cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept.

of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.1

Chapter 2 STREAM POLLUTION AND WATER QUALITY MODELLING Stream pollution

This is the alteration of the composition of water directly or indirectly and is due to: natural e.g. volcanic eruptions anthropogenic (human activities) water impoundment wastewater disposal

Self purification It is the ability of surface water to maintain a balance or return to normal balance/status quo by recycling of material between producers, consumers and saprophytes/ or decomposers if the system is not overloaded (Fig. 2.1). If too much pollution is added, the system breaks down, usually through oxygen depletion. Self purification involves: Sedimentation deposited solids form bethel deposits and the organic matter will decay anaerobically. If the material is re-suspended, it may exert sudden high oxygen demand on the system Chemical oxidation of reducing agents Bacterial decay Biochemical and biological oxidation (aerobic) There should be a balance between the oxygen consumed and that supplied by reparation from the atmosphere. Types of pollution readily degradable by oxygen demanding substances mainly organic (carbonaceous and inorganic nitrogen) oil pollution: impedes oxygen uptake and kills fish addition of pathogens chemical pollution e.g. metals like mercury, lead (carcinogenic) pesticides non-biodegradable like DDT (chlorinated hydrocarbons) detergents thermal depletes oxygen uptake and kills fish inert e.g. sand from mines, quarries, surface runoff, plastics The different source of pollution are illustrated in Fig. 2.2.

De-aeration
On entering a watercourse, organic material present in the discharge will act as food supply for the indigenous micro organisms. The organic matter will be oxidised with oxygen coming from water (DO), and therefore the water will be deaerated. 1
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.2

The deaeration is expressed in the terms of dissolved oxygen deficit i.e. the difference between the maximum concentration of oxygen which the water can hold and the actual measured dissolved oxygen concentration. Deaeration=DO deficit =max concentration of O2 at saturation minus actual O2 concentration

Natural organics and In-organics

Bacterial Algae

Wastewater

Protozoa

Man

Fish

Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of self purification Deaeration rate is directly proportional to the BOD of the water course and BOD first order kinetics apply:

dD Lt dt
Where: D dD dt k1 Lt

(1)

dD = k1 Lt dt
=dissolved oxygen deficit at time t =rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit

(2)

=first-order BOD rate constant -concentration of BOD remaining in water at time t 2

Chapter 4

Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.3

From: Lo Lt

Lt = Lo e k1t

(3)

=initial BOD exerted (or the ultimate BOD) at point of discharge) =BOD after oxidation

Substituting Lt in equation 3 into equation 2:

dD = k1 L0 e k1t dt

(4)

Fig. 2.2

Point and diffuse sources of pollution in water bodies

Diffusion In the absence of external mixing, the concentration of a gas dissolved in water will eventually become uniform due to molecular diffusion. The rate of diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient and is described by Ficks law:

3
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.4

M C = kd A t L
Where: M kd A C L =mass transfer in time t =diffusion coefficient =cross-sectional area across which transfer occurs -concentration -distance in the direction of transfer

(5)

Solution to equation 5 is:

1 1 C t = C s 0.811(C s C 0 ) e k d + e 9 k d + e 25 k d + ... 9 25
Where: Co Ct Cs =concentration of oxygen at time t= 0 =concentration of oxygen at time t =saturation dissolved oxygen concentration

(6)

Reaeration
In addition to the oxygen depletion resulting from the microbial oxidation of the organic material, the water is simultaneously being reaerated as a result of oxygen transfer between the atmosphere and the surface water. The rate of Reaeration is a function of topographical features, depth, velocity, temperature and turbulence. The driving force of the oxygen transfer is the oxygen concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the body of water and is proportional to the oxygen deficit, and can be described by Henrys law. Henrys law At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. The rate of oxygen transfer is proportional to the saturation deficit.

dD D dt dD = k2 D dt D = Da e k 2 t
Where: D dD dt Da k2 =DO deficit at time t =rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit =DO deficit initially =reaeration constant

(7) (8) (9)

Expressing the above equation in terms of DO concentration: 4

Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.5

C Ct log e s C C o s

= k 2 t

(10)

K2 is a function of flow, channel configuration and temperature

k2 =
Where:

cv n hm v h c, n, m =velocity, m/s =mean depth =constants and typical values:

(11)

c=2.1; n=0.9; m=1.7

Besides the above equation, K2 there are several empirical formulae to determine K2 and another one is as follows:

k2 =
Where:

294(DL u ) H
3 2

(12)

DL =coefficient of molecular diffusion of oxygen, m3/day u =mean velocity, m/s H =average depth of flow, m DLT = DL ( 200 C ) 1.037 (T 20 )

