2 Explaining Genre Theory

!
he vises oI genre theory that help it address instructional challenges
underscore the Jiew way genre is being deIined. More than classi-
Iying a "kind" oI writing`poetry, a novel, or a letter, Ior instance
at its heart, emphasizes th"e4(lea that-writing is socSdly ctIIi-
strt\cTeIl. CarolyrIR. Miller's landmark 1984 article "Genre as Social Ac-
tion" is credited with extending the traditional deIinition oI genre in ways
that opened new avenues oI thought. She argues that genres are "typi-
Iied rhetorical actions based in recurrent situations" (159). Her empha-
sis is on the "action Iri iII armmplish" (151) rather than
the Iorm a genre takes or even the situation in which it arises.
But that was just the beginning; her idea led to new ways oI con-
sidering genres` A more thorough explanation is complicated, because,
in the end, the theory isn't uniIied. It's genre theoriespluraland they
begin with trying to deIine genres.
DEFINING GENRES
"
"Genres pervade lives. P`eople use them, consciously and unconsciously,
creatively and Ioriiiulaically, Ior social Iunctions and individual purposes,
with critital awareness` and blind immersion, in the past and yet today.
They shape our experiences, and our experiences shape them. .As w'`
IItttdyariji' I`ach theSe "way? oI acting symbolically witli others, may
be'approaching an understanding not just oI genres but oI the mes`y,
dqiIiplex' ways that human being;s get along in their worlds" (Devitt,
Writing 219).
Perhaps messv and cbmplex are two perIect words to begin to de-
Iine genres as current theories conceive oI them. DeIining genre has be-
come very diIIicult, partly because, as Paul W. Richardson notes, "a per-
Iectly useIul word has now been so expanded in meaning as to render it
imprecise" (124-25). Anis Bawarshi shows that, even in looking at the
.etymology,-the-word is.challenging.-Henotes that genre comes Irom Latin
cognates through' French, "suggest|ing| that genres sort and generate"
(Devitt, Bawarshi,'`and JieiII 550). In other words, genres can both arrange
what exists and produce something else, something that might not have
existed beIore.'The origin oIt he word reveals a hint oI genres' complex-
ity, showing that they are capable oI multiple, sometimes seemingly con-
tradictory, actibns.
/
I like how we read rst
off that dening genre
has become very
difcult.

Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv
9
To explain genres, then, it might be simpler to start with what they
are riot. Many educators still consider genres as "(a) primarily literary,
(b) entirely deIined by textual'regularities in Iorm and content, (c) Iixed
and immutable, and (d) classiIiable into neat and mutually exclusive
, categories and sub-categories" (Freedman and Medway, "Introduction"
`1). Instead, today, genres represent all sorts oI interactions (some textual
land some not), are deIined more by situation than Iorm, are both dynamic
and Ilexible, and are more an explanation oI social interaction than a
classiIication system.
Genres Are Not Onl y about Literary Texts Anymore. In Iact,
Bazerman indicates that considering genres only Irom a literary perspec-'
tive has reduced the recognition oI their social aspect: "Because litera-
ture is oIten written and read i n contemplative circumstances, apparently
(but not thoroughgoingly) removed Irom immediate exigencies oI liIe,
the social embeddedness oI genre has been less visible" ("The LiIe" 20).
Thus, although literature also responds to*a social context, it is such an
abstract one that we oIten Iail to recognize it. Because genres today are
more deIined by their social situations, genres include all interactions
involving texts. In Iact, everyday texts, more than literary ones, are oI-
ten a Iocus oI current genre study.
Genres Are More Than Forms. Although, as Anthony Pare and
Graham Smart acknowledge, "repeated patterns in the structure, rhetori-
cal moves, and style oI texts are the mo6t readilv obsewable aspects oI
genre" (147), these observable Ieatures do not, by themselves, constitute
a genre. Aviva Freedman and Peter Medway explain-that regul`itiesin
Iorm come Irom the situation, instead oI existing without reason: "Genres
have come to be seen as typical ways oI engaging rhetorically with re-
curring situations. The similarities in textual Iorm and substance are seen
as deriving Irom the similarity in the social action undertaken" ("Intro-
duction" 2). Bazerman extends the explanation, showing t hat `r ms not
onl y come Ironrsituatiohs but also giiidejis througEsituaIiprtsr"GehIes
' are not j ust Iorms. Genres are-Iorms oIiTIe.',.! Genres are.the Iamiliar
plac`'We'go tbjcreate.intelligible coimmunicative action, with &ch othec
Vnd tlte guidepos'ts w e use`o explore "the uriIanIili'aI ("LiIe" 19). And
Marilyn L. Chapman aIIirms the others' assertions about Iorm's relation
to genre: "Rather than rules to be Iollowed . . . or models to be imitated
. . . , genres are now being thought oI as cultural-resources on which writ-
ers draw in the process oI writing Ior particular purposes and'in speciIic
situations" (469). So, although Iorm is an aspect oI geilre, Iorm does not
define a genre.
Basically I feel like genre
is different styles of
literature used to show
different perspectives.
I found this to be
very helpful.
Genres Are Not Fixed. Because genres are responses to soci` situ-
ations (and situations are always-changing),'`enresaHnot.be-Iixed.-At
the sanre.time, aslioted pxeviously/.theyare not totally without regula?-
ity either. As Devitt explains, "genres, then, are not arbitrary or random,
being tied to rhetorical and social purposes and contexts, but neither are
they necessary and inevitable, being shaped by various inIluences at
various times" ("Language Standard" 47). Genres are stable, but not
unchanging. They may share characteristics over time or in diIIerent situ-
ationsin Iact, a certain amount oI stability is essential Ior genres to carry
out a c t i o n t h e y are ner.exactly .the same-because no-two situa-
iionsare exactly the SEune.
