CONTENTS

[Preface] Preface to the SPE Printing Acknowledgments Recent Developments Errata List of Symbols Chapter 1 Classification and Characteristics of Complex Mixtures 1. Introduction 2. Classification of Complex Mixtures 3. Phase Separation and Settling Behavior 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Terminal Settling Velocity 3.21 Solid Particles 3.22 Fluid Particles 3.23 Irregularly Shaped Particles 3.24 Effect of Tube Wall 3.3 Effect of Concentration and Hindered Settling Velocity 3.4 Pseudohomogeneous Fluids 3.5 Recommended Design Procedure 4. Classification of Single-Phase and Pseudohomogeneous Multiphase Mixtures 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Time-Independent Viscous Fluids 4.21 Newtonian Fluids 4.22 Pseudoplastic Fluids 4.23 Dilatant Fluids 4.24 Bingham Fluids 4.25 Yield-Pseudoplastics 4.3 Time-Dependent Viscous Fluids 4.31 Introduction 4.32 Thixotropic Fluids 4.33 Rheopectic Fluids 4.4 Viscoelastic Fluids 4.41 Introduction 4.42 Constitutive Equations 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 9 10 12 13 19 21 23 23 27 27 29 32 36 37 39 39 41 46 48 48 51

5. Rheological Measurements and Interpretation of Data 5.1 Viscometric Equipment 5.2 Interpretation of Rheological Measurements Bibliography Chapter 2 The Flow Properties of Fluids 1. Introduction 2. Density 2.1 Single-Component Fluids 2.11 General 2.12 Gases 2.13 Liquids 2.2 Multicomponent Fluids 3.11 General 3.12 Gases 3.13 Liquids 2.3 Pseudohomogeneous Multiphase Systems 3. Newtonian Viscosity 3.1 Single-Component Fluids 3.11 General 3.12 Gases 3.13 Liquids 3.2 Multicomponent Gases 3.3 Multicomponent Miscible Liquids 3.4 Pseudohomogeneous Suspensions of Spherical Particles in Liquids 4. Consistency Measures for Common Non-Newtonian Materials 4.1 General 4.2 Bingham Plastics 4.21 Homogeneous Materials 4.22 Pseudohomogeneous Materials 4.3 Pseudoplastics 4.31 Homogeneous Materials 4.32 Pseudohomogeneous Materials 5. Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension 5.1 Relationship Between Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension 5.11 Gas-Liquid

55 55 57 63 67 67 68 68 68 71 77 81 81 82 87 88 88 88 88 89 94 95 96 97 100 100 100 100 102 106 106 109 110 110 110

5.12 Liquid-Liquid 5.2 Surface Tension of Single-Component Liquids 5.21 Estimation from Density 5.22 Estimation from Refractive Index 5.23 Estimation from Viscosity 5.24 Estimation from Corresponding States 5.25 Effect of Temperature 5.26 Effect of Pressure 5.3 Surface Tension of Multicomponent Liquids Bibliography Chapter 3 Basic Concepts of the Flow of Newtonian Fluids 1. Introduction 2. The Equation of State 3. The Constitutive Equation 4. The Continuity Equation 5. The Momentum Equation 6. The Energy Equation 7. The Mechanical Energy Equation 8. Modes of Flow 9. Laminar Flow 10. Turbulent Flow Bibliography Chapter 4 The Flow of Newtonian Fluids in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Criteria for Laminar, Transitional, or Turbulent Flow 2.1 Criteria for Laminar and Turbulent Flow Remote from the Entrance 2.2 Distance from the Entrance Required for the Development of Stabilized Flow

110 111 111 111 112 112 113 113 114 114 119 119 120 121 121 122 125 127 129 130 131 135 137 137 137 138 141

3. Steady-State Laminar Flow 3.1 The Hagen-Poiseuille Relationships 3.2 The Friction Factor Concept 3.3 Entrance Effects 3.4 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 4. Steady-State Turbulent Flow 4.1 Smooth Wall (SW) Turbulent Flow 4.11 Empirical Friction Factor Relations 4.12 Velocity Profile Relations 4.13 Friction Factor Relations Based on Velocity Profile Analysis 4.2 Wall Roughness and Its Effectiveness 4.3 Fully Rough Wall (FRW) Turbulent Flow 4.4 Partially Rough Wall (PRW) Turbulent Flow 4.5 The Friction Factor Chart 4.6 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 5. Recommended Design Methods 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Entrance Effects 5.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 5.4 Potential Energy of Hydrostatic Head Effects 5.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Effects 5.6 Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Incompressible Fluids (Liquids; and Gases and vapors when P < 0.10P1) 5.61 Steps in Estimating P when D and Q (or V) are Known 5.62 Steps in Estimating D when Q (or V) and P (or Pf) Are Known 5.63 Steps in Estimating Q (or V) when D and P Are Known 5.7 Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases and Vapors when P > 0.10P1 Bibliography Chapter 5 The Flow of Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Steady-State Laminar Flow

