Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 26 (2002) 577590 www.elsevier.

com/locate/compenvurbsys

A GIS-based environmental modelling system for transportation planners

A.L. Brown*, J.K. Aum
School of Environmental Planning, Grith University, Nathan, Qld, 4111, Australia

Abstract This paper describes a GIS-based environmental modelling system, termed TRAEMS, for use by transport planners in assessing the environmental eects of road trac plans. The system utilises capabilities of GIS to integrate the output from a transport planning activity with land use information to model the environmental impacts of dierent road trac scenarios. TRAEMS enables planners to test transport related environmental impacts at the same time as they are testing the trac carrying eciencies of network plans. The suitability of this type of environmental modelling for planning purposes is illustrated using a case study. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: GIS; Environmental impacts; Road transport; Transportation planners

1. Introduction Road transport investments over the years have contributed a great deal to shaping urban growth and the forms of settlement. Their importance to economic development of cities and regions, combined with issues of environment, congestion and safety, have seen the planning and management of transportation systems high on government agendas worldwide. The adverse environmental eects of road transport include air pollution, pollution of natural drainage systems, noise disturbance and extensive energy consumption. It appears likely that environmental conditions will worsen in most urban areas in the immediate future,

* Corrersponding author. E-mail addresses: lex.brown@mailbox.gu.edu.au (J.K. Aum).

(A.L.

Brown),

j.aum@mailbox.gu.edu.au

0198-9715/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0198-9715(01)00016-3

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with increases in both the number of motor vehicles and the mean distance travelled by each vehicle. There are considerable advantages in incorporating environmental modelling directly into the transport planning processes to enable the assessment of the environmental eects of dierent transport proposals and scenarios simultaneously with the assessment of their trac eects. However, the dominant practice for addressing environmental issues in road transport planning has tended to focus on the use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) of specic roadway projects, or perhaps alternative alignments of roadway projectssay for a new city freeway link (Brewer & Ross, 1996). Environmental impact assessment procedures tend to be carried out late in the planning process at which time major modications to the proposal, particularly those that would need to be considered at the network level, are unlikely to remain as options (Losee & Brown 1996). This paper focuses on environmental evaluation at the network level of transport planning. There is growing interest in considering the environmental eects of road transport at the network level (Losee & Brown, 1996). A range of systems for modelling environmental impacts of transport are in use or under development [for example, ESTEEM (Hall, Titherridge, & Banister, 1999), SPARTACUS, (Lautso, Martino, & Toivanen, 1998), IMPEACT (Taylor, Wooley, Young, & Clement, 1994), PROPOLIS (2001) and ADMS-Urban (Owen, Edmunds, & Carruthers, 1999)]. Many of these models have a transport (and often land use allocation) model integrated with the environmental modelling, and some have an additional submodel for decision support with respect to sustainability dimensions of transport or land use options under evaluation. The system described in this paper diers from many of the above on two principles. The rst is that integration of environmental and transport modelling, as a single system, may not always be an advantage. That is in some applications, the essential transport data that is required to drive the environmental modelling should not be generated internally within the model, but through strategic coupling with output from a separate transport model, or obtained from any counted or estimated trac data sets. The second principle is that the modelling focuses on being able to present its outputs as comparisons as this ts with the likely uses for the model in decision making. This modelling system, known as TRAEMS (TRansport planning Add-on Environmental Modelling System) was developed using MapInfo GIS and is intended for use by transport planners as an add-on module to existing transport planning models. The development of the system relies on the capabilities of GIS and uses, as its prime input, the output data from transport models or other trac data, overlaid with land use information in the immediate vicinity of the modelled road trac network. The system is designed to provide rapid information to the transport planner on the environmental eects of any transport proposal being considered and thereby aids in the selection of a preferred transport scenario based on environmental, not just trac related outcomes. The paper concludes with results from a case study to demonstrate the usefulness of this form of modelling in testing the environmental implications of transport planning scenarios.

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2. Predicting transport impacts during transport planning The central focus of transport planning processes has been predicting and modelling trac ows in a transport network based on an understanding of the complex nature of land use and transportation systems. For this, computerised models, usually termed travel demand models (TDM), have been developed and applied extensively in practice. TDM aims to provide information for the design of transport networks that allow optimum and ecient movements of trac and are applied to current and future road network scenarios to assess their performance in terms of trac ow eciencies (usually as volume/capacity ratios). Over several decades, much travel demand modelling did not consider the environmental impacts of the chosen scenarios at the time the transport networks were being modelled and evaluated. It has been demonstrated that much of the data required for modelling the environmental impacts of trac are already produced as output from the TDM (Brown & Patterson 1990; Taylor & Anderson, 1988). The commonality in much of the data required (or produced) in TDM and in environmental modelling of roadways means evaluating environmental impact of a road network can be explicitly added to the transport planning process. This requires the provision of additional land use data layers (such as building locational setbacks, water catchment details, and zonal data) and the integration of the data across the environmental sub-models.

