed towards a lower ALA BH rate was not found in this experiment. Lowland feeding tended to increase the n-6:n-3 ratio in the incubation fluid. This was associated with trends to increased n-6 in lowland feeding and increased n-3 in highland feeding, though not statistically significant. Supplemented linseed oil did not increase ALA recovery rate. On the other hand, there were higher amounts of BH intermediates and end product (stearic acid) when linseed oil was supplemented (p<0.001), which is supported by in vivo findings of Loor et al. (2004). Conclusions The feed basis of the rumen fluid-donor cow clearly influenced the BH intermediates in vitro, while the forages incubated had no clear effect on C18 fatty acid profile in the fluid after incubation. This indicates that the adapted rumen fluid (long term) is decisive for BH, rather than the actual feed properties (short term). However, the actual concentration of ALA (varied by linseed oil addition) proved to be a feed property which clearly influenced the amount of BH intermediates, but not ALA itself, in the incubated fluid. Deriving from these results, alpine pasturing would be expected to increase CLA rather than ALA levels in milk, a conclusion which is contradictory to the results found in vivo (Leiber et al., 2005). References
Kellens, M., J., H. L. Goderis, and P. P. Tobback. 1986. Biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids by a mixed culture of rumen microorganisms. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 28:12681276. Khiaosa-ard, R., S. F. Bryner, M. R. L. Scheeder, H.-R. Wettstein, F. Leiber, M. Kreuzer and C. R. Soliva. 2009. Evidence for the inhibition of the terminal step of ruminal -linolenic acid biohydrogenation by condensed tannins. J. Dairy Sci. 92: 177-188. Leiber, F., M. Kreuzer, D. Nigg, H.-R. Wettstein and M. R. L. Scheeder. 2005. A study on the causes for the elevated n-3 fatty acids in cows milk of alpine origin. Lipids 40: 191-202. Leiber, F., Scheeder, M.R.L., Wettstein, H.-R. and Kreuzer, M. 2004. Milk fatty acid profile of cows under the influence of alpine hypoxia and high mountainous forage quality. J. Anim. Feed Sci. 13 (Suppl. 1): 693-696. Loor, J. J., K. Ueda, A. Ferlay, Y. Chillard and M. Doreau. 2004. Biohydrogenation, duodenal flow, and intestinal digestibility of trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in response to dietary forage.concentrate ratio and linseed oil in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 24722485.
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How does grazing management and vegetation type influence selection and foraging behaviour of dairy cows on upland pastures?
1
Coppa M.1-2*, Farruggia A.2, Pradel P.3, Lombardi G.1, Martin B.2 Department AGROSELVITER, University of Turin, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095, Grugliasco, Italy 2 INRA, UR 1213 Herbivores, 63122 Saint-Gens-Champanelle, France 3 INRA, UE 1296 Unit exprimentale des Monts dAuvergne, 63210 Orcival, France *mauro.coppa@unito.it
Abstract Selection and foraging behaviour of dairy cows were compared between continuous (E) and rotational (R) grazing management on mountain pastures in the centre of France. The E plot (12.5ha) was a speciesrich pasture with two vegetation types (fertile vs. poor) while the R plot (7.7ha) was an old hay grassland. Twelve Montbeliarde cows were used in each type of management. An improved version of the grazed class method was used to evaluate animal behaviour. Vegetation was observed at 3 periods during the grazing season. Within the E plot, cows exhibited patch grazing and investigation grazing on the fertile and poor types, respectively. On the fertile type, grazing frequency (GF) remained stable over the periods as high grazed patches reduced strongly between P1 and P2 before being stable between P2 and P3 (P<0.001). On the poor type, GF increased throughout the season (P<0.001). In contrast, cows grazed by stratum on the R plot. Stocking density and exploitation day did not affect GF. High and medium GP decreased and increased respectively over time (P<0.001). Difference in dry matter distribution according to plant height of forbs and Poaceae induced cows to select the first and to avoid the second ones. Keywords: grazing management, mountain pasture, selection, grazing behaviour, dairy cows Introduction A growing interest has recently been put on extensive grazing systems in mountain areas for their environmental sustainability and maintenance of biodiversity. Grazing is a major tool for conservation and animal selection strongly affects sward dynamics and structure. Herbivores could consume vegetation homogeneously, or re-graze limited areas continuously. Homogeneous grazing characterizes the more intensive exploitations where animal selection is limited so that they consume herbage by stratum (Teague and Dowhower, 2003; Morris, 2002). Patch grazing frequently occurs in extensive grazing systems. Grazing intensity changes in relation to pasture fertility (Dumont et al., 2007) and moment of exploitation (Ksiksi et al., 2006; Dumont et al. 2007). The aim of this work was to investigate foraging behaviour and species selection by dairy cows under two different grazing systems on mountain grasslands, with an improved grazed class method (Schmutz et al., 1963). Material and methods Two dairy cow grazing systems on central France mountain pastures Table 1: Experiment design of R were compared: continuous grazing (E) at low stocking density (0.96 Stocking Day of LU*ha-1) and rotational grazing (R) at higher stocking density (1.56 Period rate -1 exploitation LU*ha ). The E plot (12.5ha) was a species-rich grassland belonging cows/ha to two vegetation types: poor (E1) and fertile (E2).The R plot (7.7ha) P1 H: 10 M: 05 of 9 was an old hay grassland. Plots were exploited by 12 Montbeliarde P2 L: 5 B: 03 of11 cows. To evaluate changes in cows behaviour during the whole P3 L: 5 M: 6 of 12 season grazing was observed in early June, early July and late August in plot E. Stocking density effect (high H or low L) and changes of herbage consumption during grazing event (beginning B or mid M) were tested in R (table 1). The proportion of DM removed for six (E) and four (R) representative species in relation to their height was assessed with the grazed class method along six 50-pin transects on each plot. Specie selection indices (SI) were calculated as the ratio between DM consumption (%) weighted on specific contribution (SC) and SC itself. SI>1 and SI<1 indicated selected or avoided species, respectively. Grazed tuft frequency (GF) was calculated as the ratio between the number of grazed turfs and their total in the plot. Mean bite depth was estimated as the ratio between the number of grazed tufts belonging to high (HGP), medium (MGP) or short grazed patches (SGP) and the total of grazed tufts.
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Results and discussion On the more fertile vegetation type (E2), stable GF (P=0.098; table 2), and highly decreasing of HGP between P1 and P2 to the profit of MGP and SGP before being stable between P2 and P3 (P<0.001; Figure 1) proved that cows returned to previous grazed areas, showing patch grazing. Such behaviour, related to higher nutritive value of short re-grown patches, has already been observed in fertile plots exploited by beef cattle, which moved to taller ungrazed patches only at the end of the season probably to balance forage quality and quantity (Ksiksi et al., 2006; Dumont et al., 2007). In E1 cows exhibited an investigation grazing pattern throughout the season, as shown by the increasing GF (table 2) and constant HGP values. Dumont et al. (2007) reported the same trend for cattle grazing less productive plots. On E plot, cows consumed fertile vegetation first, particularly the more palatable species, avoiding Festuca nigrescens. With patch grazing especially, prostrate and small size species with fast regrowth were selected (i.e. Trifolium repens, and Achillea millefolium, (table 3). On R plot the non-significance of both stocking rate (P1 vs. P3) and day of exploitation (P2 vs. P3) on GF (table 2) associated with the reduction of HGP during grazing event (P<0.001; Figure 1) and the growth of MGP (P<0.001), increasing with stocking rate and during grazing event (as SGF; P<0.001), so that a hypothesis that animals consume vegetation exploitation by stratum could be suggested. Similar trends have already been observed by Teague and Dowhower (2003) and Morris (2002). Grazing by stratum affected SI, in relation to species height and DM distribution. Poaceae, whose DM is concentrated close to ground layers, were avoided (table 3), whilst Trifolium repens, because of its prostrate habit, was heavily selected.
Table 2: Evolution of GF during periods in relation to vegetation
Type E1 E2 R P1 14,6 52,5 73,1 GF % P2 P3 37,3 B 45,6 C 53,0 66,5 55,6 A 66,5 AB Period s.e. effect 2,43 *** 2,39 t 6,14 *** Figure 1: Evolution of the grazing patches along the periods for each type.
A B
Table 3: Species SC and SI. *significant to Students t test.