Genres Are Not Sortable into Precise Categories nor Are They
Classification Systems. Humans can't help but see similarities between
responses to situationsspecial occasions may warrant a greeting card,
Ior instance. But selecting an appropriate greeting card depends partiy
on the situation`birthday, graduation, death. Mother' s Dayso they
can't be all the same genre. Even Ior the same occasionMother's Day,
Ior examplea variety oI possible responses (cards) is available: sweet,
sappy, sentimental, humorous, and so on, depending on the individu-
als' relationship, and cards can be Ior birth mothers, adoptive mothers,
mothers-in-law, and grandmothers. Because oI this connection to situa-
tion, Devitt asserts that although classiIication is an "essential part bI
understanding genre. . . such classiIication is deIined rhetoricallv. rather
than criticaHy,`by the people who use it" (Writing 9). Charles Baz`man
and Paul Prior agree: classiIication is more a matter oI people attempt-
ing to locate and generate genres than oI people assigning genres to cat-
egories ("Participating" 143). In this way, rhetorically and socially, genres
have aspects that allow classiIication, but not in the traditional sense oI
being a label Ior a category .by which texts can be identiIied.
So;: iI genres are not Iorms, not Iixed, not only about literary texts,
and not classiIication systems, what are they? Gunther Kress deIines them
by their process oI development: "In any society there are regularly re-
curring situations in which a number oI people interact to perIorm or
carry out certain tasks. Where these are accompanied by language oI
whatever kind, the regularity oI the situation will give rise to regulari-
ties in the texts.wiiich.are produced in that situation" ("Genre as Social"
27)rSathey are texts developedih and .responding toTecurring sjtuatioris.
That's at the center oI genre theory. But theorists are continuing to en-
large the concept. As Bawarshi maintains, "we oversimpliIy genres when
we deIine them onlv as the typiIied rhetorical ways in which individuals
Iunction within socially deIined and a priori recurrent sitiaations" ("Genre
Certain amounts of
stability are
essential for
genres to carry out
action.
This example with
the greeting cards
really helped me
understand this
reading better!
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv
11
Function" 356; emphasis added). Pare and Smartseparate out the Iunc-
tions Bawarshi mentions and describe genre asJiaving ''a,distinctive pro-
Iile oI regularities across Iour dimensions" (146). These dimensions in-
clude (1) the texts themselves, (2) the processes used to compose the texts,
(3) the practices readers use to understand the texts, and. (4)'"the social
roles" the texts and practices establish (146). This expansion oI the idea
oI genre beyond text and into actions, processes, and relationships brings
us back to genres as messv and contplex. It is diIIicult to define
HfiPlv: Irom a oI ppr`pprtivps.`w'e ran, however, char-
social ''
rhetorical
dynamic
historical
cultural
situated
ideological
I \yill discuss each aspect oI genre separately, but it will soon be clear that
.these aspects oI genre are not discrete. They depend on each other and
interrelate in complex ways.
Social
Genres are s o c i a l . TOe I ai-g usM to'actln s geg`i t ul t i pns , aIid they a r i s , `
Irom social i nt er Si ws` Because`ot thosecha7ac'teFistic'`, the`both' re-
llpg,.tljq social'ijjteraSSn and help people malelserise'r)I'shhred..social
pxperie'riceSj As Bawarshi points out, they "help us deIine and organize
ki ndroI social actions" ("Genre Function"' 335). We make our way in
social situations, and Iigure them out, partly through the genres associ-
ated with those situations. Programs at the opera and memos at the oIIice
guide participants in diIIerent situations. At the same time, the social situ-
ation shapes the genre. In some oIIices, less Iormal email messages re-
place memos, while in others, the email message still reads and looks like
a traditional memo. So, genres act in situations, but they are also prod-
ucts oI that situation.
InIact, r,
,a social Iact," becoming "part o I the w`y thatJiuMai\s giV` shape to so-
'cial activity" ("Spkch Acts," 311,317). Because oI these shaping aspects,
genres act as a kind oI etiquette, according to Anne Freadman, showing
Alhtough difcult to dene, genres have
different characteristics.
Genres respond to
socail setting.
12 Part I. Theorv
"how people get on with one another" ("Anyone" in Freedman and
Medway 57); tHey ate "a socialTode-oI behavior established between-thIe
reader arid.author" aec`Drding to-Bawarshi ("Genre Function" 343).
Freadman suggests we consider the "rules" oI genres to be manners more
than laws;'by doing so, we can see how genres not only act Ior purposes
but also create options Ior our actions, options we can choose to adopt
or reject, with rnrrespnndinp; social rnnspqiipnrps. II we choose to sub-
mit a poem when a resume is expected, we might not get the position
that is, oI course, unless the position is Ior a poet. So genres are social in
how they Iunction and in how they respond, in their eIIects and in their
origins.-
Because genres are social, part oI the meaniIig they carry resides
in the social context that creates the genre. As Bazerman and Prior as-
sert, "cIlti},?art t5I the meaning resides in the pa`icular quantres ,oI-lhe
texts,"Wh',le much sits within the sodohistoricaI`genesis oI the social, in-
stittitional, and'material systems within whjIch the texts, users, and in-
teractions are bound tog6thet" ("Participating" 137). For example, they
list multiple pvirposes Ior Iilling out a Iorm: to "make application, com-
ply with a regulation, or report an event" (144). The texts (Iorms) may
seem similar, but the m`anin` each carries diIIers depending on the so-
cial situation in which it occurs. And, as people use a genre in a particu-
lar activity, they begin to see it as part oI that activity, as part oI the so-
cial web oI the community.
Genres are not only ways users act socially. They also have a so-
` cial aspect in themselves: they interact with each other, both explicitly
"i and implicitly, in noticeable Iorms and in less noticeable uses oI language
O ` (Bazerman, "Intertextuality" 86-87)1 These interactions are reIerred to as
` t -i``iBiaEtextualiiji and they occur in a number oI ways. Some genres develop
out oI others, carrying elements oI those previous genres into new situa-
X5" tions; some respond to ideas and language in other genres, using that
langviage or those ideas as support or as the basis Ior argument. One
speciIic type oI intertextuality, called "p`pnrg rha`nc" by Christine M.