3. Design concepts and structure of TRAEMS TRAEMS is designed for easy use by transport planners as a practical tool. For TRAEMS to serve its intended purpose (i.e. as an add-on system), and capable of use by a wide range of users, the system has been designed to accept data almost seamlessly from the current range of transport models in use. Much eort has therefore been expended to ensure that TRAEMS can utilise virtually any TDM output through the design of a exible user-interface. Eectively it can be seen as augmentation to TDM models already being usedhence the important inclusion of the term Add-on in its acronym. 3.1. User interface Models tend not to be used if they interfere too much with the way people (in this case transport planners) work. There are three main methods available for integrating GIS and models: embedding GIS functionalities entirely within the model (the model dominant approach); implementing the models within the GIS (the GIS dominant approach); and the interface approach. Details of these approaches are outlines in Aum and Taylor (1998), Lewis (1990) and Trinidad and Marquez (1994). Of these methods, the interface approach to the integration of GIS and models, tends to provide the least interference and has been adopted for TRAEMS. Under this approach, the component environmental prediction sub-models were

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developed as routines that behave like modules resident within the GIS and operate via a user interface. Each sub-models module maintains its operational characteristics, but does depend on the GIS for data input, output and display and spatial analysis capabilities. The user interface and the analysis routines were developed using MapBasicthe MapInfo programming language. The entire process runs transparently to the user via the user interface. 3.2. Components of TRAEMS TRAEMS operates entirely within the MapInfo environment, as an additional item in the MapInfo main menu, in the form of pull down menu. It is user-friendly, simple to use and requires no prior knowledge of MapInfo. All input data and output are maintained in MapInfo format, keeping everything simple and uniform. The various components are designed as individual programs in modular form, linked together through a common controller. Separate sub-modules have been designed for each of the environmental factors of interest, namely: trac noise, air pollution, energy consumption and stormwater pollution. The overall structure is shown in Fig. 1. It contains four main modules, namely Data Manager, Models, Scenario and Output. Each of these contains a group of functions and tools used to perform specic tasks as illustrated by the various sub-modules. Below is a brief description of the four main modules. 3.3. Data manager module This module serves as a data capture and input facility system. It has three submodules namely network, raster image capture, and workspace, which enables the system to create, organise and manage the input data les into a single unied data sharing facility for use by all the separate environmental models.

Fig. 1. Main components of TRAEMS.

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The network sub-module is used to generate a detailed road network layout, as a MapInfo map layer from the TDM output data. The raster capture sub-module is used to capture spatial information on land uses abutting the road network based on aerial photographs (or raster images) of the area. By clicking on the front outline of the building of interest as seen on the aerial photograph (say, a building close to a road link), the system automatically captures the buildings locational coordinates, its associated road link identication number, and then computes its setback from the roadway. The workspace sub-module is used to create and organise the various analysis les and tables into a unied data set and also help keep track of all the various processes and outputs during any modelling session. 3.4. Models module This module presents options for estimating and evaluating the environmental eects of trac noise, air pollution, energy consumption, and stormwater run-o due to road trac. Separate sub-modules are developed for carrying out each of the above activities based on existing simple, reliable and proven prediction models. They make use of the same underlying data that is controlled and managed centrally using the data manager module. In computing the environmental eects, the prediction models rst predicts the pollution emissions from the operations of the trac on each link, then estimates pollution exposure of, or immissions to, adjacent land uses. Most environmental pollutants from roadways become a problem only if some land use is sensitive to that pollutant, hence modelling immissions provides an unambiguous measure of environmental impact of the pollutant whereas modelling emissions does not. For example, for trac noise, it is more useful to know the number of noise sensitive structures near the road network that exceeds specied noise criteria and the noise levels at these locations, rather than the length of roadway emitting dierent levels of noise. This emphasis on impact, together with the use of GIS and the operation of the system within a GIS, dierentiates the approach adopted here from other environmental modelling tools for road network such as the ESCORT software (Simonsson, 1993) and the CAR model (Eerens, Sliggers, & Van den Hout, 1993), Netnoise (Woolley, 1994), and ADMS-Urban (Owen et al., 1999). Though Netnoise and ADMS-Urban transport network systems can be linked onto GIS, these models use the GIS only as a front end for data input and display of output results. 3.4.1. Trac noise sub-module The trac noise sub-module is used to estimate link-based road trac noise emissions and immissions. The noise prediction procedure used is based on the Calculation of Road Trac Noise (CoRTN) procedures (UK DoT, 1988) as shown in the following equations. L10 18 hour 29:1 log10 Q Csh Cg Crs Cd Cc Cs Ca Cr L10 1 hour 42:2 log10 q Csh Cg Crs Cd Cc Cs Ca Cr