Species SC % SI Continous grazing 15,3 0,95 Agrostis tenuis 18,4 0,71* Festuca nigrescens 2,7 0,90 Trifolium pratense 7,4 1,24* Trifolium repens 5,3 1,35* Achillea millefolium 2,4 1,08 Plantago lanceolata Rotational grazing 14,3 0,77* Dactylis glomerata 11,3 0,60* Poa trivialis 16,9 1,48* Trifolium repens Taraxacum 12,8 0,97 officinale s.e. 0,020 0,013 0,029 0,029 0,047 0,049 0,057 0,032 0,053 0,051
Conclusions In extensive grazing systems, with different vegetation coexisting within the same plot, animals overgraze the vegetation they prefer and walk across the less fertile area inducing fertility transfer (Cavallero et al., 2007). In the long term, transfer results in nitrophilous species encroachment of more fertile pastures and evolution towards oligotrophic types of the less fertile ones, always with a reduction of forage quality. Rotational grazing systems assure the availability of herbage in the vegetative stage throughout the season with related positive effects on milk production. On the other hand extensive grazing systems, if correctly managed, allow biodiversity improvement and conservation and are able to give high quality dairy products.
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References
Cavallero A, Aceto P, Gorlier A, Lombardi G, Lonati M, Martinasso B, Tagliatori C 2007. I tipi pastorali delle Alpi piemontesi. Alberto Perdisa Editore, Bologna, Italy. Dumont B, Rook AJ, Coran C, Rver KU 2007. Effects of livestock breed and grazing intensity on biodiversity and production in grazing systems. 2.Diet selection. Grass & Forage Science. 62, 159-171 Ksiksi T, Hirata M, Ogura S, Fukuyama K 2006. Effect of patch characteristics on progressive pasture utilization by cattle. World Journal of Agricultural Science. 2 (2), 162-168 Morris CD 2002. Patch grazing of Tall Grassveld by cattle after a spring burn. African Journal of Range and Forage Science. 19 (2), 107-116 Schmutz EM, Holt GA, Michaels CC 1963. Grazed class method of estimating forage utilization. Journal of Range Management 16, 54-60 Teague WR and Dowhower SL 2003. Patch dynamics under rotational and continuous grazing management in large, heterogeneous paddocks. Journal of Arid Environment. 53 (2), 211-229
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Production of beef in mountain areas and fatty acid composition of the muscle longissimus dorsi in the Herens breed. Prospects for traceability
Dufey P.-A.*, Collomb M. Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld Posieux ALP, 1726 Posieux, Switzerland *pierre-alain.dufey@alp.admin.ch
Abstract Grass-based feeding constitutes a link with a specific geographical area which can be reflected in the lipid composition of the muscle. A fatty acid profile was carried out on Swiss meat from two grassland-based mountain farms, located at the same altitude, one in the Alps (MontVS) and the other in the Jura (MontJU), and from a farm on the plain practicing intensive fattening without grass (Plains). At a similar lipid content (Plains and MontVS) feeding based on mountain grass tripled the proportion of C18: 3n-3 and the n-6/n-3 ratio was lower. The distribution of trans-C18:1 isomers was better in the MontVS and MontJU animals. Some fatty acids increased proportionally to the quantity of total lipids but the slope of this relationship differed according to the food diet, even between two grass-based diets. A multivariate analysis based on the fatty acids enabled a 100% discrimination of the three diets. These results suggest the possibility of using a certain number of fatty acids as an indicator of grass consumption and as a means of tracing the location of production. Further analyses are underway to validate this perspective. Keywords: mountain beef, fatty acids, traceability, biomarker, Introduction The meat quality of animals from extensive production systems in mountain areas is not well known. Pasture feeding is special, on the one hand, because it is a link to the production site and, on the other hand, because grass could confer special characteristics to meat from a nutritional and sensory point of view particularly by changing the fat composition. Grass has beneficial effects which increase the meat contents of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) (Scollan et al., 2006). The n6/n3 ratio is also improved. These several levels can be influenced by bio-hydrogenation during ruminal digestion and could be higher after consumption of mountain grass as observations on milk have shown. The assumption is that the alpine flora could diminish bio-hydrogenation (Collomb et al.,2004; Chilliard et al.,2007). In order to determine the characteristics of meat produced on the basis of local forages in the mountains, two farms at the same altitude but in very different areas, one located on the Alps in the Valais and the other on the Swiss Jura mountains, were compared with a farm on the plains practicing intensive fattening without grass. Only the results of the total lipid content and the fatty acid composition are presented here. Material and methods A total of 43 Herens steers, a rustic breed from the Valais in Switzerland, were fattened in a free-stall barn on the Plains at 380 m (Plains) and at 1200 m in two different mountain areas: one on the Alps in Valais (MontVS) and the other on the Jura mountains (MontJU). The animals in the Plains group received a food containing maize silage and alfalfa and did not have access to pastures. After a wintering on site, the animals in the MontVS and MontJU groups spent an average of 100 and 140 days respectively on the pastures before slaughter. The average ages of the steers at slaughter were 18 (Plains), 20 (MontVS) and 21 months (MontJU). Slaughter took place at an industrial slaughter-house after standardizing the duration and intensity of transport. The samples for fatty acid analyses were taken from the longissimus muscle (thoracis=LT) between