Tardy and John M. Swales (570), describes genres that always act in re-
sponse to prior genres. An assignment prompt Irom a teacher Iollowed
by the students' completed assignment Iollowed by the teacher ' s com-
ments and grade on the assignmentthat would be a genre chain.
As a result oI this (or interwoven with this) social-activity build-
ing aspect, genres position participants, creating social roles Ior thelii.
David Quammen addresses this role assignment when he writes about
compiling his rhagazine columns Ior a book: "I mention that sense oI
relationship because a colurrm is, in my opinion, diIIerent Irom other sorts
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv 13
!"
oI magazine writing.'Part oI a columnist's special task is to turn oneselI
into-an agreeable habit, yet to maintain an edge oI surprise and challenge
that prevents readers Irom letting the. habit become sornnolent r ot e. . . .
The relationship between a magazine writer and the readers tends, in
most circumstances, to be Ileeting and shallow. In a book, on the other
hand, a reader undertakes a sustained and serious connection with the
writer. . . . A column can be the most conversational Iorm oI journalism,
but to create the sense oI a conversation with readers,-the writer must
consent to be a person, not a pundit" (11-12). As Quammen demonstrates,
diIIerent genres create diIIerent relationships. To make any relationship
work, the participants agree to take on certain roles. As Pare and Smart
explain, "these generic characteristics oI role and relationship determine
what can and cannot be done and said by particular individuals, as well
as when, how, where, and to whom" (149). When I receive an email mes-
sage Irom my supervisor, I take a diIIerent stance (word choice, level oI
Iormality in tone, etc.) in my response than I do when I reply to an email
message Irom a student. Same genrediIIerent roles. The assigriment and
acceptance oI roles and the resulting relationships are part oI the social
aspect oI genres.
Rhetorical
`eqause theyjboth establish and. enIorce relationships```eiires are thetori-
caIrIhat-js, they'allow users to choose arridng options taeIIectively ac-
semplish they: purposes in each-particular situation. Edward P. J. Corbett
and Robert J. Connors identiIy the "choice oI available resources to achieve
an end" as part oI what makes something rhetorical (2). Certainly, iI
genres are viewed as maimers, choice is an element, as is adapting to situ-
ation: manners shiIt Ior diIIerent situations, and people can choose to
observe expectations or not. Genre users, then, consider options Ior com-
municating their own purposes within the situation, choosing to Iollow
generic expectations or not, to one degree or another.
Devitt posits the presence oI both stability and Ilexibility in the
nature oI any genre; "stability to pnsurp that thp genre continues to Iul- ` Rc`Ui .
r.``PI`carYiiinrtions. Ilexibility.to ensure that individuals can adant .
the circunistances"
{Writing 135). The Ilexibility she mentions and users' ability to adapt
genres show their rhetorical aspects. Terence T. T. Pang describes these
rhetorical choices as moves: "Moves are purposeIul Iunctional units sus-
taining the communicative intent oI the speaker" (147). Genre users can
choose among obligatory movesthose aspects oI a genre that are es-
I liked this
description
for rhetorical
situations.
14
Part I. Theorv
sential to others' identiIication oI it as a genreand optional moves
those aspects oI a genre that are more Ilexible. For example, in a movie
review i t would be obligatory to inckide the reviewer's overall evalua-
tion oI the movie, examples to support that evaluation, and reIerences
to the acting, cinematography, or other aspects oI the production. Op-
tional moves might include choices regarding the arrangement oI the
review's content (giving the evaluation Iirst or last), the tone the reviewer
takes (objective or satiric), or the overall purpose (to inIorm or persuade).
Deciding to Iollow expected moves and selecting among optional ones
are rhetorical choices. The element oI strategicxhoice, oI being able tg
` consider situation, purpose, timing`udience. culture, and available op-
dons when using a genre, 7s wh`makes genres rhetorical.
Dynamic
Partly because they are both social and rhetorical, genres change, and they
create change in their contexts. Jeanne Fahnestock provides an interest-
ing example that shows how genres aIIect context. She lists three diIIer-
ent approaches a dean can take to address Iaculty about budget cuts: list-
ing the cuts in a this-is-how-it-will-be Iormat; explaining the needs and,
together with the Iaculty, brainstorming possibilities Ior addressing the
cuts; or explaining the problem and arguing Ior a particular course oI
action (266). Although the initial situation is the same, Fahnestock argues
that each rhetorical choice will create a diIIerent resulting situation; thus,
the choice oI genre can change the situation: "The ability oI genre to shape
context is, then, an important point" (266). This ability oI genres to both
` respond to and aIIect situation is part oI what makes them djmamic.
Another aspect oI genres, their ability to be Ilexible, also contrib-
utes to their dynamic nature: because genres can adapt, they also change.
Deborah Hicks notes that genres "do not Iully determine the particular
rhetorical moves that can occur in a given setting. Participants can, and
do, interpret and subtly alter the discourses that might otherwise be con-
stitutive oI a social action" (467). Echoing this sentiment about genres'
Ilexibility, Carol Berkenkotter and Thomas N. Huckin assert this inter-
esting claim: "We Ieel that genericness is not an, all-or-nothing proposi-
tion. . . . Instead, communicators engage in (and their texts reveal) vari-
ous degrees oI generic activitv" ("Rethinking" 492). In other words,'`OThe
exaiiIpleioia.'genre might beoncIIeiike the expectti5W'thgi"t)thers. Ber
cause-us'er`ad`pt gIehrSS , o their pmpb``'attd'ti-rake rhetpricalchoices
in varyingIiSDCial sittIaFions, .genres have.Ilexibiljiyand IlexihiliJv.C&P
toxiiarigje. '
Chapter 2; Explaining Genre Theorv
15
Researchers reviewing speciIic genres through time have docu-
mented this dynamic nature. For example, Devitt summarizes JoAnne
Yates's review oI American business genres Irom the late nineteenth and
early twentieth cenIuries as an examplenoting the Iactors inIluencing
genre change as well as the ways genres inIluence cultural transIorma-
tions (Writing 93-96,102-6,110-12). In her survey oI several such stud-
ies, Devitt demonstrates that contextual Iactors as well as individuals
working within genres (resisting them as weII as adapting them) contrib-
ute to genre change. Devitt, ReiII, and Bawarshi assert that this dynamic
aspect oI genres is very much a Iactor oI people's use oI them; "Genres
do not change magically op their p,wn: people change genres, usually
slowly and imperceptibly, as they begin to recognize the ways in which
genres no longer Iully serve their needs" (163). Sucli change can take plaice
at diIIerent paces because oI varying inIluences, but there is no doiibt that
people using genres to accomplish social and personal goals will have
an eIIect on the genres they use.