DL ( 20O C ) = 1.760 10 4 m 2 / d (Coefficient of molecular diffusion for

oxygen at 20 degrees Celsius. Typical values of k2 are given in Table 2 Table 2: Condition Small ponds Sluggish streams and large lakes Large streams of low velocity Large streams of normal velocity Swift streams Rapid and water falls Typical values of k2 k2 value at 20oC to base e (d-1 ) 0.10-0.23 0.23-0.35 0.35-0.46 0.46-0.69 0.69-1.15 >1.15

note k2 to base 10 is equal to the above value multiplied by 0.434

Oxygen sag-curve
The cumulative effect of Reaeration and deaeration is to produce an oxygen sag curve which shows the oxygen concentration at any point along a body of water below the point of waste discharge (Fig. 2). As soon as BOD begins to be exerted, the DO falls below saturation and reaeration starts. The reaeration is 5
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.6

from atmosphere or photosynthetic algae. With increasing saturation deficit, the rate of reaeration increases until a critical point is reached where the rates of deoxygenation and reaeration are equal. At this critical point, minimum DO is reached and as further time passes the DO will start to increase. The various changes which take place in a stream due to the depletion of oxygen are shown in Figs. 2.3 to 2.7. Mathematical models are used to make such predictions. Assuming that the only processes involved are BOD removal by biological oxidation from the atmosphere. Common models are the Streeter Phelps equations, which are outlined below.
CS=100%

DO=Initial DO deficit=Cs-C C

Reaeration

Deaeration

CS=100%

o
D0=Initial DO deficit Cs-C C Oxygen sag curve

DC=Cs=DOc=DO deficit at critical time tc=Cs-DOc

DO

DOc=Critical Dissolved oxygen critical tc

o Fig. 2.2 Oxygen sag curve

tc

DO Do

=dissolved oxygen at time t =dissolved oxygen deficit at time t 6

Stream pollution and water quality modelling

Chapter 4

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.7

DOc C Cs

=dissolved oxygen at critical point =actual concentration =concentration of oxygen at saturation

Points to note The oxygen sag curve gives:

oxygen deficit at a given point downstream of discharge maximum oxygen deficit as a result of the waste discharge (critical oxygen deficit) time at which the critical oxygen deficit is reached at the point of maximum pollution

The objective of water quality managements is to maintain DO concentration of a water course greater than the critical level. Streeter Phelps formulations: The rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit:

dD = rearation deaeration dt dD = k 2 D ( k1 Lt ) dt dD = (k1 Lt k 2 D ) dt

(13)

(14)

(15)

Where:

k1 k2 D dD dt

=first order BOD rate constant, per day =reaeration constant, per day =DO deficit at time t =rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit Or

Lt = Lo e k1t

Lt = Lo 10 k1t

(16)

Therefore:

dD = k1 Lo 10 k1t k 2 D dt dy + PY = Q ) gt

(17)

(A first order differential equation of the form Integrating above equation:

7
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.8

Dt =

k1 10 k1t 10 k 2t + Do 10 k 2t k 2 k1

(18)

Where:

Dt Do Lo t

=DO deficit at time t, mg/l =initial DO deficit at time t=0 or t0, mg/l =initial ultimate BOD exerted at t=0, mg/l =time of travel in days

At critical point. point of maximum deficit:

dD =0 dt
Where Dc

k1 Lt k 2 DC = 0

i.e. reaeration=deaeration

(19)

=critical DO deficit at time tc (20) (21)

Dc k 2 = k1 Lt
Dc = k k1 Lt = 1 Lo 10 k1tc k2 k2

Where:

tc

=critical time of travel to the minimum DO level, days

For tc, differentiating equation 18 with respect to t and

dD =0 dt
(22)

we get:

tc =

k 1 log 2 k 2 k1 k1

Do (k 2 k1 ) 1 Lo k1

To base e

Dt =

k1 e k1t e k 2t + Do e k2t k 2 k1 k k1 Lt = 1 Lo e k1tc k2 k2

Dc =

tc =

k 1 ln 2 k 2 k1 k1
k ( base e ) 2.303

Do (k 2 k1 ) 1 Lo k1

k ( base10 ) =

8
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006

2.9

Determination of k values The main problem with the Streeter-Phelps equations lies in determining accurately the values of k1. The k1 value must be predetermined from BOD test data although questionable (conditions not similar to stream flow).
k1 0.05 0.2 per day, at 20OC, k1 0.10 per day

For correction of k1 value obtained in various temperatures:

k1(T ) = K 1(20 ) T 20

Where;

k1(T )

=rate constant at T, per day =Arrehnuis coefficient =temperature, oC

K 1(20 ) =rate constant at T=20OC

Limitations of Streeter-Phelps equations

equation apply when there is no change in dilution or pollution load in the stretch under consideration or step wise calculations for different points in the pollution in the reach. The calculated output BOD and DO from the first section provide part of the input data to the next section downstream no deposition of organic matter from the suspension and possible late resuspension due to scour of the bottom mud by floods section must be of regular shape flow should be plug flow and hence no mixing

Factors influencing DO sag BOD addition from surface runoff presence of organic pollutants at the bed of water which exerts an oxygen demand which is not detected during the determination of ultimate BOD removal of DO by diffusion into the bottom mud to satisfy oxygen demand BOD addition by diffusion of soluble organics from the bottom deposits removal of DO by purging action of gases released from the bottom deposits addition of DO by photosynthetic plants removal of DO by plants during respiration at the night instantaneous reaction of pollutants i.e. wastewater with immediate oxygen demand nitrification which results in uptake of biological uptake of oxygen presence of pollutants like oil detergents which alter the water interface (oxygen transfer)

9
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.10

Fig. 2.3

10
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.11

Fig. 2.4

11
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.12

Fig. 2.4

12
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.13

Fig. 2.5

13
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.14

14
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality and Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water, NUST 21/09/2006 2.15

References

15
Chapter 4 Stream pollution and water quality modelling