143 143 144 145 150 151 152 152 153 156 160 162 164 166 169 175 175 175 176 176 177 177 177 177 178 178 178 182 182 183

2.1 The Rabinowitsch-Mooney Relations 2.2 The Relations for Pseudoplastic fluids 2.21 The Power Law Fluid 2.22 The Ellis Fluid 2.23 The Power-Eyring Fluid 2.24 The Meter Fluid 2.25 The Sisko Relations 2.3 The Relations for a Bingham Fluid 2.4 The Relations for a Yield-Pseudoplastic Fluid 2.5 Viscoelastic Fluids 2.6 The Metzner and Reed Generalized Approach 2.7 Entrance Effects 2.8 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 3. Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 4. Steady-State Turbulent Flow 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Relations for Pseudoplastic Fluids 4.21 The Dodge and Metzner Relations 4.22 The Tomita Relations 4.23 The Clapp Relations 4.24 The Torrance Relations 4.25 The Lord, Husley, and Melton Scale-Up Procedure 4.3 The Relations for a Bingham Fluid 4.31 The Tomita Relations 4.32 The Torrance Relations 4.33 The Thomas Correlation 4.34 The Hanks and Dadia Analysis 4.4 The Relations for a Yield-Pseudoplastic Fluid; The Torrance Relations 4.5 The Relations for Viscoelastic Fluids 4.51 Introduction 4.52 The Kilbane and Greenkorn Correlation 4.53 Logarithmic Relationships (Meyer, and Seyer and Metzner) 4.54 The Astarita et al. Relationships 4.6 Bizarre Fluids 4.7 Entrance Effects 4.8 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 5. The Flow of Suspensions of Fibrous Materials 5.1 Introduction

183 186 186 192 193 194 195 196 201 202 203 206 211 212 217 217 217 217 220 221 223 225 227 229 229 230 231 233 237 237 241 242 246 248 249 251 251 251

5.2 Prediction of Pressure Gradient 6. Recommended Design Methods 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Entrance Effects 6.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 6.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 6.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Energy Effects 6.6 Pressure Gradient for Steady Flow Bibliography Chapter 6 The Flow of Time-Dependent Non-Newtonian Fluids in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Laminar Flow 2.1 Qualitative Description 2.2 General Equations 2.3 Integration of the General Equation 2.31 The Method of Govier and Ritter 2.32 The Method of Ritter and Batycky 2.4 Entrance Effects 2.5 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 3. Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 4. Turbulent Flow 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Approximate Treatment 4.3 Entrance Effects 4.4 General Form of the Pressure Drop Equation 5. Recommended Design Methods 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Entrance Effects 5.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 5.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 5.5 Acceleration Effects 5.6 Pressure Gradient for Steady Flow Beyond the Stabilization Distance, Lc Bibliography

253 257 257 258 259 260 260 260 262 267 267 268 268 272 274 274 276 281 283 284 285 285 285 286 286 287 287 287 288 288 288 288 289

Chapter 7 Fundamental Concepts of the Flow of Multiphase Mixtures 1. Introduction 2. Description of a General Two-Phase System 3. The Continuity Equation 3.1 Total System Continuity Equation 3.2 Individual Component Continuity Equations 4. The Momentum Equation 5. The Total Energy Equation 6. The Mechanical Energy Equation 6.1 Derivation from the Momentum Equation 6.2 Derivation from the Total Energy Equation 6.3 The Irreversibility Term, dPf 7. The Slip or Holdup Effect 7.1 Average Slip Velocity 7.2 Ratio of the Average in situ Velocities (Holdup Ratio or Slip Ratio) 7.3 Bankoff K Factor, Armand C Factor 7.4 Factors Influencing Holdup 7.41 Effect of Velocity and Concentration Profile 7.42 Effect of Local Relative Velocity Between Phases 7.43 Variation of Holdup with Length Bibliography Chapter 8 The Vertical Flow of Gas-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Mixtures in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Typical Flow Patterns, Holdup and Pressure Gradient 2.1 Flow Patterns 2.2 Holdup 2.3 Pressure Gradient 3. Empirical Overall Correlations 3.1 Flow Patterns 3.2 Holdup

290 290 292 293 293 297 298 300 301 302 304 305 308 308 309 311 312 313 314 320 320 322 322 323 323 329 331 335 335 338