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where Q is trac volume over an 18 h period (06:0000:00); q is trac volume in a 1 h period; Csh is the correction for speed and heavy vehicles; Cg is the correction for gradient; Crs is the correction for road surface; Cd is the correction for distance attenuation; Cc is the correction for ground cover; Ca is the correction for angle of view; Cs is the correction for shielding form obstructions such as barriers; Cr is the correction for reection from structures opposite the road from the receiver. The implemented version enables the prediction of the L10, 18h or L10, 1h dB(A) noise scales. The correction factors and model parameters can be specied and applied for each individual road link, or applied globally over the entire road network in which case, a single value is specied. The TRAEMS version does not consider shielding and opposite-side reection corrections because in most urban situations, they would be applicable only on a very small proportion of the road network links (e.g. mostly non-access roadways such as freeways). While all of the above corrections can be exactly specied in any modelling context, our experience is that, for the purposes of much network modelling, and particularly for scenario comparisons), globally specied parameters (such as for angle of view) are adequate, and signicantly reduce the data requirements. The outputs from the noise module include noise emission and noise immission thematic maps and a graphical distribution of noise exposures of all dwellings near the road network (eectively, a State of Environment report for noise from the road system of the area under study). The emission map depicts the noise levels along each link computed at a distance of 10 m from the edge of the nearside roadway, and is able to show transport corridors that generate high noise emissions, and this may be helpful in the planning of the land uses adjacent to the roads by providing prior information on the noise levels. The immission maps depict the noise levels computed 1 m in front of the facade of all noise sensitive buildings along the roadway. Here the network links are shaded according to the maximum noise immission at the facade of any dwelling located along the link, with the number of dwellings along the link exceeding pre-dened criteria shown. Combined, these maps and graphs provide full quantitative information on the extent and intensity of the exposure in the network under study, in terms of the number of buildings experiencing unacceptable noise levels, and the specic locations of the problems (Aum & Brown, 1998). 3.4.2. Air pollution sub-module The air pollution sub-module uses prediction models to estimate the main pollutants from road networks. In TRAEMS, each road segment (link) is considered as an independent line source of pollution with constant trac variables. The link-based output from the TDM (speeds, trac volume, etc.) is supplemented by speedbased vehicle air emission factors and vehicle eet composition in estimating the emission levels. The total emission level on each road link from all vehicles, E, is given by: n X E Ni Pi :fsi
i1

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Pi=city-wide emission factor in g/km unique for each pollutant and vehicle type/ fuel i; f(s)i=speed related emission factor correction function for each pollutant and vehicle type/fuel i (see Fehon, Moore, & Negus, 1986; Luk, 1989 for details of these functions); Ni=total volume of vehicle type/fuel i; and n=total number of vehicle types into which the vehicle eet is classied The components of the air pollution module implemented include: 1. Prediction of the quantity of CO, HC and NOx emissions (in grams per kilometre of roadway) emitted by the trac on each link. 2. Division of the study area into grid cells of size specied by the user, and the computation of the total emission levels in each grid cell for each pollutant. The total emission in a grid cell is computed as the sum of the emissions from the individual links within each cell. If road links crossed grid cells, to allow for correct apportioning of the emission levels, these links are split into sub-links during the computation process so that each sub link lies within a grid cell. 3. Estimation of the near-eld eects of the computed link-based emissions. TRAEMS uses the Gaussian based CHOCK dispersion model for predicting air pollution concentration levels near roadways (Chock, 1978) to estimate the pollutant concentration levels to the rst row of sensitive land uses and dwellings along each link. TRAEMS assumes that chemical reactions involving the pollutants are negligible. 4. Area-wide dispersion of the grid-based emission levels to determine the nal concentration levels over the entire area. TRAEMS uses the ATDL dispersion model (Hanna, 1972) to compute the concentration levels of each pollutant. 5. Comparison of grid-based emission loadings and the near-eld and area-wide concentration levels between dierent transport planning scenarios. The computation of the near-eld and area-wide concentration levels of pollutants take into consideration the meteorological conditions of the area. The outputs from this module are a series of maps showing the various pollutant levels emitted per unit length on each link, the total emission levels for each pollutant in each grid cell, and the near-eld and area-wide concentration levels. From the concentration levels, TRAEMS has the potential to assess air pollution immissions over the whole area serviced by the road network including, estimating the proportion of the community experiencing critical air pollution levels from any particular transport scenario. Because of its modular construction, there is little diculty in replacing the dispersion models implemented in TRAEMS with alternative models, according to user requirements. 3.4.3. Energy Consumption sub-module The Energy Consumption sub-module uses either the running speed or the average speed model for estimating fuel consumed. These two methods belongs to the family of models of fuel consumption for vehicles in a trac stream comprised of many dierent types of vehicles as has been proposed by Bowyer, Akcelik, and Biggs (1985). The running speed model is used for application at the regional

