Practical manual Electrical engineering

Practicum Elektronische Basisschakelingen en Functies (ElBasFun)

Coursecode: Year: Chair: Translation:

121173 2011/2012 IC-Design Yoeri Bruinsma

UNIVERSITEIT TWENTE.

Contents:
0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 2 Purpose ......................................................................................................................... 2 Organisation .................................................................................................................. 2 Preparation(!!!) ............................................................................................................. 2 Journal and assessment .................................................................................................. 3 1 Antenna-switch ............................................................................................................ 4 Circuit ........................................................................................................................... 4 Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 4 Simulation ..................................................................................................................... 5 Realisation .................................................................................................................... 8 2 Common-source circuit (CSC) .................................................................................... 9 Amplification; an introduction ....................................................................................... 9 Characteristics of a MOS-transistor ............................................................................. 10 Conditioning the MOST .............................................................................................. 10 The CSC as amplifier .................................................................................................. 11 MOS-transistor small-signal equivalent circuit............................................................. 12 Integrating the small-signal equivalent circuit .............................................................. 13 3 Common-drain circuit............................................................................................... 15 Setting the bias point ................................................................................................... 15 Output resistance ......................................................................................................... 16 4 5 The harmonic oscillator ............................................................................................ 18 Realisation of a harmonic oscillator ............................................................................. 18 FM transmitter and antenna ..................................................................................... 20 Assignments ................................................................................................................ 20 The design process ...................................................................................................... 20 Tips ............................................................................................................................. 20 6 7 8 Appendix: journal and report ................................................................................... 22 Appendix: Spice......................................................................................................... 23 Appendix: In practice ................................................................................................ 25 E12 series.................................................................................................................... 25 Star-ground ................................................................................................................. 25 Source decoupling ....................................................................................................... 27

0 Introduction
These practical sessions are aimed at designing, calculating, simulating, building and measuring electronic circuits. We start with circuits including diodes, transistors, resistors and capacitors. Next up are op-amps, feedback, oscillators and senders.

Purpose
After finishing the practical sessions of Electronic Basic Circuits and Functions, you will possess the following skills: Translate transistor and op-amp circuits in terms of main and small signal models and analyse and simulate the accompanied behaviour. Know and recognize the limits of simulations and models in practical situations. Build and measure transistor and op-amp circuits. Recognize and solve the problems encountered in building and measuring these circuits. Critically compare calculations with simulations and measurements, without being asked explicitly. Obviously, you will search for consistency between models and reality. Keep a journal of your efforts, which show and explain why certain things were done and what the result of that action was.

Organisation
You will work in pairs. Each pair must keep a journal. The practical exists out of a number of practical sessions and a project. The practical sessions are captured by assignments 1 to 4. These give an introduction to circuits based on MOS-transistors and op-amps. The second part, the project, is covered by assignment 5. In this project, an FM-sender and antenna must be designed and built. All assignments have to be covered, so consult the assistant if you are short on time. Questions concerning the designing, building and measuring of the circuit cost a lot of time, but also give you a lot of points; keep that in mind while planning. The table below gives an insight in the available time per assignment. Assignment 1 2 3 4 5 Subject Antenna-switch Common source Common drain Harmonic oscillator FM-sender and antennae Time available Excluding preparation 4 hours 4 hours 4 hours 4 hours 12 uur

Useful information, such as schematics for connecting a variety of transistors, is to be found on Blackboard, section publications. Also read appendix 8 for extra information about building circuits.

Preparation(!!!)
A good preparation of a practical session consists out of studying the appropriate theory in the book, answering the questions on the theory, possibly simulating some possibilities and trying to get as far as possible before the session. Attending tutorials will help you prepare. Please note: it is not possible to finish all assignments within time if you do not prepare. However, if you prepare thoroughly, you will get to go home early.

Journal and assessment

Each pair needs to keep a journal. Within this course, the journal must contain everything you did, in order to explicitly answer the questions from the manual. Your assessment will be partially based on the quality of your journal. Read appendix 6 on how to keep a journal. It might be convenient to have a second journal, since the journals of the previous session might not be assessed before the next session. Each pair must make a report on assignment 5. Read appendix 6 on making a report. To prevent a lot of double or extra work, you are allowed to refer to you (written) journal. Be sure to hand in your journal with the report. You work will be assessed on the following points: The quality of the answers to the questions in the manual: analysing, building and measuring the circuits. Critical thinking: Comparing calculations, simulations and measurements, even if this is not asked from you. Motivate any choices you make. Overall quality of the journal and report: clear, compact and complete (see appendix 6). Assignments 1 to 4 will be assessed based on the journal. Assignment 5 will be primarily assessed by means of the report.

Comment [FR1]: Hier staat ook nog synthetiseren bij. Wat wordt hier precies mee bedoeld?

Concluding: Read appendix 6 on journalising!