3.3 Pressure Gradient 3.31 Analyses of Correlations Not Involving Estimates of the in situ Concentration or Density 3.32 Analyses or Correlations Involving Estimates of the in situ Concentration or Density 3.33 The Prediction Scheme of Orkiszewski 4. The Bubble Flow Pattern 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Bubble Generation at Submerged Orifices 4.3 The Rise Velocity of Single Bubbles in a Stagnant Liquid 4.4 The Effect of the Tube Wall 4.5 Effect of Radial and Axial Interaction Between Bubbles 4.51 Radial Interaction 4.52 Axial Interaction Approach to Stabilization 4.6 Rise Velocity of a continuous Swarm of Bubbles in a Stagnant Liquid 4.7 Cross-Sectional Distribution of Bubbles in a Flowing Stream 4.8 Cross Sectional Distribution of Bubble Velocity in a Flowing Stream 4.9 The Average Absolute Rise Velocity of Bubbles in a Flowing Stream 4.10 The Overall Mechanics of the Bubble Flow Pattern 4.11 Flow Pattern Details 4.12 Holdup 4.13 Pressure Gradient 4.14 The Transition from Bubble to Slug Flow 5. The Slug Flow Pattern 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 5.3 The Flow of a Taylor Bubble in Stagnant Liquids 5.4 The Flow of a Taylor Bubble in Flowing Liquids 5.5 Small Bubbles in the Liquid Slug 5.6 Relationship Between Bubble Length and Slug Length (Bubble Separation Distance) 5.7 Axial Interaction Between Bubbles 5.8 The Flow of the Film Surrounding the Taylor Bubble 5.9 Flow Pattern Details 5.10 Holdup 5.11 Pressure Gradient 5.12 Transition from Slug to Froth Flow

340 340 351 361 362 362 363 365 369 372 372 374 375 377 378 379 384 385 386 387 388 389 389 391 395 400 401 402 403 404 408 409 410 411

6. The Froth Flow Pattern 7. The Annular-Mist Flow Pattern 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 7.21 Pure Annular Flow No Entrainment 7.22 Annular-Mist Flow 7.3 Momentum Considerations 7.31 Pure Annular Flow No Entrainment 7.32 Annular-Mist Flow The Effect of Entrainment 7.4 Flow Pattern Details 7.41 Pure Annular Flow No Entrainment 7.42 Annular-Mist Flow 7.5 Holdup 7.6 Pressure Gradient 8. Recommended Design Methods 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Entrance Effects 8.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 8.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 8.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Energy Effects 8.6 Flow Pattern, Holdup and Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Incompressible Mixtures (Liquid-Gas mixtures When P < 0.10P1) 8.61 Prediction by General Methods 8.62 Confirmation by Specific Flow Pattern Methods Bibliography Chapter 9 The Vertical Flow of Gas-Solid and Liquid-Solid Mixtures in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Typical Data 2.1 Flow Pattern 2.2 Holdup 2.3 Pressure Gradient 3. General Correlations 3.1 Flow Pattern 3.2 Holdup

414 416 416 417 417 418 419 419 430 440 441 441 442 442 444 444 445 445 445 445 446 446 446 447 453 453 455 456 461 463 468 468 469

3.3 Pressure Gradient 3.31 Introduction 3.32 Analyses or Correlations Not Involving Estimates of the in situ Concentration or Density 3.33 Analyses or Correlations Involving Estimates of the in situ Concentration or Density 3.34 Mechanistic Approach 4. Recommended Design Methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Entrance Effects 4.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 4.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 4.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Energy Effects 4.6 Flow Pattern, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Incompressible Mixtures (Liquid-Solid Mixtures And Gas-Solid Mixtures when P < 0.10P1) Bibliography Chapter 10 The Horizontal Flow of Gas-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Mixtures in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Typical Flow Patterns, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient 2.1 Flow Pattern 2.2 Holdup 2.3 Pressure Gradient 3. Empirical Overall Correlations 3.1 Flow Pattern 3.2 Holdup 3.3 Pressure Gradient 3.31 The Lockhart and Martinelli and Related Correlations 3.32 The Bertuzzi, Tek, and Poettmann Correlation 3.33 The Baxendell Correlation 3.34 The Hoogendoorn and Related Correlations 3.35 The Dukler, Wicks, and Cleveland Correlation 3.36 The Chawla Correlation 3.37 Other Correlations 3.4 Effect of Pipe Inclination

475 475 477 481 493 497 497 498 498 498 499 499 500 503 503 504 504 512 514 516 516 527 532 532 541 542 544 546 548 548 550