Historical
Genres are historical in the sense that when they changeor when new
genres developthey depend-on previous genres, antecedent genres, Ior
their development. In explaining this characteristic in oral language, M.
M. Bakhtin declared, "Any utterance is a link in a very complexly orga-
nized chain oI other utterances" (69). Echoing Eal`Jitin, Margaret Himley
asserts that "in learning to write (or speak), the learner .. learns the ways
oI making meaning oI a particular language community by appropriat-
ing and reworking those ways to which she has access" (138). `, `ause
genres-don'-t exist in a vacuum, because, as.Devitt aIIirms, "our response
to`s`TKIatTon can"Fe guided ?v pgst responses," antecedent` genres r`-
v ` l i h e historical aspect oI genres ("Generalizing" 576). In Iact, bWiIt
argues that "when new genres develop abruptly they may derive more 1 ` `
Irom the context oI genres |i.e., previous related ones| than Irom the con- ` e ~
text oI situation" (Writing 99).
Kathleen Jamieson's study oI George Washington's Iirst State oI the
Union address shows the incredible inIluence oI prior genres in devel-
oping new ones:
The umbilical ties were stronger than the Iramers oI .the Constitu-
tion suspected. Faced with an unprecedented ihetorical situation,
Washington responded to the Constitutional enjoinder that the
president Irom time to time report to Congress on the stateoI the.
union and recommend necessary and expedient legislation, by
16
Part I. Theorv
delivering a speech rooted in the monarch's speech from the throne.
The Congress, which had rejected as too monarchical the title "His
Highness the President of the United States of America and Pro-
tector of the Rights of the Same," promptly reacted as Parliament
traditionally reacted to the Kirig, and drafted, debated, and deliv-
ered an "echoing speech" in reply. (411)
As Devitt concludes, `vRen'nd'genre ekists Ior a new` action,-the "situa-
t i on' d` r t ds heavily on the Iirst rhetor to choose Antecedents wjsSjy"
(Writing 97). Certainly when the Iirst choice isn't as appropriate as it could
be, it will be changedeventually. Until then, though, the consequences
oI the ineIIective genre are at work in the situation. Because genres grow
out oI past genres and develop into new ones, because they may even
depend more deeply on those past genres than we expect, they are his-
torical.
Cultural
In a socially based theory oI writing, context matters. Genres are cultural
in the sense that they occur in and respond to what Devitt calls a "macro
level oI context"a context broader than the immediate situation oI the
genreor culture {Writing31). Other theorists reIer to this larger concept
oI context as discourse communitv, activitv svstem, commurtitv, or simply
context. All oI these other terms have aspects unique to them but share
the idea oI broad context, which I generalize here with the label oI cul-
ture. My generalization,tiowever, isn't intended to simpliIy the concept
oI culture. Milter, noting that "Raymond Williams (1976) has called 'cul-
ture' one oI the tWo or three 'most complicat`' `rd`inthe`English lan-
guage,'"'deIines it this way: 'tPUlIOle as a 'parHcular ` y oI liIe' oI-aiime
and platIe, i n all its'complexity, experienced by a group that understa`ids
itsIelI $is an'identiIiatl'e group'"` ("Rhetorical"'68). Devitt ` d s speci&s
when she deIines culture ("loosely") as "`shared seT6Fniaterlal contexts
and learned beh&viors, values, belieIs, and tempIates" {Writing 2`.S(~
tIiltureTepresents the bIoad context thatmIluencis genresWhat genres
`arg'usIe'd, when and how, and by whom.
Despite these clariIications, the concept oI culturediscourse com-
munity, context, whateveris, as Berkenkotter and Huckin call it, "slip-
pery" because it isn't a "static entity" ("Rethinking" 497). People move
in and out oI cultures ` d belong to several simultaneously. Devitt also
acknowledges that people also Iorm groups with commonalities-within
cultures and between cultures. She delineates three kinds oI such groups:
5 JtdmmuritttSS, Vwhich are "people who share substantial amounts oI time
0 r ` together in common endeavors"ollectiveshich are "people who gather
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv 17
around a single repeated interest, without the Irequency or intensity oI
contact oI a community"; andIsocIIl/' networks `tvhich are "people who are
connected onceor moreremoved, through having common contact
with another person or organization" (Writing 63). These-diIIerent degrees
oI interaction among people in various types oI relationships exempliIy
the diIIiculty in pinning down culture or context.
In addition, genres span communities, enabling`relationships be-
tween and among them, and genres that develop within a community
are sometimes meant Ior use by those outside it. So the relationships
between genres and culture are varied and complex. Miller approaches
the complexity iri this way: "Rather than seeing |community| as comIort4
able and homogeneous and uniIied, I want to characterize it as Iunda-\
mentally heterogeneous and contentious" ("Rhetorical" 74). Within this'
disunity, though, she sees genres as a stabilizing aspect: `llrt their pr`gi
matic idimIerisipn, genres notonly help-people-in spatio-.temporal- com-
munities do' theirwork' atid carry oub their purposes; thIey also help
virtual commim,ities, the relationship` we carry around in r~ur. heads; to
ireproduce-and*reconstruct themselves,to continue theirstories" (75). So,
genres can provide cohesiveness to a culture, but culture also has a role
in "deIin|ing| what situations and genres are possible or likely" (Devitt,
Writing 25). Echoing Devitt, Coe indicates thatgenres deIine cultures aS' S`
much as cultures; HpIinp gpnrpc- "part oI what deIines a discourse com-
munity is the genre system it sanctions and empowers" ("New Rheto-
ric" 199). Indeed, he returns to the reciprocity oI culture and genre by
pointing out that using a genre "usually means . . . invoking and/ or re-
constructing both the community's values and its view oI the rhetorical
situation" (199). Thus, ctilture inIluences genres and is, as a result, also
inIluenced by the genres employed by participants in the culture.