1 Antenna-switch1
This assignment has two goals: one is using the diode as a non-linear element within a circuit. How can you model this diode properly, allowing you to work with it using linear systems theory? The circuit can be verified by simulation in LT-Spice. Learning how to use the LTSpice simulator and interpreting the results is another important part of this assignment. Finally, the circuit must be built, in order to check whether the theoretical model, the simulated model and reality agree with one and another. The simulator we will use is LTSpice, the Spice (Simulation Programme for Integrated Circuit Evaluation) version of Linear Technology. If you would like to simulate at home, then check Blackboard for a manual on how to install LT-Spice, using the ELBASFUN libraries. For more information on LT-Spice, you are advised to check the help files and/or appendix 7.

Circuit
The circuit of an antenna-switch is shown in Figure 1. The circuit acts as a switch between the input signal uin and the load RL. The input signal is a AC voltage of 1Vrms with a frequency of 1Mhz. UDC determines whether or not the switch is on, and it can have the values 5V and 5V. RL represents the impedance of a typical antenna and RS the impedance of a typical RFsource, both are about 50

RS

Cin RX RL + UDC -

uin

Bron

Figure 1:

Antenna-switch

Analysis
1.1 The diode is used as a non-linear component. We can attempt to model the diode using a zeroth-order model: a connection (carrying a current while in forward) or as an open circuit (no current in reverse). Draw the circuit of Figure 1 for both possible values of UDC with the appropriate replacement of the diode. Give the DC voltages you would expect on the different nodes for both values of UDC. In order to make a good switch, we would like the input signal uin to be over RL as much as possible while in the on state. Consequently, we would like it to be minimal during the off state. Calculate the transmission H(j)=uuit(j)/u in(j) for both states of the switch; write them in the standard form. If you cannot recall the

1.2

This experiment consists out of a lot of preperatory work, which has to be done in advance. A large part is calculating and simulating. The actual measuring will be done at assignments 1.9 and 1.10, so these must be done at the laboratory. Points for the questions: (1.1 1.3)=2 points, (1.4 1.8)=3 points, (1.9 1.10)=5 points. You will only receive the points if all parts of the assignment have been finished.

standard form, check chapter 0.7 from the book. Include a drawing of the simplex Bodeplots (the phase plot is not necessary). 1.3 Reason whether Cin needs have a minimal or maximal value in order to make this circuit work correctly? You might be able to deduce it from H(j).

Simulation
Three different phases can be identified in designing an electric circuit. First, the first-order operation of the circuit is verified using simple calculations. Then, using a computer simulation, we can check the performance even further. Eventually, the circuit will have to perform in real life; hence measuring the realised circuit is inevitable. Simulations are just a measure to verify calculations, while the real life measurements are a way to verify the simulation. Interpreting the simulation results have to be done with keeping the background of the circuit in mind. The results of the simulation have to be compared to:

The results of the manual calculations done on the simple model The results of the simulation of the more extensive model The results of the measurements

If we want to draw a conclusion on the circuit, then the above three comparisons have to be made! This is a very important element of working in a structured and scientific manner. It is often convenient to print some results and put them in you journal. However, be sure not to fill your journal with printed results. This will cloud the actual experiment and cause inconvenience in reading the journal. Hence, doing this will result in low grades. The most important kinds of simulations in Spice are:

OP-analysis and DC-analysis. The OP-analysis (Operating Point analysis) is used for calculating stationary values: all stationary voltages and currents to which the components of the circuit converge, based on the source voltage and other constant sources. This analysis ignores the possible time-dependency of any signal, ideal inductors are replaced by short-circuits and capacitors as open connections. Of course, the stationary current through an inductor and the stationary voltage on the capacitor will be calculated. Using the OP-analysis, we can determine whether the components converge to the correct stationary values. A DC-analysis consists out of taking a number of OP-analyses, each time analysis varies a source, and calculates the stationary values. This can be of convenience to determine the DC-transfer of a circuit. AC-analysis. The AC-analysis gives insight in the frequency-dependent behaviour of the (by the simulator) linearized circuit. The simulator first determines the stationary values, using an OP-analysis, and then linearizes the circuit around this point. This generates an internal replacement circuit for small signals, hence al non-linearity has been removed from the circuit. Then, the frequency-dependent transfer is calculated using sinusoidal (harmonic) signals. This means that the circuit must contain at least one AC-source (VAC). You can take any value for a source, from 1 to 1 million, since the circuit is linear anyway. This also means that you always have to check the results! The result of an AC-analysis is presented in a bode-plot. The awkward ability of LTSpice is that a single source can be AC and DC at the same time, this gives very strange results in the AC-analysis. If you need to generate both AC and DC voltages, use two separate sources in series in order to solve this problem. TR analysis. A TR (transient) analysis simulates the behaviour of a circuit in the time domain. For every time step within a given period, all voltages and currents are calculated. The result is the same as you would see on an oscilloscope. For a transient analysis, you will need a VSIN or VPULSE source.