the 9th and 10th ribs and freeze-dried. After extraction with a solution of methylene chloride / methanol 2/1 (V/V), the glycerides were saponified using a solution of NaOH/methanol (0.5 M) and the fatty acids esterified to methylesters using an excess boron trifluoride as a catalyst. The fatty acid composition was analyzed by gas/liquid chromatography with an FID detector (Collomb and Bhler, 2000). The fatty acids were separated on a CP-Sil 88 capillary column and quantified using tridecanoic acid as an internal standard. The CLA isomers were analyzed according to Collomb et al., (2004) by Ag+-HPLC, an apparatus equipped with a photodiode detector (234 nm) and three ChromSpher Lipid columns in series. Hexane (UV quality) containing 0.1% of acetonitrile and 0.5% diethyl ether was used as a solvent (flow: 1 mL/min). Statistical processing of the results was carried out by analysis of variance and multiple comparisons according to the Newman-Keuls test, by scatter-plot, and by discriminant factorial analysis (NCSS, 2000).
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Results and discussion The meat from the Plains and MontVS had similar lipid contents but the feed containing mountain grass principally increased the percentage of C18: 3n-3 by a factor 3, as well as the total amount of n-3 compared to the feed on the plains mainly made up of maize silage (table 1). The percentages of n-6 were similar butthe n-6/n-3 ratio was lower by a factor of 2. The differences from the MontJU animals are greater because of a reduced content of total lipids and thus the contribution of the membrane lipids is proportionally more important. The percentage (20%) of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is made up for by a reduction in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and not by a reduction in saturated fatty acids (SFA) as in milk (Chilliard et al., 2007).
Table 1. Effect of the farming systems on the total lipid contents and fatty acid composition of LT muscle (expressed as a % of identified FA)
Farming system Total lipids (g/100g LT) C18 :2 (n-6) C18 :3 (n-3) C20 :5 (n-3)EPA C22 :5 (n-3)DPA C22 :6 (n-3)DHA SFA MUFA PUFA n-6 n-3 n-6/n-3 Plains 1.75a 5.9b 0.4c 0.2b 0.5b 0.06b 45.7 43.4a 10.9b 9.7b 1.4c 6.8a MontVS 1.95a 6.7b 1.3b 0.4b 0.6b 0.06b 47.2 40.7b 12.2b 9.5ab 2.6b 3.7b MontJU 0.90b 8.3a 3.5a 1.5a 1.5a 0.14a 45.4 35.3c 19.4a 12.0a 7.1a 1.7c (p) <0.001 <0.01 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 NS <0.001 <0.001 <0.05 <0.001 <0.001
The distribution of the C18: 1 trans-isomers (fig.1) was better in the MontVS and MontJU animals, since the percentages of the problematic
% 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 t4 t5
Plains
MontVS
MontJU
a b c
a b a a b
t9
a c b c
t11
a ba a b c
t13-14 +c6-8 t16 +c14
t6-8
t10
t12
TVA
Figure 1. Distribution of the C18-1 trans-isomers as a function of the farming system, maize/alfalfa (Plains) and mountain grass (MontVS / MontJU)
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SFA: saturated fatty acids; MUFA : mono-unsaturated fatty acids; PUFA : poly-unsaturated fatty acids. NS : non significant. Values are means.isomers trans-9 and trans-10 were lower and the trans-11 isomer, or trans-vaccenic acid (TVA), the precursor of 9c11t-CLA, was higher compared to that on the Plains. As indicated above, the comparison between different diets is often problematic because of the interaction with the total quantity of lipids. Therefore, each fatty acid (mg per 100 g of muscle) was related to the total quantity of lipids (scatter plot). This graphic approach made it possible to highlight, for some, a specific relationship to the different diets. The slopes can be very different even between two diets containing grass as can be seen for CLA 11t13c (fig. 2a). In addition, the C18 acid: 3 n-6 would seem to be an indicator of grass consumption since this fatty acid was not detected in the muscle of the animals from the Plains (fig. 2b). As illustrated in figure 2c, discriminant factorial analysis, using some fatty-acids, made it possible to accurately (100%) distinguish each animal as a function of its membership of a given group.
mg/100g meat
Plains
MontVS
MontJU
1.0
mg/100g meat
Plains
MontVS
MontJU
1.00
C18:2 t-11,c-13 (CLA)
0.7
0.75
C18:3 n-6
0.50
0.3
0.25
0.0
0.0
1.3
2.7
4.0
0.00
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
IMF
IMF
Factorial discriminant analysis
Canonical-Variates Scores
15.00
2c.
Figure 2. Presence of fatty acids 11t13c-C18 :2 (CLA) (2a) and C18 :3 n-6 (2b) as a function of the quantity of intramuscular fat (IMF) and farming system. (2c) Discriminant factorial analysis as a function of the farming system. Diet: maize/alfalfa (Plains) and mountain grass from the Valais Alps (MontVS) and the Jura (MontJU).
6.25 Plains MontVS -2.50 MontJU
Score1
-11.25
-20.00 -10.00 -6.00 -2.00 2.00 6.00
Score2
Conclusions The increase in concentrations of certain fatty acids in muscle LT is a linear function of the total quantity of lipids but the slope differs as a function of diet. These observations would suggest the possibility of using a certain number of fatty acids as an indicator of grass consumption and as a means of tracing the location of production. Further analyses are necessary and are underway to validate this prospect. References
Chilliard Y., Glasser F., Enjalbert F., Ferlay A., Bocquier F., Schmidely Ph., 2007. Renc. Rech. Ruminants, 14, 321328. Collomb M., Bhler T., 2000. Trav. Chim. Alim. Hyg., 91, 306-332. Collomb M., Sieber R., Btikofer U., 2004. Lipids, 39, 355-364. NCSS, 2000. Published by Number Cruncher Statistical Systems, Dr. J. L. Hintze. Kaysville, Utah. Scollan N., Hocquette J.F., Nuernberg K., Dannenberger D., Richardson I., Moloney A., 2006. Meat Science, 74, 1733
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Contagious mastitis control in mountain pasture as a means to increase its sustainability