Situated
Genres are also situated in smaller contexts; that is, they are loeatjed in or
placed in relation to more particular aspects oI their surroundings. Us-
ing Devitt's term,,the ccmtextjoI situatioru reIers to the"micro level" oI
context (Writing 31), Such a context diIIers slightlyirom traditional views
oI the-rhetorical situation, (audience, purpose` occasion) by adding so-
cial aspects such as participant rol`aand the relation oI the recurring situ-
atiorrto purpose and to uses oI language (Devitt, Writing 16). To clariIy
how situation is inherent to genre. Randy Bomer gives an example oI
seeing a piece oI paper under his windshield wipeK it could be either a
parking ticket or a Ilyer advertising something. Depending on the situa-
18
Part 1. Theorv
tion, he can anticipate which is most likely. When he's handed a paper
by .an usher in a Broadway theater, it is probably a program: "Even be-
Iore we look at it, we have oriented ourselves to ways oI reading that
genre and will read it only with those questions in mi nd that are usually
answered by a pl aybi l l , pv pr y piI`e oI writing-. PVPry tpvf W P r^aH
^ 1<WL1S ag hnt h a t p v f - ^ p)f f p^f _ari instpnrP-Qf a
.gerire" (117). Sj`usIiorvpositions usTo both receive`nd act-wjth-g`res
anS`reates cqles'Ai'jd reIationships -as we do, go.
Cike culture, situation is also reciprocal, as Devitt explains: "Genre
and situation are tightly interwoven . . . but it is genre that determines
situation as well as situation that determines genre. To say that-genre
responds to situation not only is deterministic but also oversimpliIies
their reciprocal relationship" (Writing 23). Devitt illustrates this situated-
ness when she explains that students writing letters to the editor Ior a
class assignment will perIorm a diIIerent genre than a concerned citizen
writing a letter to the editor would (22). The situationsthe immediate,
and particularly social, aspects oI context such as purpose, participant
roles, and exigencies, at leastdiIIer, so the genre, as a consequence, does
also.
Ideological
Because genres are social, cultural, and situated, it should be no surprise
that they are also ideological, that ,l;teyRepresent ways pI Jhinkiug about
`nd valuing the wjjrld. Berkenkotter and Huckin note that "genres sig-
nal a discourse, community's norms" ("Rethinking" 497), and Devitt ex-
plains how: "Because people in groups develop genres, genres reIlect
what the group4?elieves and how it views the world" {Writing 59). Since
genres are not just Iorms oI social interaction but also ways oI being,
participating in genres involves assuming the ways oI thinking that en-
j compass those ways oI being. Bazerman says that acting with genres
I causes-participants to "take on the mood, attitude, and actional possi`
/ bilities.... Adopt a Iratne oI mind, set yovir hopes, plan accordingly, and
#" begin acting"*("Genre" 13). He likens using genres.Jto going to a place
and taking on the character "oI the place: "II you hang around the race
track long enough, you become o;ie oI those race track characters" (14).
Since genres are shaped by situation, they represent the values oI
participants in that situation. When users oI genres come Irom a situa-
d I \ tion'removed Irom that which created the genre, values may clash. Pare
describes Inuit social workers being urged to more closely imitate the
record-keeping conventions developed by their urban counterparts. The
Genres reect indiviidual
and group beliefs.
Chapter 2.: Explaining Genre Theorv 19
ideologies oI those detached, detailed records represented the values oI
the urban culture, not the close, almost Iamilial, relationships oI the Inuit
culture, and this created a conIlict Ior workers: "The workers' dilemma
indicates how participation in workplace genres situates writers in rela-
tions oI power" (63). The use oI these genres divided the "individual's
sense oI identity" (66). In situations like this one with the Inuit workers,
IaWKIl'atltGea&uggegtg` that users niay.uIIei: Irom.the "extra-cognitive `
work" that occtjrs Jjecause.oI conIlicts between the ideologies oI i he
`nres-l`iIig used;and the personal-ideologies oI the`ysers (158).T'hesIe
jcons`ueiigeSsSo thei'deoidgies oI genres are notallb`d, Hoiygver/some-
tirnest`ening new ways oI viewing the world rnighljbe beneIicial.'Devitt
claims that "ideological power is not necessarily good or evil but rather
. . atT`hivalg'nt- it prnd and bad." (Wriim: t`ut these
consequences`whether they're perceived to-be good oI baddo serve
to illustrate that teaching and acting with genres carry social and politi-
cal implications because oI genres' ideological aspects.
Because oI ideology, what genres get taught in school and to whom,
and whether they `re taught as a matter oI compliance or resistance, are
all matters oI concern. Peter Clements asserts that "teachers are never just
instructing writers in the means and methods Ior realizing th`ir thoughts,
more eIIectively on paper, but rather are coercing students into speciIic
political choices about how to align themselves within various dis-
courses" (203) .Certainly teachers need to be aw`re oI the ideologies o ,
Jt h`enres they t e a c h p v o i d what Tom Homno qays, "a genrg rut"
when students become "Johnny-One-Genres""("Teaching" 174). Journals
represent an ideology as much as Iive-paragraph essays do. Romano
urges teachers to "examine our courses and school curricula Ior genre
hegemony. Does one genre dominate?" (174). II it does, what ideologies
are we reinIorcing Ior students? What ones are we ignoring?