We will recon these analysis methods by looking at the various characteristics of a simple diode. To do so, we first build the antenna-switch: Starting the simulator Start the simulator LT-Spice and start a New schematic (using a button or the file-menu). Most of the functionalities of LT-Spice are directly available through a button, and all of them are accessible in the menu. The menu also presents you with the appropriate shortcut key. In this manual, we only present you with a shortcut, if available. Placing components Now, you can start placing components using the Edit menu, the buttons, or the shortcut keys. The basic components have direct buttons; more exotic components have to be imported through the menu (F2). This menu gives access to the libraries with the components available for simulation. To make things easy for you, everything you need is placed in the main library. Nevertheless, please feel free to browse the other components within the library. While placing the components, using the shortcut CTRL+R gives you the possibility to rotate the component, while CTRL+E will mirror the component. To build the circuit above, we place a voltage, res, cap and diode. Using the ground symbol is also necessary (can only be placed by button), this will tell the simulator which node is equal to 0V. Wires and circuit adaption The components now need to be connected with wires (F3). If a component needs to be relocated, you can first Move (F7) or Drag (F8) it. For deleting, press delete. Dimensioning of components Click on a component with the right mouse button, and you will find a popup with relevant characteristics which can be altered. For the diode, this will be the type (pick new diode, choose, 1N4148, the only available option), for resistors this is the resistance (choose 50). We will come back to the value of Cin and the voltage sources later. Finally, it is usually practical to name the components (right-click the labels) and the nodes which you will use often (via label net (F4)). In this instance, we choose, for example, out for the voltage over RL. If all is well, the circuit now looks like this:

OP-analysis First, we want to verify whether the calculated DC-values of problem 1.1 are correct. Therefore, we perform an OP-analysis. Using Edit --> Spice Analysis, the screen below can be called. Using this screen, the characteristics of the analysis can be filled out. The text at the

bottom will automatically be generated, and will be presented as text in the circuit screen. Now we also need to define the voltage sources and the capacitor.

Now you can start the simulation, using Simulate --> Run (or click the Run button). A new screen appears with the set-up values for the circuit. It is just as easy to close this screen and hover the mouse over the nodes. The set-up values will be presented in the lower left corner of the screen. 1.4 Perform an OP-analysis and compare the simulated values with the calculated values of assignment 1.1.

DC analysis If you wish to know what happens for various values of VDC, then you may perform a DC sweep. Right-clicking the simulation command allows you to change the analysis to a DCanalysis. The rest is quite straightforward if you remind yourself that you wish to sweep the VDC from -5 V to 5 V in steps of 0.1 V. 1.5 Use this DC-sweep to show that the current through the diode depends exponentially on the voltage over the diode in the forward-region. This takes some manipulation of the graphical output, but this is exactly the purpose of this assignment.

AC-analysis In question 1.2, you have calculated the frequency dependent transmission of the antennaswitch. Using this, you can decide which value to use for Cin in such a way that the input signal of the antenna-switch in the on-mode will not be weakened more than necessary. 1.6 Dimension, using the manual calculations, Cin such that the antenna-switch works properly. Do this by putting the cut-off frequency at least a factor 2 below the signal frequency. How large is the weakening of the transfer?

To check whether your calculation is correct, you can perform an AC-simulation. Go to the advanced properties of Vin and give this source an arbitrary AC value of 1 (this is also the only field which may contain a number). This (AC-)amplitude only applies for the ACanalysis. Obviously, you also need to change the simulation to AC-analysis. The number of points which have to be calculated can be inserted per octave or decade, since the frequency in a bodeplot has a logarithmic scale. While filling in these numbers, you can use the usual prefixes, like 10k. Remember, 10m means: 10 milli, if you want 10 mega, you type 10meg. 1.7 Perform an AC-analysis to determine whether the transfer you calculated is correct. Explain any differences.

TR-analysis Now everything seems to check out, we can conclude with a transient simulation, to see whether the time-dependent behaviour is exactly as we suspect. 7

1.8

Change the property of Vin to a SINE source. This is a type that is used in the time domain and appropriate for a TR-analysis. Make VDC of the type PULSE. Finally, use the TR-analysis to show the switching behaviour of the antenna-switch. Is the result as you expected? Are you satisfied?

Realisation
1.9 Build and measure (measure all relevant properties of) the antenna-switch. All relevant properties are the things you have already simulated: the DC- and ACvoltages in both forms of the switch. Of course, you measure the AC-voltage in the time-domain, in other words: transient. Discuss the results and explain any differences between the manual calculations and simulations. An explanation in the style of the differences are caused by inaccuracies of our model is not sufficient. Which inaccuracies do you mean here? Which model parameters are not close enough to reality then? And why do these cause those specific differences? Prove this with, for example, measuring the non-ideal components.

1.10

2 Common-source circuit (CSC)2

In this assignment, you will investigate the common-source circuit (CSC), a widely used circuit using a MOS-transistor to amplify voltage and current. Using the characteristics of the MOS-transistor, we can calculate how the transistor should be set, using the bias current. These calculations are related to large signals. Using the MOS-transistor as a voltagecontrolled current source, we can superposition (as a small variation) the signal on the bias current. This small current variation can be transformed to a voltage variation at the output, using a resistor. It is obvious that a direct calculation of the (non-linear) transfer is very difficult. That is why we will use a small-signal equivalent circuit (SSEC) to determine the linearized behaviour of the transistor. Using this approach, the calculations become far less cumbersome, allowing easy analysis of small signals. Eventually, you will calculate and construct an amplification circuit, using an AC voltage as input, with an amplitude of 10 mV, with an amplification of 10x, at a source voltage of 10 V.