Zecconi A.1, Pecile A.2*, Chiappin P.2, Partel E.2, Clauser G.2 , Giovanelli P.2, Stroppa L.2, Mazzilli M.1, Zanini L.3 1 Dipartimento di Patologia animale, Igiene e Sanit Pubblica Veterinaria, Sezione di Malattie Infettive, Universit degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano 2 Fondazione Edmund Mach, Istituto Agrario San Michele allAdige, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 San Michele allAdige (TN), Italy 3 Associazione Provinciale Allevatori di Como & Lecco, Via Diaz 5, 22036 Erba (CO), Italy *angelo.pecile@iasma.it
Abstract The pressure to increase dairy herd efficiency and the stringent regulations on hygiene and disease control induce many farmers to avoid the traditional mountain pasture in Trentino Region during summer (an Alpine area in North-East Italy). However, mountain pasture has an important role for this area to decrease the feeding costs, to increase cow welfare and to maintain local traditions and culture. In mountain pasture all cows (even if they are coming from different herds) are milked together. This typical procedure represents a great risk for transmission of contagious pathogens and particularly of mastitis ones such as Str.agalactiae and Staph.aureus. Previous experiences on contagious mastitis control confirmed that segregation at milking plays a major role in reducing the spread of infections. Therefore, we started a project aimed to show how segregation of infected cows only at milking in an Alpine hut would be an efficient method to control contagious mastitis in mountain pasture conditions. The project involved an Alpine hut with about 150 cows from 13 herds. Quarter milk samples were taken before the departure to the Alpine hut (beginning of June) and a week after the arrival, to define health status of the cows. 41 cows were positive in at least one quarter for contagious mastitis pathogens, while all the other 106 were negative. All the cows were identified by a collar with electronic transponder and a sorting-gate was placed at the entrance of the waiting area of the milking parlour (5+5 herringbone parlour). Only negative cows had the direct access to the milking parlour, while the positive ones were collected in a pen to be milked last. Quarter milk samples were taken monthly throughout the whole summer until the middle of September, when cows returned to their own herd. Only 4 new infections were detected during the follow-up period. The extra-labour required to segregate cows and a part of the investment were balanced by the improvement in milk quality (and therefore of milk price). These results suggest that mountain pasture could be used even in presence of contagious mastitis pathogens when segregation is maintained during milking and that this procedure increases the sustainability of mountain pasture for dairy farmers in Alpine area. Keywords: Mountain pasture, contagious mastitis, control Introduction In Spring 2008 the Center for the Technical Assistance of FEM-Istituto Agrario di San Michele all'Adige in collaboration with the Federazione Provinciale degli Allevatori (FPA) Trento, the DIPAV - University of Milan and Associazione Provinciale Allevatori Como & Lecco, have promoted a project to assess the possibility to handle the problem by "contagious mastitis during the period of mountain pasture. In Trentino alpine pasture is essential for maintaining the environmental value that characterizes the mountain livestock, in order to preserve historical and cultural roots, but also for livestock use of forage resources that would otherwise be recovered elsewhere. It is clear however, that if we want the mountain pasture to be practiced by nowadays companies and cows, there must be a real qualitative leap in managing cows in alpine huts. The infectious germs, particularly Staphylococcus aureus, but also Streptococcus agalactiae, find in milking their mode of transmission. Consequently, the only possible control system is milking healthy animals separately from those infected. Considering the conditions of mountain pasture, milking of animals from different farms, each carrying different "bacteriological baggage", it is crucial for the udder of the cows, under the hygienic and sanitary point of view. As evidence, it is not unusual to see an increase in the cellular content in cows grazed in the mountain; and to see animals coming back from the mountain with some disease, after the pasture. The goal was to put in place operational arrangements which enable the control of Staph. Aureus and Str. Agalactiae diffusion in pastures, so indicating that the hut can even not be a place for propagation of infections and therefore renew the interest in the hut activities by companies who find convenient working in the valley bottom.
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Materiel and Methods The project was carried out in Juribello hut, 1868 m.a.s.l, a demo/trial station, managed by the Federazione Provinciale Allevatori (FPA) Trento. Grazing during the day is free/guided, while the night the cows are kept in large outdoor enclosures. In April and May the determination of the health status of about 150 animals to go to pasture, has been made, doing two bacteriological tests on milk from each quarter, in the 13 companies involved. The herd was so divided in two sanitary groups: healthy and infected. Approximately 10 days after the ascent to the alpine pastures, all those present underwent the cyto-bacteriological analysis, to confirm the health status and to characterize strains of Staph. aureus. At the end of these investigations, the two groups were as follows: on the one hand, the healthy cows (106 heads) and on the other hand the infected cows, or cows with positive microbiological results for Staph. aureus or Str. agalactiae (41 heads) on milk. To keep this division an electronic selector gate has been installed at the entrance of the waiting room. With the help of an operator, the gate allowed the division of the herd, before each milking, in the two enclosures expressly prepared. Milking was done in a milking parlour with 5+5 herringbone posts and was raised by two operators providing: scrap and observation of the first jets of milk, cleansing foam product on the nipple, drying with disposable paper and disinfection post-milking. After the milking moment, all animals belonging to the two groups grazed together. Before the descent into the valley (September), the group defined as healthy underwent new analysis in order to detect the presence of any new infections by contagious bacteria. Results and discussion The results obtained were excellent, as at the end of the mountain pasture period, only 4 cows, previously health, were found infected. In our view, these new infections are imputable to previous false- negative cows. Furthermore from the evaluation of data obtained by functional checks of the FPA over the period September 2007-July 2008, resulted that the group of healthy cows is constantly, in terms of cell count, much less than the group of infected cows. The quality of milk produced was excellent, with cell counts always below the threshold of 300,000 cells/ml, with protein and fat values of around 3.5 and 4.5% respectively. Conclusion As far as we know this is the first trial which sought to implement a program of segregation in health care groups in alpine pasture. The results, assuredly good, show that this procedure can be applied even in the alpine meadow. However, the management of sanitary groups involves an increase in labour and costs, especially when milking is performed in the milking parlour, so that the gate or operator/selector must be prevued. It is, anyway, clear that the extra-work is greatly rewarded on both economic side (score quality milk), and from the viewpoint of maintaining the health of the udder and herd in general, not counting the undoubtedly positive effects on the cheese. The results also confirm, if it was still necessary, that milking, combined with the timely and professional work of the milker staff, remains the key to drastically limit the spread of contagious mastitis in the breeding. References
Binda, E., R. Piccinini, G. Casirani, and A. Zecconi. (2003). La gestione sanitaria degli allevamenti: il controllo delle infezioni da Staph.aureus. Pages 243-251 in XXXV Societ Italiana Buiatria. Editografica (BO), Altavilla Vicentina (VI) 15-17/05/2003. Dapr, V., R. Piccinini, and A. Zecconi. (2006). Le mastiti costano molto all'allevatore. Informatore Agrario 62(2):5964. Roberson, J. R., K. L. Fox, D. D. Hancock, J. M. Gay, and T. E. Besser. (1994). Ecology of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from various sites of dairy farms. J Dairy Sci 77:3354-3364. Zecconi, A., R. Piccinini, E. Binda, A. Cattaneo, and L. Zanini. (2004a). Controllare le mastiti possibile anche nei piccoli allevamenti. Informatore Agrario 39(suppl.1):27-30. Zecconi, A., R. Piccinini, and K. L. Fox. (2003). Epidemiologic study of intramammary infections with Staphylococcus aureus during a control program in nine commercial dairy herds. JAVMA 223:684-688. Zecconi, A., R. Piccinini, and K. L. Fox. (2004b). Epidemiological study of non-contagious intramammary infections in nine commercial dairy herds following a Staphylococcus aureus control programme. J.Vet.Med. B 51:333-336. Zecconi, A., R. Piccinini, and S. Romani. (2001). Results and cost-benefit analysis of a Staph.aureus control program in commercial dairy herds. Pages 311-315 in 2nd International Symp. on Mastitis and Milk Quality, Vancouver (13-15 sep 2001).
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PASTO: animal performance and economical results