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and city-wide levels, while the average speed model is applied to detailed network planning where the network is dense, with short link lengths and low speeds. The TRAEMS program computes the main fuels used, namely leaded petroleum, unleaded petroleum, liqueed petroleum gas and diesel fuel, along each link together with the total network energy usage for the study area. 3.4.4. Storm water quality sub-module The traditional method of considering road runo as an indicator of the inuence of roadway-related activities on urban stormwater quality is possibly awed (Tomerini, 1997). This is because pollutants produced from roadway-related activities are distributed across the entire catchment, not only on road surfaces, through the processes of interception, dry deposition, translocation and resuspension. As a result, no reliable model for prediction of quantitative water quality impacts from road transport exists. TRAEMS currently uses a very simple (and, as yet, unvalidated) model for trac related stormwater pollution based on the trac load intensity within each water catchment (in terms of vehicle kilometres travelled per catchment). The water quality sub-module uses: 1. the total vehicle kilometres travelled on roadways within a catchment as a surrogate measure of the pollutant loads in stormwater; and 2. the assumption that roadway emissions within a particular catchment will largely be washed into that catchment. The output is a display of the relative potential pollutant load in the receiving water bodies across all subcatchments in the study area (referred to as the Relative Potential Pollution). Improvement of the water quality model would require further investigation of the pollutant build-up, wash-o, chemical change components of the stormwater pollution system and hydrology of the catchment. 3.5. Scenario module The scenario module is used to evaluate and assess the environmental eects of dierent transport planning scenarios. This may involve predicting future changes in relation to the existing state of the environment (i.e. changes between two time periods), or comparing the impacts of dierent future scenarios (i.e. changes between dierent transport proposal for the same time period). The ability to accomplish such analysis is one of the important aspects of the TRAEMS modelling approach. During the modelling session, the system keeps track of the outputs of each scenario for any environmental model being run. It can then be directed to compare results from any scenarios, say future impacts to the base year impacts. The results are presented in the form of maps and charts showing the dierences in environmental impacts between the scenarios. The map display also depicts the locations on the road network or areas where dierences in environmental impacts exist between the two scenarios, and their magnitude. A text le providing a summary of the evaluation results is also produced.

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3.6. Output module The output module is used to view and generate hard copies of model results. The output results are in the form of thematic maps; graphical charts are tabular text les. The paper size of the hard copies that can be generated is limited only by the printer or plotter capabilities. Hard copies can therefore be generated at any size specied by the user.

4. Application to a case study 4.1. Study area TRAEMS was applied to data from the planning of a proposed bypass in inner Brisbane City to assess the environmental implications of the project and its alternatives. The proposed bypass (approximately 4 km in length) is intended to alleviate trac congestion on the existing northbound roads from the city centre. The surrounding area has mixed residential, open spaces, industrial and commercial land uses, and attracts high trac ows including a comparatively high proportion of heavy vehicles. The road network and trac data for three scenarios were analysed and tested during the transport modelling phase of the planning process of the proposed bypass. The scenarios are the base year 1995 network and modelled network and trac ows for two future scenarios for the year 2011 one with the bypass and the other, the do-nothing scenario, without the bypass. Information available for each scenario from the TDM work by the transport planners included the network geometry, trac ows, link speeds and number of trac lanes on each road link. The modelled network had a total length of 88.2 km (illustrated in Fig. 2). Meteorological data, speed related air pollution emission factors, and the location and setback distance from the modelled roadway network of noise sensitive land uses were the additional data sets that had to be obtained. The location and setback distance of noise sensitive buildings in the area were obtained using the raster capture sub-module in TRAEMS. The process required the overlay of a digital raster image of the study area over the road network, and overlay of a cadastral database containing detailed information of each land parcel including the land use type. Using a heads-on digitising approach (i.e. digitising based on screen image), the geographic coordinates of the front facade of each sensitive land use were captured and the setback distance from the roadway computed. In all, location details on 1549 residential dwellings fronting all links in the modelled network were obtained. Buildings behind this row were not considered but experience is that the inaccuracies introduced by this deliberate omission, particularly near freeways and at intersections, are low, given the planning purposes and scenario comparisons for which TRAEMS is designed. Reducing the data requirements in this way, by considering only the immediately impacted sensitive land uses, is critical to encouraging wide application of the model. The case study considered dwellings