Amplification; an introduction
Amplifiers are used when a signal is too weak. At first, we can consider an amplifier as a simple first order model, like in Figure 2.

in

uit

Figure 2:

First-order model for voltage amplification

Unfortunately, things are not that simple. The voltage of a line-out of a CD-player, for example, only delivers a maximum of 1 V, enough to control the speakers. The output can also be described as a voltage source with a 1k internal resistance. If you put a 4 speaker on that output, the voltage will immediately drop to 4/(1000+4) V. The power which will then be delivered is in the order of Ws! So at first, we mostly need current amplification: the amplifier must be buffer which has a voltage amplification of about 1, but act like a voltage source with a much lower internal resistance than the line-out. However, if you would like some decent sound to come from your speakers, you will need a higher output voltage, which again creates the need for voltage amplification. Another important requirement of an amplifier is that the output signal has the same shape as the input signal. A pure sine-voltage as input should generate a pure sine-voltage at the output. A linear amplifier has that ability. Amplifiers are built using components which are sort of linear over a short range, hence it is important to know how to maximize linearity. The other range is called non-linear, which means that from a pure sine input signal, a series of higher harmonics emerge at the output. We then call the signal distorted.

This practical includes a lot of preporatory work. A large part is calculation and simulation including everything needed for those actions. The measuring assignments are 2.3, 2.5 and 2.9, these are the ones you perform in the laboratory. Points that can be earned: (2.1+2.2+2.4+2.6+2.7+2.8+2.10)=5 points, (2.3+2.5+2.9)=5 points, where the latter can only be awarded if all preporatory work has been done.

In this experiment, you will build an amplifier using a MOS-transistor. We must first realise a bias current of the MOS-transistor. Subsequently, we superponate an input-voltage signal on that bias current. The aim is to get a specific amplification (or gain) uo(t)/u i(t). We will first derive a first-order linear model for the transistor.

Characteristics of a MOS-transistor
The general characteristics of a MOST (MOS-transistor) are presented in Figure 3. The appropriate equation is: ID= K(UGS-UTH)2. Here, the channel-shortening effect (the slope of the level part of the ID/UDS graph) is neglected.

ID

UGS3

UDS > UGS-UTH UGS2 UGS1

UGS

UGS3 UGS1 UTH UGS2

UDS

Figure 3:

MOS-transistor characteristics

Conditioning the MOST

The MOS-transistor has to be set using a voltage. The easiest way is to provide a Vgs, which sets a drain-current ID. To do this, you must know K and VTH of the MOST. In this practical, we will use the BS170 MOS-transistor. In the datasheet, we find a typical VTH of 2.1 V. The K factor is not given. However, we do have a ID/VGS characteristic (Figure 4).

Figure 4: ID/VGS characteristic of the BS170 from the datasheet 2.1 2.2 Determine, using Figure 4, the K factor of the BS170. Use the quadratic part of the curve. Calculate the VGS you would need with ID=20mA and check this value by means of a simulation. Use VDD=10V

10

ID + VDD -

+ VGS -

Figure 5: CSC bias circuit by VGS 2.3 Build the circuit of Figure 5 with VDD=10V and calculate the value of VGS. Check whether or not the circuit is oscillating; if so, place a 100nF capacitor between the gate and drain, as close to the BS170 as possible. Discuss the differences you find between calculation, simulation and measurement.

A more stable method of conditioning a transistor is by designing a negative feedback of the bias current ID to the input voltage VGS. This has been done in the circuit of Figure 6 by placing the source resistor RS. The dimensioning can begin by choosing a voltage over RS. VGS is already determined, since you would like a certain ID. This means that the gate voltage VG is also set. This can be used to calculate the ratio between RG1 and RG2. High values for these two resistors have two advantages: a lower current (thus the circuit uses less power) and a lower value for the coupling capacitors (which have to have an impedance small enough to be modelled as short-circuits).

ID + VDD -

RG2

RG1

RS

Figure 6: CSC bias circuit with feedback 2.4 2.5 Dimension the resistors in Figure 6 for ID=20mA, VDD=10V and VRs=2V. Verify using a simulation. Build the circuit using the calculated values and compare the measured bias point with the calculated and simulated values. You would expect the agreement is larger than with 2.3. Is this correct? Why?

The CSC as amplifier

We now know how to set a stationary bias current for the transistor. In order to use this for amplification, we must now place small variations on this current. This is the signal we would eventually like to amplify. These small (input voltage) variations will be amplified to larger (output voltage) variations. Figure 7 represents the circuit of a CSC. The source voltage is 10V and the transistor is a BS170.