1
Chassot A.1, Deslandes K.A.2 Research Station Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux ALP, Posieux, Switzerland 2 AGRIDEA, Lausanne, Switzerland *andre.chassot@alp.admin.ch
Abstract The purpose of this part of the PASTO project was to develop at farm level an extensive production system fulfilling a dual function - beef production and maintenance of the mountain landscape - and to compare it to a conventional system. A herd of Herens suckler cows was exclusively kept under mountain conditions on a base farm in the Jura chain and on bushy alpine pastures in Central Valais during summering. With respect to performance, the results show that combining meat production in mountain areas with maintenance of the landscape is possible. However, the production system must be well managed in order to reach a feeding intensity level that is required to obtain the desired carcass quality, particularly the fatness score, and also to maintain a sufficient body condition score of the suckler cows. At the economical level, this dual purpose production system is profitable as long as the feeding costs are maintained under control. Keywords: extensive production systems, beef cattle, suckler cows, local breed, landscape conservation Introduction The purpose of this part of the PASTO project was to develop and test, on a farm scale, a livestock farming system with two functions: production of beef and maintenance of the landscape and to compare it to a system centred only on the production of meat. The zootechnical and economic performances of the systems tested in the project are presented here. Material and methods An innovative livestock farming system with a dual function (S2Fo) - production of meat and maintenance of the landscape - and a system with a single function of meat production (S1Fo) were compared. Both systems involved Herens suckler cows. The tests took place at two sites in the mountains: a base farm at La Frtaz at an altitude of 1200 m on the Jura chain, and a summering site on the mountain pastures of Larzey which is a bushy pasture located between 1400 and 2000 m in central Valais. At La Frtaz, two independent units were each subjected to a production intensity specific to each system which was slightly lower for S2Fo than for S1Fo. In winter, both herds were held separately. During the summer period, S2Fo was subdivided into two subgroups. In the first group, the calves were summered with their mother and weaned after leaving the mountains (S2Fo-late weaning). In the second group, they were weaned before going to the mountains and were kept on the pasture at La Frtaz, without supplements (S2Fo-early weaning). The results are from three production cycles (series). Nine cow-calf pairs were used in each of the three systems or subsystems. An economic analysis itemized the specific costs and the performance to calculate the gross margin. This represents the surplus realised by the production sectors to cover the real structure costs, the equity return and remuneration for work on the farm. Results and discussion The cows body condition score and weight remained at a low level throughout each of the three production cycles in the S2Fo - late weaning system where the weight accorded to the function of maintenance of the landscape within the system was at a maximum. At no time was the feeding intensity sufficient to allow the cows to recover. Even though this can have a negative effect on the longevity of the cows, the culling rate did not differ between the systems after three complete production cycles. The rate of calf growth was relatively high during the first four to five months of life which corresponds to the winter feeding period. Then, during the first three months of grazing, it remained similar in groups S1Fo and S2Fo-late weaning, but decreased constantly until the autumn in the S2Fo calves weaned in spring (S2Fo-early weaning). In contrast, the growth of the S2Fo calves weaned in autumn (S2Fo-late weaning) only decreased after the eighth month of life, i.e. towards the end of July. These results, on the one hand, show the importance of milk contribution by the mother and on the other hand, the good forage quality in early summer of bushy mountain pastures. However this calf performance was obtained partly to the detriment of the body condition of the cows. By withdrawing calves from their mothers at midsummer, it should be possible to reconcile the needs for the maintenance of the landscape with the zootechnical requirements. The difference in the weight of calves at 10 months of age between systems
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S1Fo and S2Fo, as well as the difference in the body condition of the cows, represents a part of the price to pay for the use of the cows in the fight against bushy mountain pastures. In series 1 and 2, the growth of the S2Fo yearlings after 10 months remained poor in winter as well as in summer on the pastures under the grazing conditions at La Frtaz. The slaughtered animals did not satisfy carcass quality requirements, especially with regard to fatness score. The results improved slightly in the second series because the animals received an energy supplement to grazing, but the fatness score of the carcasses was sufficient in only 35% of the cases. Because of this inadequacy between the intensity of feeding and type of animal, the finishing mode was profoundly modified in the third series, making it possible to obtain optimal quality carcasses. The gross margin without subventions is a measure of creation of commercial wealth by a production system on a given market. The system S1Fo series 1 is the only one where meat production covers all specific costs generated by agricultural activity i.e. the balance is positive and thus the only one to generate wealth. When one takes into account federal subventions, the tendency is reversed; the gross margin of extensive systems exceeds that of intensive systems. The most interesting gross margin for a producer is the S2Fo system with late weaning. Public subventions favour the extensive system. On the purely economic level, the various tested systems delivered contrasting results. The most influential variables are, on the one hand, the slaughter weight of the animals and their sale price, which greatly depends on the time of sale and the quality of the carcasses, and on the other hand, feed supplements, which definitely make it possible to optimize the results but which weigh heavily on costs. It is thus a question of rigorously reasoning the periods when a supplement is necessary as a function of the developmental stage of the animals, as