As a result oI these political/ideological aspects, some theorists
urge that a critique oI genres is essential to students' adequate under-
standing oI them. AIter explaining that rules control but resources en-
able, Lemke argues that "to t`ach genres without critique is not only
unethical, it is intellectually Iaulty. The critique oI a genre is what makes
it into a resource. It is only when we understand the origins, history, and
social Iunctions oI a genre, i.e. its politics, that we are empowered to make
intelligent, inIormed decisions in our own interest about how w` shall
use it or change it" (5). However, teaching students to resist the ideolo-
gies oI genres can be diIIicult: when they use a genre, even in imitation
in cIassroom settings, they are acting somewhat according to the ideol-
ogy inherent in that genre. Heather Marie Bastian argues that "when we
"h5
(Jo iVci n `
20
Part I. Theorv
perIorm genres, we are positioned not only as situation-speciIic genre
subjects but also |as| an overarching generic subject. And both oI these
positionings work to create complacent subjects" (7). By perIorming
genres, then, students may not later be able to resist the ideologies oI those
genres.
As we can see, these are the characteristics oI genre: social, rhetori-
cal, dynamic, historical, cultural, situated, and ideological. DiIIerent theo"-
ries about genre place varying degrees oI emphasis on these characteris-
tics, and doing this results in diIIerent views oI what it means to use or
learn a genre. Those diIIerences are the Ioundation Ior and the results oI
the range oI genre theories.
GENRE THEORIES
Traditional genre theory, as explained earlier, deals with customary deIi-
nitions oI genre: literary, Iorm-Iocused, and Iixed. More recent rhetori-
cal genre theory Iocuses on (1) everyday, workplace, or school'texts; (2)
situation and context as they relate to textual tegularities; (3) the dynamic,
Iluid nature oI genres; (4)" the blurring oI boundaries; and (5) the ways
genres develop Irom other genres. In tontrast to traditional genre theory,
this contemporary notion oI genre theory recognizes genres as ideologi-
cal and conceptual rather than neutral and concrete. Freedman and
Medway also observe that contemporary genre theory is "descriptive,
rather'than prescriptive" ("Introduction" 3).
Within this broad generalization oI contemporary genre theory,
though, are a range oI'theories that diIIer on the various implications oI
genre concepts. Somie oI this diIIerence has to do with place: theories that
developed out oI the Australian linguistic Ioundation have diIIerent con-
cerns and theoretical origins than do those that developed out oI the
``Nor t h American Ioundation. As Coe notes, ",?`nra-theories vary signiIi-
xantlv" heraiisp thev "arp thpin;plvpg Tr~r.t,vated and situated" ("New
Rhetoric" 198). In Australia, concerns With helping marginalized grdilps
ga'm access to the social and economic mainstream were addressed'by
linguists looking Ior application oI their ideas in schools. Widespread
dissatisIaction with the ntore expressivist aspects oI the writing prdcess
mbveInent there inIluenced an approach to genre that emphasized prac-
tical aspects, including Iorm. In contrast, in the United States, where the
writing process'movement had very strong support, rhetoricians' inter-
ests in the social aspects oI Writing were more theoretical than practical.
S6 although similar issues were at play in both regions, those stressed in
Australia were not as vital in the United States. As a result, thIe diIIering
i o
V \ )
|
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv 21
Concrete Abstract
Genre as. . . Text Rhetoric Practice
Figure 1. The Genre Theory Continuum
needs and input created diIIerent tangents Ior the direction oI genre
theory. What eventually developed among theorists across the world was
a range oI ideas Ior what genre theory really is: genre theoriesplural. -Huur i `
Baze'rman and Prior summarize the range oI genre theories in this `
way: "Genre has been explored in recent decades Irom three quite diI-
Ierent perspectives: as text, as rhetoric, and as practice" ("Participating"
138). As I interpret their summary, we could look at these diIIerent theo-
retical perspectives along a continuum, withgere as text as the most con-
crete theory and genre as practice as the most abstract. Theorists with these
various perspectives emphasize diIIerent elements oI common aspects
oI theory (Figure 1). '
Genre a s Text -
Genre theories at one end oI the continuum, genre as text, tend toward a
Iormalist perspective. Although theorists look at the ways the Ieatures
oI the Iorm reIlect the social situation, they generally begin with the Iorm.
Thus, Irom this perspective, resumes put important inIormation in promi-
nent positions grouped under conunon headingseducation, experience,
reIerencesand in noticeable styles because the audience is usually a
busy proIessional looking quickly through a number oI documents. De-
spite an understanding oI the relationship betweeh context and text,
though, IKIeiIe is a tendency Ior those w i ` this perspective to emphasize
Iorm more than situation.
This theoretical position, genre as text, depends on a somewhat
traditional concept oI genrestable, though still responsive to context
since this point oI view "rest|s| not on what a genre is . . . but on how
gervres are textually realized" (Bazerman and Prior, "Participating" 138).
Instruction in genres oIten stems Irom this theoretical position. Because
instructional plans in classrooms remove most genres Irom actual con-
texts and must rely on the stability oI genres Ior teaching, Iorms are an
obvious whats leftt A major goal Ior many in the genre as teXt grQup'is to
helpTtiSirginalized groups Iind ways into Ihe roIes oI power: iI a person
22
Part I. Theorv
can't write a business letter, how likely is that person to get a job that
will allow her to move into circles oI inIluence? This goal explains a peda-
gogical inclination toward Iocusing on textual Ieatures: students would
need Iairly stable models and instruction in Iormal Ieatures to help them
leam the genres.
However, Freedman and Medway note that providing equal ac-
cess isn' t as simple as teaching the Iorms oI genres: "Students Irom
nondominant positions cannot become powerIul by simply adopting the
genres oI power, since the latter embody values and assumptions op-
posed to those held by people outside the centres oI power" ("Introduc-
copy the IorIns, to assume an insiHpr pnsitinn. And even iI all it took to
beconie p S ' o I the pow`'Iul' w t the Iorms oI that culture, Kress
. stresses another problem with this theoretical position: "The emphasis
\ on access to the genres oI power would lead to a spuriovis kind oI eq-
iluity, in which there was no challenge to the existing status quo oI social
ilarrangements" ("Genre and the Changing Contexts" 464). In other words,
IJstudents might be able to join the community but might never be aware
oI the ideological implications oI that association. Also, the genre as text
perspective may diminish students' understanding oI the dynamic as-
pect oI genre and Iail to acknowledge genres' Iull complexity. Too much
Iocus on Iorm might suggest that genres are Iormulaic and might not
provide students with a sense that users have options that can reIlect situ-
ations and individual needs.within those situations.