11

RG2

RD + VDD -

+ Cin uin RG1 RS

Cuit

uuit CS -

Figure 7:

Common-Source Circuit (CSC)

Input: The input voltage uin will be an (AC) voltage source. To minimize the interference with the (DC) bias current of the transistor, we use a coupling capacitor (C in in Figure 7). This also induces a frequency-dependent transfer. Output: The circuit is designed to deliver power to a load at the output. The ability of the circuit to provide that power depends on the ratio between the internal resistance (output impedance) and the impedance of the load. Usually, a coupling capacitor is also used for the load (Cout in Figure 7). Again, the transfer is now dependent on frequency. Decoupling of RS: We also added the capacitor CS, since RS has ensured that the variation in VG (gate voltage) have little influence on ID. However, the same goes for the variation in VG due to uin. We now set CS parallel to RS, where the impedance of CS must be small with respect to RS on the frequency domain of the input signal. Now, uin is coupled directly onto VGS, although we have created extra frequency dependency. The large-signal transfer of the circuit above is not linear, which is not surprising if you consider the quadratic characteristic of the MOST. Yet we usually assume that amplifiers are more or less linear with a constant amplification. You could also write amplification as the sensitivity of the output for changes in input signal. Mathematically, this equals to duout/du in, the derivative of the large-signal transfer. In the example above, the variation in input voltage is first transformed to a variation in drain current through diD = diD/duGS * duIN and then this drain current variation is transformed to an output voltage variation by duOUT = RD*diD. The term diD/duGS is important and is called the pitch or transductance of a transistor and is usually denoted as g m. Using this pitch and RD, the variation in input voltage is translated to a variation in output voltage. A universal method to describe non-linear elements in a linear matter is the small-signal equivalent analysis. Here, all non-linear elements are replaced by their corresponding smallsignal equivalent circuit.

MOS-transistor small-signal equivalent circuit

In order to model the small-signal equivalent circuit of an entire circuit (including the input), we must first model the transistor itself. The SSEC of the MOST for low frequency is presented in Figure 8. The parameters of the MOST are gm (transductance) and g0, the channel-shortening effect. If the channel-shortening effect is negligible, then we can remove the resistor 1/g0.

12

G gmugs S 1/go

Figure 8:

MOST SSEC for low frequencies

The value of gm is the derivative of the output current with respect to the input voltage, hence: gm =K(VGS-VTH).

Integrating the small-signal equivalent circuit

Eventually, for voltage gain, the small-signal voltage transfer is important for the entire circuit. So we are interested in uout/u in as shown in Figure 7. To find this transfer, we must analyse the entire circuit using the small-signal equivalent circuit approach. Figure 9 illustrates how the linear SSEC of the MOST is embedded in the replacement circuit. The circuit in Figure 9 represents the linear behaviour about the bias point (not the bias point itself). Notice the voltage source, which has been replaced by a short circuit; a constant voltage source has no time derivative; hence it is 0V for low frequency analysis. Furthermore, this circuit can now be described using superpositioning; every source can be individually analysed and their results can be accumulated. Here, u in is the only independent voltage source.

RG2
G + gmugs 1/go D

RD

Cin

+ Cuit

ugs -

+ uin -

RG1

uuit

RS

CS -

Figure 9:

Small-signal equivalent circuit for the contribution of uin

In short, the procedure for small-signal analysis is as follows:

Replace all non-linear elements by their linear SSEC in the bias point Replace constant voltage sources by short circuits Replace constant current sources by an open connection Leave dependent sources as they are Calculate the contribution of all independent sources separate and add them up. Here all other independent sources will be short circuited or removed

13

2.6 2.7

Calculate the small-signal transfer uout/uin of the circuit in Figure 7. Assume CS creates a short circuit for the signal frequency and the circuit is not loaded. Use the values of RG1, RG2 en RS as determined in 2.5. Determine the other components of the circuit: - Calculate the minimal value of CS needed to neglect its impedance compared to RS at a frequency of 1 kHz (as you assumed in 2.6). - Use the expression of 2.6 to determine Cin, such that it does not substantially weaken the transfer at 1 kHz. - The capacitor Cin can also be removed, if the oscilloscope is set to AC - Use the expression of 2.6 to determine RD for an amplification of 10x.

2.8 2.9

Verify the calculated values by simulation. Build the circuit using the calculated values. Measure the amplification Av for u in = 10mV at 1kHz. Explain any deviation in Av compared to your expectations. It might be necessary to weaken the generator signal, if so, use the circuit in Figure 10. For an input signal with an amplitude which is too large, the output will be distorted. Describe and explain the distortion you observe.

2.10

50 + Vgen Generator

39

10

Schakeling

Figure 10: Circuit to weaken the generator signal

14

3 Common-drain circuit3
For a signal source with a high internal impedance, the amplifier must also possess a high input impedance, ensuring that it does not weaken the signal. Equivalently, for controlling a load of low impedance, you would need an amplifier with a low output impedance. A circuit which has both a high Rin and a low Rout is the Common-drain circuit (CDC), also known as a source follower (in case of a BJT, this would be an emitter follower). The CDC poses as a small load as a controller, and has a voltage-source-like character at the output. This is why these circuits are also called buffer circuits. In this assignment, we will analyse how to bias the CDC, and investigate the input and output impedance.