well as the duration and the type of finishing. Among the alternatives tested, the system which best combines weight, conformation, time of sale and control of the cost of feed is the S2Fo extensive system with late weaning and a short finishing period as applied in series 2. The feeding could be slightly intensified during the finishing period to optimize the zootechnical result without greatly reducing the gross margin, particularly by increasing the provision of grass (quantity and quality) and a slightly increasing energy supplements. Since the objective of the system tested was also to contribute to the maintenance of the landscape, it is also a question of evaluating its performance. The extensive system with late weaning, which combines a long grazing period with a maximum stocking rate (cows accompanied by their calf), is also the most favourable. Finally, federal subventions are also a crucial variable in the formation of a gross margin. Their mode of attribution depends on political and social willingness to encourage or at least maintain extensive livestock farming systems in mountainous area. The optimal system thus manages at best to assemble these different variables: gross margin, maintenance impact, and subventions.
Conclusions Production of meat on the mountains and maintenance of the landscape are reconcilable, in so far as a minimal intensity of feeding is guaranteed during the decisive production phases for carcass quality of young bovines and the body condition score of the cows. The zootechnical performance greatly depends on the weight given to the maintenance of the landscape within the livestock farming system. The extensive bovine system of suckler Herens on mountain pastures, producing 24 month old slaughter cattle after a short finishing period is that which best fulfils both the economic objectives and maintenance of the landscape.
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Fatty acid composition and shelf life of beef raised on biodiverse pastures
Richardson R.I.*, Whittington F.M., Wood J.D. Division of Farm Animal Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol, BS40 5DU, UK *ian.richardson@bristol.ac.uk
Abstract Four Traditional British breeds of cattle were raised on different biodiverse pastures. When slaughtered at 30 months of age, their carcasses and muscle were low in fat which resulted in high proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids and less saturates. The meat also had very high concentrations of vitamin E and good colour and fat stability. Keywords: Fatty acids, colour, TBARS, Vitamin E Introduction A combination of genetic and environmental factors may combine in some primitive or Traditional breeds to produce traits that could be valuable in maintaining or enhancing biodiversity in grasslands of high nature conservation interest e.g. selective grazing, smaller size and lower maintenance requirements. Breed is an important factor affecting the total amount of fat in meat and there is increasing evidence that it may also affect fatty acid composition independently of fat level. Thus, Welsh Black cattle had higher n3 PUFA concentrations than Holstein-Friesian cattle (Choi et al., 2000) and Traditional breeds performed well on unimproved upland grassland (Fraser et al., 2009). Fresh grass is a good source of vitamin E and other antioxidants which helps to raise the concentration in tissues of grazing animals and to extend colour shelf and lower fat oxidation (Warren et al., 2009). The present study aimed to determine whether grazing pastures high in biodiversity of botanical species resulted in meat that was different in fatty acid composition and shelf life, to that from beef reared on a more conventional rye-grass pasture. Material and methods Forty Traditional breed beef steers were reared on special biodiverse pastures in different parts of England. The breeds studied were Beef Shorthorn, Longhorn, Belted Galloway and Traditional Hereford. The sites were Ingleborough in North Yorkshire (limestone, 58 plant species), Parsonage Down in Wiltshire (chalk, 41 plant species) and Home Farm in Wiltshire (chalk 40 species). The first 2 sites are Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Langford in Somerset (old ley, 14 plant species) was grazed by Beef Shorthorn as a control comparison. All the steers were reared from 6 to about 30 months of age with no concentrate feeding. During the winter they were fed only on conserved silage or hay. The steers were slaughtered at the EU-licensed University of Bristol abattoir where chilling was delayed to ensure that the deepest part of the loin muscle did not reach 10C until the pH had fallen below 6.00. Loin muscle was sampled and frozen at 48 hours post-slaughter for fatty acid (Teye et al., 2006) and vitamin E analysis (Liu et al., 1996) and a further sample was aged for 10 days before cutting into steaks and subjecting to simulated retail display for colour and TBARS measurement as described by Warren et al. (2008). Results and discussion Carcass side weight was highest in the Beef Shorthorns reared at Langford (177 kg) and lowest in the Beef Shorthorns reared at Ingleborough (104 kg) (Table 1). Fat score followed a similar trend, being highest in the Langford Beef Shorthorns (4L) and lowest in the Ingleborough Beef Shorthorns (2). This comparison illustrates the difficulty in producing heavy, well finished steers on unimproved pastures within 30 months. Conformation score was highest in the Traditional Herefords (R) and lowest in both breed groups from Ingleborough (O+). Lipid oxidation in muscle, measured as TBARS, was uniformly low and lower than seen previously and vitamin E concentration was higher, with values around 6.0 mg/kg. Colour was stable (chroma value > 18.0) for at least 9 days. The highest PUFA proportions were seen where the concentrations of fatty acids were lowest. Hence, total PUFA were 6.7% of total fatty acids for the Beef Shorthorn finished on the Langford pasture but ranged form 11.4-13.1 % in the leaner animals reared on the biodiverse pastures. In all the traditional breeds reared on unimproved pastures, marbling fat was below 2% of muscle weight, 18:2n-6 was above 4% of total fatty acids, 18:3n-3 was above 1.7%, 20:5 n-3 was above 1% and 22:6n-3 was above 0.1%. These values for n-3 PUFA proportions are higher than reported elsewhere in the literature (Enser et al, 1998). This resulted in a P:S ratio of ~0.3 which is closer to the desirable value of 0.4 which is the aim in ruminant studies.
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Table 1. Effect of breed and pasture on carcass data, shelf life and fatty acid composition of total lipid in longissimus muscle.