Ge nr e a s Rhe t or i c ` (An`$
Theorists in the more central position, genre as rhetoric, emphasize the
social actions that give rise to a genre. Because certain situations have
developed Iorms Ior acting in those situations, Ior these theorists, genres
are ways oI acting: "Writing is not only a skill; it is also a way oI being
and acting in the world at a particular time, in a particular situation, Ior
the achievement oI particular desires" (Bawarshi, Genre 156). As
Bazerman and Prior explain it, this theoretical position "stays Iocused
on textual Ieatures, but reads those Ieatures as parts oI a sociorhetorical
situation" ("Participating" 138). Visible textual Ieatures are seen as per-
spectives into a situation, not as ends in themselves. These theorists might
begin with the text but move into a consideration oI the ways the texts
they explore both respond to situations and allow Ior variety and change
in those situations. II Iorms arise Irom context, using those Iorms as a
way to look back at the context seems logical, as Joseph M. Williams and
Have to represent not just
copy.
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv $%"
Gregory G. Colomb assert: "When we learn sodal context, we are also
learning its Iorms; but when we learn Iorms, we may also be learning
their social contexts" (262). From this perspective, writing isn't only, or
even primarily, about the text anymore; it's also about the situation sur-
rounding the writing, about understanding that situation, and about
ensuring that the rhetorical choices made in using a genre are eIIective
Ior the situation and the user.
Devitt notes limitations to this perspective, though: "Interpreting
discourse Ieatures thus requires not only situational but also cultural
astuteness. . . . It is diIIicult Ior those who have not acted through the
genres to recognize the Iull meaning and signiIicance oI textual Ieatures"
(Writing 53). Thus, when texts are considered in relation to context, all
the values andideologies inherent in the culture and situation might not
be visible to outsiders who look at the text alone.
Genr e a s Pr act i ce OA m&t) svvv
The third perspective, genre as practice, begins "with the process oI mak-
ing genres" rather than with the genres themselves (Bazerman and Prior,
"Participating" 139). Theorists in this range see "textual practices as Iun-
damental to generic action" and emphasize the "dynamic, Iluid, hetero-
geneous, and situated" aspects oI genres (138). These theorists Iocus more
on the contexts and processes related to genre use than on the genres
themselves, or they see genres as actions, ways'oI being, rather than texts.
Because those with this perspective emphasize the dynamic aspect oI
genrestheir "Iragility, plasticity, and heterogeneity" (139)as central
to genre theory, they are more likely to try to describe genre change in a
particular setting and Iocus on the instability oI genres than they are to
look at a text as an artiIact that would provide a lens into a situation or
as a text that would represent a situation` as the other two perspectives
do.
Thegrii`ts with this perspective rarely promote a pedagogical ap-
plication oI theory because "learning genres involves' learning tb act
'With other people,*artiIacts, and environments,* all oI whi ch are them-
selves in ongoing prpcesses oI change and development" (Bazerman and
Prior, "Participating" 147). For these'theorists; the Iocus is on the charac-
teristics oI genre interaction, on ways oI creating rrieaning, on the actions
genres enable. Not only can a genre be a way oI making a text and a way '
oI acting in a certain situation but it can also be a way to make-sense oI a
situation, a way to view the world. Thus, this theoretical position em-
phasizes ideologies and perspectives, actions rather than texts.
24
Part I. Theorv
Ci
1. `V'
2`.
/\a
THEORIES IN PRACTICE
Does it matter that theorists can't conTe to a single, uniIied theory about
genres? Not really. In Iact, our thinking and practice can be richer Ior this
diversity oI thought. What does matter is our vinderstanding oI how these
various theories oI genre play out in practice, oI their possibilities and
potential Ior student learning. The nature oI the diIIerences in theory
results in very divergent views on what theory should look like in class-
rooms. Mindful teachers, to adapt Richard Fulkerson's use oI Charles
Silberman's term, know what theory is represented in their pedagogy.
The initial model proposed Ior instruction Irom the genre as text
perspective established a three-part pattern: (1) examination oI a model
text, (2) Iollowed by group imitation oI the text, (3) leading to individual
imitation oI the text. The model was critiqued as too Iocused on Iorm and
on academic genres, thus stiIling creativity and personal expression. This
criticism came despite the assertion by J. R. Martin, Frances Christie, and
Joan Rothery (the model's authors) years earlier that "it is very impor-
tant to recognize that genres make meaning: they are not simply a set oI
Iormal structures into which meanings are poured" (64). In response to
the criticism and as a result oI dialogue among educators, the model was
revised.
J. R. Martin's revised model presents a more contextualized inter-
pretation oI genre (128). It begins with students investigating the social
context oI a genre beIore they examine the genre (text) itselI. To have stu-
dents move away Irom seeing texts simply as Iorms, guiding questions
Ior examining the text relate to Iunctions and relationships, not only to
Iormal Ieatures. AIter students practice independent construction oI texts,
they are encouraged to reIlect on (and critique) the genre, questioning
the ideas and relationships the genre privileges. TheTevised-inodel~ then,
movBs toward* a Tnoi*e the'Oretiically rich understanding oI-genrcb)` hav-
i ng students investigate context before looking at sample texts and cri-
tique .the, genre/j/ier creating their own imitations.
The interest in equity exhibited by those who Iavor this theoreti-
cal position is admirable; the potential Ior Iocus on text Iornis, sometimes
to the point oI Iormulas, is less representative oI genre theory than some
theorists like. Given the Iirst try at making this nIiodel work in classrooms
and how Iormulaic it became, critics, Ieel that the revised approach may
still endorse a tendency, in some teachers' hands, to diminish the idea oI
genre until it's almost a Iill-in-the-blank concept, especially iI there is lim-
ited variety in the examples oI the studied genre and a Iocus on replicat-
ing one example. However, when Julie E. Wollman-Bonilla observed
teachers Iollowing a process similar to this model, she noted that the
Chapter 2. Explaining Genre Theorv 25
teachers "did not explicitly discuss grammatical choices" but rather
modeled the grammatical and structural options in interactive writir\g
with ihe students, thus moving awav Irom teaching genres as Iormulas
(41). ThereIore, it seems that an approach based on genre as text may be
highly dependent on each individual teacher's use oI the instructional
model and her understanding oI theory as it inIorms practice.