Setting the bias point

The circuit of a CDC is presented in Figure 11. The choice of resistors depends on the DCbias we would like to impose. Suppose we would like to set the transistor at 10mA at a source voltage of 10V. A logical choice would be to increase RS, so that the voltage drop is about half the source voltage. This allows for maximal variation in output voltage. Doing so already defines the gate voltage, which can be used to choose values for RG1 and RG2, since their ratio is now known.
VDD RG1

+) uin -)

Cin RG2 RS

+) uuit -)

Figure 11: Circuit of a CDC 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Dimension the resistors for the CDC. Motivate your answer. Deduce an expression for the frequency dependent small-signal transfer of the circuit in Figure 11. You may not neglect 1/go. Verify the expression you found in the previous question, using a simulation. Build a CDC (without coupling capacitors) and check the DC bias. Explain any differences.

This practical includes a lot of preporatory work. A large part is calculation and simulation including everything needed for those actions. The measuring assignments are 3.4 and 3.8, these are the ones you perform in the laboratory. Points that can be earned: (3.1-3.3+3.5-3.7)=5 points, (3.4+3.8)=5 points, where the latter can only be awarded if all preporatory work has been done.

15

Output resistance
All real amplifiers have some output resistance, so the gain is dependent on the load of the amplifier. This can be visualised quite easy in Figure 12

Figure 12: Amplifier with output resistance R0 If the load RL has a high impedance compared to Ro, then the output voltage will not vary much between the loaded and unloaded circuit. However, if RL gets smaller, so will u0. Hence, it is important that the output resistance is small enough to control the load. If multiple circuits are cascaded, then the load can also be the input resistance of the next circuit. In that case, both resistances must be investigated. Now look at the circuit in Figure 13. Here, the resistor RL will also influence the transfer of the circuit. In order to find out to what extent, we must know the output resistance of the circuit. Therefore, we must first construct an SSEC. If we assume the capacitors to have a negligible impedance, then the SSEC looks like the left-hand side of Figure 14. If we take the Thvenin-equivalent of that circuit, we will immediately see the output resistance Ro.

RD RG1 Cuit

+ uuit RL

VDD

+ uin -

Cin

RG2

Figure 13: Amplifier loaded with RL

Ro G D gmugs S RD RL + uo S G Auugs RL + uo -

Figure 14: Norton-Thvenin conversion of the output circuit Measuring the output resistance There are two methods for measuring the output resistance of a circuit. The first is illustrated in Figure 15. Here, the open output voltage u0,open RL=) is measured. Secondly, the output is loaded until a noticeable change in output voltage occurs. By measuring uunloaded, u loaded and RL, we can calculate Ro. 16

The second method is presented in Figure 16. This approach uses an independent external source, uo, external. The current, io, delivered by the source is measured. Here, all other independent sources (in this case ui) must not have any contribution. Another possibility is by providing io, external and measuring uo.

Figure 15: Determining the output resistance by load variation

Figure 16: Determining the output resistance by forcing in a current or voltage While actually measuring, using either method: we are talking about changes in voltage and/or current. These changes are superponated on the DC voltages and currents. While measuring, these variations have to be separated from the DC-components. Therefore, we place a set of coupling capacitors. Furthermore, it is important to be critical concerning the amplitudes in amplification. Since in the analysis, we assume the amplifier to be linear! 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Deduce an expression for the output resistance of the CDC from Figure 11. In reality, while measuring the output resistance, what should we do with VDD? Leaving it on, switching it off or short-circuiting it? Motivate your answer. Design a setup / method for measuring the output resistance of the amplifier you built (Figure 11), and test this method using simulations. Measure the output resistance; compare the results with your expectations.

17

4 The harmonic oscillator4

In many cases, we would like to create a signal with just one frequency: a (near) perfect sine. Circuits which create such a sine are called harmonic oscillators. In this experiment, you will build such an oscillator at high frequency, where high is related to the limitations of your breadboard.

Realisation of a harmonic oscillator

4.1 Design a Collpitts-oscillator with an oscillating frequency of about 5 MHz. Use the BF199 transistor (NPN, 750MHz fT) since it is faster than a BC550. At 5 MHz, this difference is not of great importance, however, in assignment 6, you will increase the frequency, which does require a BF199. Give the criteria used for your design and why you chose the various components and ratios. Simulate/verify the circuit in LTspice5. Look at the bias current as well as the various types of signals while oscillating. Also simulate the frequency spectrum of the output signal6. Look at the difference in this spectrum and the shape of the wave, when the output amplitude is increased (by using a larger loopgain). Build the circuit, measure the various characteristics (frequency, voltage variation, shape of the wave on various points in the circuit, ) and explain possible deviations between the measurements and the theory.

4.2

4.3

All wires (including the ground plane) act as a coil. A general rule for short straight wires (1st order estimate) gives an induction of 1 nH/mm. Moreover, the parasitic capacity of every track on a breadboard varies between 5pF and 25 pF (to ground or the next track on the board). There are very good mathematical approximations available online for building your own coil, for instance: http://www.66pacific.com/calculators/coil_calc.aspx. In order to prevent some misery while building the circuits on your breadboard, you might want to read the following article from AnalogDevices: http://www.analog.com/static/importedfiles/rarely_asked_questions/moreInfo_raq_analogBreadboarding.html.