Beef Shorthorn. Langford Cold side wt Fatness Conformation TBARS day9 Chroma day9 Vitamin E (mg/100g) Total FA SFA MUFA PUFA % C16:0 C18:0 C18:1tr C18:1cis-9 C18:2 n-6 C18:3 n-3 9cis,11tr CLA C20:4 n-6 C20:5 n-3 C22:5 n-3 C22:6 n-3 P:S n-6/n-3
abc
Beef Shorthorn Yorkshire. 131.2 b 46.7 b 61.7 0.58 ab 21.1 ab 6.1 1432 b 578 b 454 b 170 b 22.51 a 14.99 3.79 c 26.67 a 4.32 b 1.70 b 0.69 c 2.71 b 1.28 b 1.76 b 0.21 b 0.31 b 1.59 b
Belted Galloway Yorkshire. 101.4 c 50.5 b 61.5 0.98 b 18.4 a 5.6 1353 b 514 b 482 b 163 b 21.01 a 14.72 2.68 b 30.71 b 4.56 b 1.80 b 0.54 b 2.31 a 1.33 b 1.85 b 0.19 b 0.33 b 1.49a
173.6 a 92.1 a 76.4 0.86 b 22.6 b 5.6 3173 a 1349 a 1167 a 207 a 24.77 b 14.76 3.55 c 31.83 b 2.80 a 1.11 a 0.88 c 1.03 a 0.51 a 0.78 a 0.08 a 0.16 a 1.67 bc
Longhorn Wiltshire Parsonage Down 139.4 b 55.0 b 60.6 0.59 ab 23.2 b 5.7 1762 b 689 b 577 b 191 ab 21.71 a 15.15 3.67 c 27.70 a 4.39 b 2.11 b 0.79 c 1.64 a 1.17 b 1.44 b 0.14ab 0.23 b 1.36 a
Hereford Wiltshire Salisbury Plain 121.2 bc 71.0 ab 79.0 0.27 a 18.7 a 6.3 1462 b 566 b 517 b 188 ab 22.65 a 13.70 1.36 a 30.64 b 5.15 b 1.73 b 0.33 a 2.52 b 1.00 b 1.66 b 0.20 b 0.34 b 1.88 c
sed
sig
7.56 10.28 10.01 0.217 1.27 0.33 498 228 191 25 1.687 1.188 0.464 2.503 0.971 0.466 0.131 0.668 0.389 0.450 0.068
*** *** ns * *** ns *** *** *** ** *** ns *** *** *** ** *** *** *** *** ** *** ***
values with different superscripts are significantly different p<0.05 Tukey test, Back transformed data values
Conclusions Cattle grazing biodiverse pastures need longer to finish, but could be slaughtered leaner and have a more favourable fatty acid composition than cattle fed more intensively, particularly in terms of the P:S ratio. The meat has higher vitamin E concentrations and reduced colour and fat oxidation than seen in other production systems. References
Choi, N.J., Enser, M., Wood, J.D. and Scollan, N.D. 2000. Effect of breed on the deposition in beef muscle and adipose tissue of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Animal Science, 71, 509-519. Enser, M., Hallett, K.G., Hewett, B., Fursey, G.A.J., Wood, J.D. and Harrington, G. 1998. Fatty acid content and composition of UK beef and lamb muscle in relation to production system and implications for human nutrition. Meat Science, 49, 329-341. Fraser, M.D., Davies D.A., Vale J.E., Nute, G.R., Hallett, K.G., Richardson, R.I. & Wright I.A.. 2009. Performance and meat quality of native and continental cross steers grazing improved upland pasture or semi-natural rough grazing, Livestock Science, 123, 70-82. Liu, Q., Scheller, K.K., and Schaefer,D.M. 1996. Technical note: A simplified procedure for vitamin E determination in beef muscle. Journal of Animal Science, 74:2406-2410. Teye, G.A., Sheard, P.R., Whittington, F.M., Nute, G.R., Stewart, A. and Wood, J.D. 2006. Influence of dietary oils and protein level on pork quality. 1. Effects on muscle fatty acid composition, carcass, meat and eating quality. Meat Science, 73:157-165. Warren, H.E., Scollan, N.D., Nute, G.R., Hughes, S.I., Wood, J.D., and Richardson, R.I. 2008. Effects of age, breed and a concentrate or grass silage diet on beef quality. II Meat stability and flavour. Meat Science, 78, 270-278.
184
Differences in feed intake of Galloway and Hinterwaelder suckler cows in pastures with Colchicum autumnale
Elsaesser M.*, Goyert C. Agricultural Center for ruminants, grassland management, dairy management, wild life management and fisheries Baden-Wuerttemberg *martin.elsaesser@lazbw.bwl.de
Abstract Observations in a farm near Balingen (Swabian Jura) showed that Galloway suckler cows eat high toxic plant Colchicum autumnale while grazing on extensive grasslands without any damage. In a field experiment during 3 weeks grazing, two groups of suckler cows of different species were compared and their differences in feed intake investigated. A big difference in intake behaviour between Galloway and Hinterwaelder, a local beef breed for unfavourable hilly areas of South Germany, could be observed. Keywords: feed intake, suckler cows, Colchicum autumnale, Galloways, grazing Introduction Colchicum autumnale is a plant with a wide distribution and a high toxicity in South Germany on extensively managed grassland. During growth of the plants the alcaloid content increases. Toxicity doesnt disappear during drying, wiltening, storage or cooking. Alcaloid contents in different parts of the plant are: seed 0.5-1.2%, fresh flowers 1.2-2.0%, fresh leaves until 0.15-0.4%, tuber 1-0.6% (CliniTox, 2008). Letal dosis for men and animals is around 2-40 mg Colchicin. Grazing animals are used to detect toxic plants. Nevertheless observations on a practical farm showed, that Galloway suckler cows have consumed Colchicum on pastures without any apparent damage. Therefore, we investigated this situation and compared Hinterwaelder suckler cows on a pasture in Balingen (Swabian Jura). Material and methods In 2006, 3 suckler cows of each species Hinterwaelder and Galloway grazed during 3 weeks in spring time on two separate pasture parcels of the same size (1200 m2). In these parcels, 4 fix observation plots were installed, where Colchicum plants were counted before and after grazing. Colchicum plants were divided into 4 different damage levelss (from totally deteriorated until untouched). The experiment was repeated in 2007 only with Galloways. The results from 2006 will are reported in this paper. Results and discussion The grazing system was planned with a shortage of forage. The grazing pressure was high enough that Colchicum autumnale should be consumed. The grazing behaviour between the 2 cattle species differed significantly. Hinterwaelder suckler cows took at the end of grazing period by smaller forage growth a bit of the Colchicum plants (figure 1). In contrast of this, totally deteriorated or partly damaged Colchicum plants were much higher in the pasture parcel grazed by Galloways (figure 2). The cows did not show any health problems due to the intake of toxic plants, nevertheless a beef tapeworm in the parcel after grazing could give a sign on the toxic effects of Colchicin. Also investigations of the beef of one of the Galloway cows showed no negative effects. Because of this only short observation, it is not possible to conclude that grazing with Galloways is a suitable measurement for protection against Colchicum autumnale. But it could be found out, that between different species of suckler cows exist big differences in feed intake behaviour and the individual tolerance against poisons.
185
350 300 Amount of Colchicum 250 200 150 100 50 0 O D C B A