QFhe genre as rhetoric grou`ooks at texts as responses to situations
and thereby links the two aspects oI genre theory t hat are most consis-
tent among the diIIerent approachestext and context. The method oI
instruction is less patterned than the genre as text's plan, but it gener-
ally involves examining a speciIic context, the people involved in that
context, and the texts they use. Students analyze a variety oI sample texts
and ask questions about the noticeable Ieatures, not primarily to iden-
tiIy the Ieatures but more to determine how those Ieatures both reIlect
and respond to the situations the genres come Irom and to evaluate how
eIIective the rhetorical choices might be in a particular situation. As Coe
notes, this perspective oI genre alters some basic conceptions* about the
teaching oI writing; at the very least, he says, it should encourage writ-
ers to "recognize that diIIerent writing situations require diIIeoent types
oI writing, that what is good in a piece oI academic literary criticism may
not be good in a newspaper book review and will very likely not be good
in a brochure" ("New Rhetoric" 200). It should help students see how
writing derives Irom and responds to situations that require action.
In some cases oI practice Irom this theoretical perspective, students
replicate the genres; in others the investigation oI the relationship be-
tween text and context is the sole purpose oI the questioning. Some theo-
rists worry that this approach still Iocuses t oamuch on the text, not al-
lowing enough room Ior the change and variation that is part oI genre
theory, especially iI the samples students investigate are too limited in
number or too similar to each other. Other theorists wonder iI it's really
possible to see the whole situation Irom outside the context, just by look-
ing at the text. They believe this method oI exploration`would provide a
somewhat superIicial sense oI the situation and thereIore a somewhat
limited ability to determine rhetorical eIIectiveness.
(The genre as practice grniip`Iopusps most on the context and the
dynamic nature oI genres, to the point that sohie adherents assert that
genres are impossible to teach in a classroom. Instead, proponents take
an approach similar to Gee's applications oI learned versus acquired lit-
eracy, in which he states that "someone cannot engage in a Discourse in
a less than Iully Iluent manner. You are either in- it or you're not. Dis-
courses are connected with displays oI an identity" (155). Applying this
26
Part I. Theorv
6
4
perspective to writing and writing instruction, Sidney I. Dobrin explains:
"The systems by which we interpret are not codiIiable in any logical
manner since discourse does not operate in any logico-systemic manner
and never remains static long enough to develop concrete understand-
ings oI the communicative interaction, ha other words, there are no
codiIiable processes by which we can characterize, identiIy, solidiIy, grasp
discourse, and, hence, j,iere is no wav to teach discourse, discourse in-
terpretation, or discourse disruption" (132-33).
Theorists Irom other theoretical positions (genre as text and genre
as rhetoric) might question the value oI the theory iI it can't have an im-
pact in educating students in writing and reading, although Dobrin de-
Iends that, too: "Classroom application need not always be the measure
Ior value oI theory" (133). Still, teachers might wonder how to prepare
students Ior writing outside oI school iI there is no way to replicate situ-
ational contexts in classes and thereIore no way to teach about genres
tm'til students encounter them on their own. Some theorists at this end
oI the continuum recommend, instead, teaching awareness oI genres "to
inculcate receptive skills . . . turn|ing| away Irom developing rhetorical
skills and toward developmentvoI rhetorical sensibilities" (Petraglia 62).
Thus, teachers with this perspective might be more likely to te&ch about
context than about texts. Those with other theoretical perspectives and
social agendas might Iind such an approach an evasion oI the hard work
oI teaching writing as well as a route to reduced opportunities Ior equity.
In a very general way, this is an overview oI contemporary genre
theory and its uses in the classroom. Like the tip oI an iceberg, there is
more complexity and detail to the theory than is presented here. A pas-
sage in Devitt's book hints at the depth oI thinking that has occurred, is
occurring, and will occur related to genre theory: "Many areas oI genre
theory still need-Iurther research and exploration. For example, not all
genres allow a simple matchup with a particular set oI contexts; some
might interact with multiple contexts. Not all contexts that people de-
Iine as recurring produce recognized genres, and some may produce
more than one genre. People may, oI course, mix genres and mix con-
texts, and they may use genres badly. Genres may be unsuccessIul, Iail,
or'die out. Genreris too rich a subject to be mined completely in just one
volume" {Writing 31). With these words, Devitt acknowledges some oI
the questions still to be addressed by theorists. In'the appendixes, l ad-
dress some additional questions and issues related to genre theory. In an
eIIort to address some oI the concerns Devitt mentions, I also explain a
little more about some oI the new directions in which genre theory is
moving.
Theory & Research Into Practice
i1t^^Kio(Ki0 wi^oiroiK)^ ' ' " eoG^
Staff Editor; Becky Standard
Interior Design: Doug Burnett
Cover Design: Pat Mayer
NCTE Stock Number: 18412
2008 by the National Couiicil of Teachers of English.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or traiismit-
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copyright holder. Printed in the United States of America.
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because of the rapidly chcuiging nature of the Web, some sites and addresses
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Library o f Congress Catal ogi ng-i n-Publ i cati on Dat a
Dean, Deborah, 1952-
Genre theory : teaching, writing, and being / Deborah Dean.
p. cm. (Theory & research into practice (TRIP))
Includes bibliographical reIerences.
ISBN 978-0-8141-1841-2 ((pbk.))
1. English languageComposition and exercisesStudy and teaching (Secondary)
2. Literary IormStudy and teaching (Secondary) 3. Report writingStudy and
teaching (Secondary) I. Title.
LB1631.D294 2008
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2007050447