This practical includes a lot of preporatory work. A large part is calculation and simulation including everything needed for those actions. The measuring assignments are 3.4 and 3.8, these are the ones you perform in the laboratory. Points that can be earned: (5.1+5.2+5.3)=5points, (5.4+5.5+5.6)=5 points, where the latter can only be awarded if all preporatory work has been done.
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A simulator is very capable of finding a meta-stable point: a configuration where the oscillator does not oscillate. To avoid this, you might want to kick the oscillator, using an extra source, which deliberately introduces some asymmetry. You could, for in stance, use a voltage source which increases a very small step, shortly after the start of the transint simulation. Another possibility, is introducing a small current pulse in a sensitive part of the circuit. In that case, use something like PULSE(0 -1 10n 10p 10p 100p). A final method is by turning on a voltage source during simulation, by defining the time of a transintsimulation, e.g. .tran 10u startup.
6

A frequency spectrum can be simulated in LTspice by letting it calculate a FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) of the signal. Some tips on how to use a FFT are presented in section 15.10.2 of the ElBasFun book.

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4.4

Simulate your circuit again, but introduce a large number of parasitic capacitors and inductors; estimate these using your own circuit. Compare the results with your earlier simulations. Retune your oscillator (without parasitic capacities and inductances), to have it oscillate at 95 MHz, and simulate the circuit. Again, introduce the parasitic capacities and inductances and simulate again. Compare the results with your previous simulations.

4.5

4.6

Bonus: 4.7 Build the circuit, measure the various characteristics (frequency, voltage variation, shape of the wave on various points in the circuit, ) and explain possible deviations between the measurements and the theory.

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5 FM transmitter and antenna

Until now, we have only transmitted information by voltage and current differences. To do so, we always need some form of a wire connection. However, wireless communication is much more modern, but therefore we need an RF (Radio Frequency) transmitter. This transmitter consists of an RF signal generator (in general: a varying voltage) and an antenna.

Assignments
5.1 Build an FM transmitter with a carrier frequency between 87.5 and 108 MHz. This carrier wave must be modulated in frequency, to hear an audio signal using a normal FM receiver. Write a short essay on this assignment. In this essay, you must explain every used component and its value. Use the structure or a report, indicated in appendix 6. To prevent extra work, you may refer to your journal, if you add this as an appendix.

5.2

The design process

In this assignment, you are expected to design a circuit from the ground up. Even if you use a readymade circuit from the internet: we want you to know how and why every component is used. Explaining what happens is much more important than getting the best specs. Topics which have to be covered:

How do you design the transmitter? What kind of layout do you use? Why this one, and not another one? Motivate the choices with reasoning, calculations and simulations. How do you design the antenna? What kind of impedance do you expect/need? The transmitter is easily designed using a resistor as a load; this resistor must, however, be equal to the load that the antenna poses. Hence, some cooperation between the two is a must. Build and measure the transmitter and (optionally wrt measuring) the antenna. A very important topic is the critical observations. If the measurement is incorrect with the calculations: why is this the case? Give an explanation. Do you have some solid evidence for this explanation?

Tips

A consequence of high frequency, is that the parasitic elements cause trouble very quickly. Pay some attention to short wiring, decoupling the sources and a star-ground (see Appendix 8). To create a good ground, there are some copper plates available where the circuit can be soldered to. Obviously, the circuit must hoover above this plate. You may also use a print with holes, but this is more difficult. Using a breadboard is not suggested, since the parasitic elements make it very difficult for the circuit to work properly. Furthermore, during the demo, there is always at least 1 wire which is not connected properly Pay attention to the resonance circle, which determines the oscillation frequency, and ensure that it is physically very small and as far away of interference from, for example, coupling capacitors. The antenna can be measured at the chair of ICD (IC-Design) on floor 2 of Carr with a professional network- and spectrum analyser. The extra components available are: the BF199 transistor (Bipolar, 300 MHz fT) and the BB135 varicap (diode with capacitor which varies, depending on the reverse voltage. The datasheets are given on BlackBoard, including a simulation model for the BB135.

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While performing FFT calculations in LT-SPICE, add .option plotwinsize=0 (without the quotes), to the circuit. This guarantees that all calculated points are actually plotted in the FFT. While using coupling capacitors, look at the poles!

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Appendix: journal and report