48 14,9 17,3 82,5 286,5
400 350 Amount of Colchicum 300 250 200 150

106,5 349
100 50 0 O D C B A
21,5 24,5 20,3
Fig. 1 (Hinterwaelder) and 2 (Galloway): Amount of Colchicum - plants in the sward at beginning of grazing period and after 3 weeks of grazing and percentage of deterioration of single plants (O = sward at the beginning; D = totally eaten plants; C = all leaves eaten excluded kapsel; B = only weak deteriorated; A = untouched plants) (Recovery rate of plants after grazing is not 100 %, because of trampling in the topsoil or coverage of plants through excrements)
Conclusions Feed intake behaviour of different suckler cows spieces differ widely. Hinterwaelder cows avoid toxic Colchicum autumnale even if the feed offer is small and the grazing pressure high. Galloways did not show any problems after the intake of the high toxic plants. However the cows eat the plants only in periods with a shortage of feed. Increases of toxic metabolites in the meet of one investigated Galloway suckler cow could not be observed. References
CliniTox CH, 2008: Website Institut fr Veterinrpharmakologie und -toxikologie, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zrich, Schweiz (www.clinitox.ch) Elser, M. & C. Goyert, 2008: Differenzierte Futteraufnahme von Galloway- und Hinterwlderrindern bei Colchicum autumnale. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fr Pflanzenbauwissenschaften, 20, (im Druck).
186
Index of authors
Abbas K. Abdelguerfi A. Abdouli H. Abrahamsen R.K. Aceto P. Addis M. Alibegovic-Grbic S. Alicata M.-L. Andueza A. Asheim L.J. Balay C. Barmaz A. Bassignana M. Baumont B. Baumont R. Bedia J. Bele B. Bertossa M. Bezdrob M. Blaj V.A. Blanco M. Bocchi S. Bolzan A. Bonanno A. Bni R. Bou M. Brunschwig G. Busqu J. Butnariu M. Cabaas S. Carrre P. Casass I. Chabalier C. Chassot A. Chiappin P. Chourkova B. Civic H. Clauser G. Collomb M. Copani V. Copani V. Coppa M. Cosentino A.D. Cotuna O. Cubil D. underlk J. Dadda G., DOttavio P. 133 133 123 157 141 145 139 153 111 43 71 129 129 75 111 79 157 55 139 87 99 137 109 153 53 95 47 79 113 79 75 99 115 181 179 125 139 179 175 135 137 171 137 113 59 115 55 91 De Pasquale C. Delgado I. Delmas B. Demdoum S. Descombes C.A. Deslandes K.A. Di Grigoli A. Domenech M. Dufey P.-A. Duru C. C. Eliceits P. Elsaesser M. Esteban P. Facchi J. Falchero L. Fanlo R. Farruggia A. Ferlay A. Ferroni L. Fiori M. Flury C. Fois N. Francesia C. Gaddour A. Galbusera G. Galbusera U. Garzoli D. Gasmi-Boubaker A. Gault J. Giovanelli P. Goyert C. Gremigni P. Gueringer A. Hassen H. Hedhly A. Hermenean I. Herzog F. Hofstetter P. Hulin S. Jacquot A.L. Jankowska-Huflejt H. Jeangros B. Kaulfers C. Khiaosa-ard R. Kizekov M. Krautzer B. Kreuzer M. Lacour C. 153 107 75, 111 107 59 181 153 95 175 119 167 185 95 91 165 59, 95 75, 111, 149, 171 149 109 145 15 145 63 51 55 55 55 121, 123 21 179 185 65, 141 71 121, 123 121, 123 87, 131 53 67 75 47 45, 105 101 161 169 115 29 161, 169 75
121,
47,
83,
75, 33,
149, 165, 135,
187
Landre F. Laouar Mr Lauber S. Leiber F. Liesegang A. Lombardi G. Lonati M. Louault F. Lunnan T. Lscher A. Madani T. Madormo F. Makhlouf M. Mandaluniz N. Martin B. Marusca T. Mazzilli M. Meisser M. Mhamedi Bouzina Mr Miville-Ott V. Mocanu V. Moisuc A. Molina E. Monsallier F. Mosquera-Losada R. Muoz F. Nagel R. Najari S. Nilsen L.S. Norderhaug A. Odoardi M. Ohlson M. Ondrek L. Oprea G. Orth D. sterlie M. Paoletti R. Papanastasis V.P. Partel E. Paulsen S.K. Pecile A. Pfefferli S. Piano E. Picard F. Piquet M. Ptsch E.M. Pradel P. Prokopowicz J.
71 133 53 161, 169 161 149, 165, 171 165 111 43, 157 103 133 63 133 167 149, 171 87, 131 179 33 133 33 87, 131 83, 113, 119 59 149 121, 123 107 103 51 157 157 165 157 115 87 71 157 65, 141 25, 117 179 43 179 15 65, 141 111 75 29, 57 149, 171 45
Pythoud F. Revilla R. Richardson R.I. Rigueiro-Rodriguez A. Ruiz R. Samfira I. Santilocchi R. Sreanu V. Schmid S. Schneider M. Schwaiger E. Seidl I. Serra R. Sickel H. Sitzia M. Soliva C.R. Spada S. Speranza M. Stoykova M. V. Stroppa L. Taffetani F. Tedjari N. Testa G. Theau J.P. Tor M. Tornamb G. Troxler J. Turille E. Turille G. Vecchiettini M. Vernetti L. Villalba D. Violleau S. Weyermann I. Whittington F.M. Williams J. Wood J.D. Wrbel B. Yiakoulaki M.D. Zanini L. Zapata J. Zecconi A.
13 99 183 123 167 83 91 83, 113, 119 161 53, 103 57 53 59 157 145 169 145 109 39, 41 179 91 133 135, 137 75 59 153 101 129 129 109 63 59 111 103 183 19 183 105 25, 117 179 111 179
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Mountain Pastures Chieam

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Integrated research for the sustainability of mountain pastures

Edited by Agroscope Changins-Wdenswil Research Station ACW, Switzerland

With support of the following organizations

Switzerlands experience in promoting mountain areas

AgriMontana Agricultures Contribution to Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas

SESSION 1 Transnational and multidisciplinary research programmes

COST as a tool for facilitating collaborative research

Figure1: Thematic and temporal structure of the GeoRange Project (http://www.georange.org)

(Source NSSG, 2001, Direction of Agriculture Report 2002).

Semi-natural grassland as a source of biodiversity

Interdisciplinary project PASTO: How to transfer sustainable and acceptable practices.

See Miville-Ott et al., 2009(a). See Meisser et al., 2009.

0 0 100 200 ADF (g/kg DM) 300 400

S1Fo S2Fo early weaning S2Fo late weaning

Liveweight (kg) Body condition score (1-5)

550 500 450 400 350 3.5

Months after calving

S1Fo S2Fo early weaning S2Fo late weaning

Liveweight (kg) Average daily growth rate (g)

Economy of dairy farming on mountain pastures

Economic results of mountain organic farms in Poland

*Legend. Exchange rate of 1euro = 3.8 PLN was adopted.

Surface,swardcomposition Fertility,soilwaterreserve productiondynamics (biomass,age,digestibilityand crudeprotein) Utilizationrate

Figure 1: Representation of model with inputs and outputs

Pastoral system of the goat in the arid Tunisian

Key words: Breeding mode; rangelands; small ruminant.

Figure 1. Pastoral breeding mode on rangelands in southern Tunisia

summering livestock (LU) gesmmerte Tiere (GVE)

summering livestock (SLU) gesmmerte Tiere (NST)

subsidies (Mio. SFr.) Smmerungsbeitrge (Mio. Fr.)

PRAMIG: Improving grassland in the South of Switzerland

Evaluation of the Austrian agri-environmental program PUL in terms of biodiversity

acceptance related to total AA / no. of farms

Figure 1: Acceptance level of agri-environmental programs in Austria from 1995-2008

Possibilities of organic beef fattening in Pyrenees of Lleida

Figure 1. Project location (Source: http://www.pallarssobira.info/situacio.php)

Sustainability of livestock farms in the Aosta Valley

SESSION 2 Fodder production adapted to the environment

Fig.1 Typology of the forage systems

Fig.2: Biodiversity results

Role of the between-plot plant functional diversity in uplandsdairy farms

Results and discussion

0 400 600 800 1000 Sum of temperature (d) 1200

J15 G15 D12

Low quality Medium quality High quality Very high quality

dairy production (Litres/dairy cow/yr)

Legumes Other botanical families

Cyperaceae and Juncaceae Moses and ferns

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2003 2004 2005

40 30 20 10 0 2003 2004 2005

Table 1. Correlation coefficients (r) between different grassland vegetation parameters

Key words: subalpine pasture, liming, improvement, animal product.

ADL 7.42 7.07 7.25

Figure1. Test plot for selecting the number of components to retain.

Table 1. Seasonal effects on cow activity patterns (LS mean s.d.)

Mean ** 150 169 ns 168 75.6 ns 73.9 71.7 ns 71.9 169

OMD = organic matter digestibility

( ), *, **, ns: see table 1

Heterogeneity of botanical composition in mountain pastures: an overlooked quality of biodiversity

The quality of forages from grasslands in organic farms in Poland

Results and discussion

Semi natural grassland: floristic diversity and plant traits

Abundance of grasses from type A and B (%)

Effect of feeding system ns * * * ns ns ns ns ns ns ** *

T:* P:* I:*

T:* P:* I:**

T:* P: I:***

c9-C18:1 T:* P: I:***

T:* P:* I:*