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as the only sensitive land use, but could easily be extended to schools, hospitals, churches, and commercial premises. The speed related air pollution emission factors (in g/m) were obtained from the city-wide emission factors developed for the main air pollutants for the various vehicle types by fuel for 1991, 2005 and 2011 as part of the Brisbane Integrated Transport Study (ARUP, 1995) 4.2. Discussion of results Analysis of the trac ows indicated about 14.7% increase in vehicle kilometres travelled over the modelled network between 1995 and 2011 with the construction of the bypass. Without the bypass, the vehicle kilometres travelled increased by only 10.5%. Example results obtained from the TRAEMS modelling process for trac noise and NOx are shown in Figs. 25, illustrating its capabilities. Fig. 2 depicts how

Fig. 2. Noise immissions to the facade of dwellings (1995 scenario). (Link labels show the number of dwellings exposed to excessive noise levels with the number exposed to high levels of noise in brackets. Excessive and high cut-o values are dened by the user within the program. The values shown in brackets in the legend represent the number of road links in each range).

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Fig. 3. Distribution of noise immissions at the facades of dwellings fronting the road network in the study area (1995 scenario).

the noise-exposed buildings considered are distributed across the network for 1995. Fig. 3 shows the distribution of trac noise immission levels at the facade of buildings in the area for 1995. The results show that quite substantial numbers of dwellings are already experiencing high noise levels. The result of the scenario testing between the base year 1995 and the 2011 scenario with the bypass is shown in Fig. 4. Overall, there will be an increase in the number of dwellings exposed to excessive noise immission levels in some parts of the network while there is a reduction in other parts. The major nding is the reduction in the number of dwellings exposed to excessive noise immission levels along the arterial road running almost parallel with the bypass. This is due to the reduction in trac on that road with the construction of the bypass. When compared with the do-nothing scenario, the number of dwellings exposed to excessive noise levels was found to be lower for the bypass scenario (see Table 1). This is due to the shift in trac from the surrounding roads onto the bypass and the fact that the bypass itself passes through an area with no abutting residential dwellings, hence has little eect on noise exposure. Fig. 5 presents changes in NOx emissions between 1995 and 2011, and shows expected increase in most places in-line with the increased vehicle kilometres travelled. The gures depicting changes in environmental impacts illustrate the capability of TRAEMS to easily assess future transport plans and to facilitate the environmental comparison of dierent scenarios being tested. As an important part of environmental assessment involves predicting future changes in relation to the existing conditions, this ability of TRAEMS to analyse changes by tapping into the ability of transport planning processes to predict future travel patterns, demonstrates a signicant use of the system in planning. Both the quantity and location of changes are easily recognised and can be dealt with using appropriate measures.

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Fig. 4. Change in noise immissions levels between 1995 and 2011 scenario with a bypass. (Link labels indicate the dierence in the number of dwellings exposed to excessive noise levels between the two scenarios. Positive value means an increase, negative value implies a reduction).

Table 1 Summary of noise immission levels (L10, 18h) for the two 2011 scenarios Parameters No. dwellings exposed to excessive noise levels [568 dB(A)] No. dwellings exposed to high noise levels [6368 dB(A)] Total No. dwellings exposed to noise immission levels of at least 63 dB(A) No bypass scenario 417 497 914 Bypass scenario 354 526 880

5. Conclusions This paper has described a GIS-based add-on system to transport planning for estimating the environmental impacts from road trac networks that eciently utilises data produced by TDM in the transport planning process. Through the identication of total pollutant load, and the location of this load in the network, the model has the potential to allow transport and land use planners to examine

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Fig. 5. Relative changes in NOx emission levels between 1995 and 2011 scenario with a bypass using 500 m grid cells.

environmental consequences, not just transport consequences of proposals. The system has the ability to generate maps, charts and tables showing potential future changes in the environmental impact from road trac by comparing the future environmental eects to those of the base year and between future year scenarios for use in planning and decision making. The TRAEMS model is undergoing further development at Grith University in Brisbane. References
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