Journal A journal is a chronologic form of documentation, written for your own benefit. It allows you to reproduce what you have done. In these practical sessions, the journal also functions as a method for grading your work, so be sure to answer all the questions in your journal. A journal must always be complete, but there is no objection to short and efficient writing. The most important aspect of a journal, is the fact that it represents your method. Write down what the problem/assignment is, what considerations have been made, what the result is you expect and the calculations where these expectations are based on. Furthermore, everything you have built and measured must be documented. For every realisation, include: The complete schematic circuit with the values of all components The used setup for measuring The raw measuring data, as you obtain them from the equipment. It is a necessity for you to compare your results with your expectations and calculations. Obviously, this must be written down in your conclusion. If you have performed a simulation, write down what the purpose of this simulation is, what the results are (numbers, plots) and compare these in your conclusion. A journal may contain errors. There is no harm if you later realise that you made some errors, since your journal describes how you found the error, and how the problem can be solved. Do not be tempted to copy parts of the manual, and most importantly, be critical at your own work. Report A report is a thematic documentation for someone else. It gives the reader insight in the problem, the solution and the obtained results. The report gives a logical explanation of why and how your results were obtained, hence, it is by definition in retrospect. The report has to be short, structured, clear and must have a decent representation. The essential parts are: Abstract: what is the problem, what is the result? Numerical representation of the final product. No considerations or explanations. This must be no longer than 10 lines. Usually, abstracts are written after the rest of the report is done. Table of contents: after reading the abstract, the reader must be able to quickly flip to the part which is interesting for him/her. Introduction: explain in detail why the experiment was done, what the motivation was and a (very) short glance at the rest of the report. Some chapters on the actual problem, the theory, alternative solutions and their respective pros and cons. The final method and approach is explained in detail. All considerations must be accounted for. Finally, the results are displayed. Discussion/conclusion: a critical look at the work done and the differences or agreements between the expectations and results.

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7 Appendix: Spice
In this practical, you will get acquainted with most of the general functions of LT-Spice. However, there are much more possibilities. LT-Spice contains a quite decent help-function, hence, this is your primary problem solver. However, two options are very useful to mention in this manual: Dependent sources Spice contains the following dependent sources: E F G H voltage driven voltage source [no dimension] current driven current source [no dimension] voltage driven current source [A/V or 1/ or S (Siemens)] current driven voltage source [V/A or ]

The sources E and G have a controlling terminal in LT-Spice, while the sources F and H get their current from the current through a voltage source, of which the name and gain must be given as a characteristic. Parameter sweep Sometimes, it might be useful to vary the value of a component, without redoing the simulation again and again. This might come in handy, while investigating the effects of this component. Say we would like to vary the value of R in a simple RC network. We can do this by changing the value of R to a parameter between accolades. Now, R has the value {rwaarde}. Consequently, the parameter rwaarde can be varied with use of the Spice directive .STEP. In the example below, the value of R changed from 50 to 100 and 200 Ohms. For every value, the AC analysis is performed automatically.

Instead of a parameter, the .STEP statement can also vary the temperature or other model parameters. By using the .PARAM statement instead of the .STEP, you can assign the parameter to a fixed value, which is a function of other variables. Look at the LT-Spice helpfiles for more information on this topic.

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FFT If you want to obtain a FFT plot, add the text .option plotwinsize=0 (without the quotation marks) to the Spice-directive of your circuit. This guarantees that all the calculated values are actually plotted in the FFT.

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Appendix: In practice

E12 series
Resistors are not available in all values. On the practical sessions, only the E12 series resistors are available. If you have calculated a specific resistor value, chances are that the one you need is not available. In that case, evaluate the need for that exact resistor value. Is it a resistor which does not significantly change the properties of your circuit? If so, choose the closest value from the E12 series. It is very rare that you need to put some resistors in series or parallel to get the desired effect.

Star-ground
All form of wires have some resistance and inductance. If two circuits use the same point as a reference, it must also be so in reality. In Figure 17, an example for the grounding of an audio amplifier is presented.

+ VS -

+ Vin -

+ Vin, int -

RL

Figure 17: Example of the circuitry for an audio amplifier In reality, however, this circuit looks quite a bit different. Mostly because the load resistor R L has a low resistance, so large currents will flow. This leaves us with a significant voltage drop. In Figure 18, we see that the voltage drop causes the input voltage of the amplifier to be different from that of the source. This gives distortion of the signal. Even worse, the feedback between output and input can lead to oscillation.

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IVDD

Iout + VS -

+ Vin -

+ Vin, int -

+ Vout VSS RL

out+ VSS

out

Figure 18: Parasitic resistance in wires For this reason, the reference of a circuit must always be connected as a star: all parts of the circuit which need the same reference, must come together in one point. This may not be taken lightly. In Figure 19, a neat star has been created, but a simple observation concludes that part of the problems still exist.

IVDD

Iout + VS + Vin VSS

+ Vin, int -

+ Vout RL

out
Figure 19: A star point in the wrong place In this case, the star point must be chosen at the ground-reference of the circuit, as demonstrated in Figure 20.

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IVDD

+ VS -

+ Vin -

+ Vin, int -

+ -

Iout + Vout out RL

out+ VSS
Figure 20: A well-chosen star point

Source decoupling
Even if you created a proper star-grounding, quick changes in current can be present. A part of the circuit which requires a large amount of current, can cause for a local drop in source voltage, since the source wires have resistance and induction. The best way to solve this, is by adding decoupling capacitors. Add a parallel capacitor near to the specific part of the circuit. This method allows current peaks of high frequency to be drained from the capacitor. An example is presented in Figure 21.

LFIVDD

HFIVDD

Iout + VS + Vin out out+ LFVSS

Figure 21: Star point including source decoupling Decoupling the sources is also of great importance in digital circuits. The current peaks caused by transition must also be delivered very quickly. This is the reason why a digital board is always packed with decoupling capacitors.

+ Vin, int -

+ Vout RL

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