4. The Bubble Flow Patterns 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 4.3 Approximate Treatment 4.31 Relative Velocity of the Bubbles 4.32 Holdup 4.33 Pressure Gradient 4.4 Treatment of Brown and Kranich for Dispersed Bubbles 4.5 Other Correlations 4.6 Transition to Stratified or Slug Flow Pattern 5. The Stratified Flow Pattern 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 5.3 Momentum Considerations 5.31 The Laminar-Laminar Case 5.32 The Laminar-Turbulent or Turbulent-Turbulent Case 5.4 Flow Pattern, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient 5.5 Transition to the Annular-Mist and to the Wave Flow Patterns 6. The Wave Flow Pattern 7. The Slug Flow Pattern 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 7.3 Overall Momentum Considerations 7.31 The Kordyban Model 7.32 The Hubbard and Dukler Model 7.4 Other Correlations 7.5 Flow Pattern, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient 7.6 Transition to Annular-Mist Flow 8. The Annular-Mist Flow Pattern 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Overall Continuity Considerations 8.21 Pure Annular Flow No Entrainment 8.22 Annular-Mist Flow 8.3 Momentum Considerations 8.31 Concentric Film Flow No Entrainment 8.32 Circumferential Variation of Film Thickness 8.33 Film Waves 8.34 Effect of Entrainment

554 554 556 557 557 558 559 560 561 561 561 561 562 566 566 570 575 576 576 577 577 578 580 580 581 586 588 589 589 589 591 591 591 592 592 600 603 607

8.4 Other Correlations 8.5 Flow Pattern Details 8.6 Holdup 8.7 Pressure Gradient 9. Recommended Design Methods 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Entrance Effects 9.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 9.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 9.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Energy Effects 9.6 Flow Pattern, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Incompressible Mixtures (Liquid-Solid Mixtures and Gas-Solid Mixtures when P < 0.10P1) 9.61 Prediction by General Methods 9.62 Confirmation by Specific Flow Pattern Methods Bibliography Chapter 11 The Horizontal Flow of Gas-Solid and Liquid-Solid Mixtures in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Typical Flow Patterns, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Flow Patterns 2.3 Holdup 2.4 Pressure Gradient 3. General Correlations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Flow Patterns 3.21 Introduction 3.22 Transition Velocities 3.23 Velocity and Concentration Profiles 3.3 Holdup 3.4 Pressure Gradient 3.41 Introduction 3.42 All Flow Patterns 3.43 Symmetric Concentration Flow Pattern 3.44 Asymmetric Concentration Flow Pattern 3.45 Moving and Stationary Bed Flow Patterns

609 609 609 610 610 610 610 610 611 611 611 611 612 613 617 617 619 619 621 632 635 641 641 642 642 643 662 665 667 667 668 680 685 690

Recommended Design Methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Entrance Effects 4.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 4.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 4.5 Kinetic Energy or Acceleration Effects 4.6 Flow Pattern, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient for the Steady Flow of Incompressible Mixtures (Liquid-Solid Mixtures; Gas-Solid Mixtures when P < 0.10P1) 4.61 Predictions by General Methods 4.62 Confirmation by Specific Flow Pattern Methods Bibliography Chapter 12 The Flow of Capsules in Pipes 1. Introduction 2. Typical Flow Patterns, Holdup, and Pressure Gradient 2.1 Flow Patterns 2.2 Holdup 2.21 Overall Continuity Considerations 2.22 Typical Holdup Data 2.3 Pressure Gradient

4.

704 704 704 705 705 706 706 706 707 708 712 712 714 714 716 716 719 723

3. General Analyses and Correlations 725 3.1 Spherical Capsules 725 3.2 Concentric Cylindrical Capsules 726 3.21 Velocity and Holdup Analysis Laminar Flow 726 3.22 Velocity and Holdup Analysis Turbulent Flow 728 3.23 Pressure Gradient Analysis Laminar and Turbulent Flow 730 3.3 Nonconcentric Cylindrical Capsules 733 3.31 Laminar Flow Analysis in Terms of Clearance 733 3.32 Laminar and Turbulent Flow Approximate Force Balance Analyses 741 4. Recommended Design Methods (Preliminary Only) 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Entrance Effects 4.3 Effect of Bends and Fittings 4.4 Potential Energy or Hydrostatic Head Effects 4.5 Acceleration or Kinetic Energy Effects 752 752 753 753 753 753

4.6 Pressure Gradient and Holdup for the Steady Flow of Capsules 754 Bibliography 755 Appendix Table A-1 758 758 760 762 763 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 779

Constants and Physical Properties of Common Pure Substances Table A-2 Values of Z(0) for Compressibility Factor Calculation Table A-3 Values of Z(0) in the Critical Region and Near the Two-Phase Region Table A-4 Values of Z(1) for Compressibility Factor Calculation Table A-5 Values of Z(1) in the Critical Region and Near the Two-Phase Region Table A-6 Constants for the Alani and Kennedy Equation Table A-7 Reduced Liquid Volumes for the Lyckman et al. Equation Table A-8 Values of the Constant n in the Goldhammer Equation (Eq. 2.26) Table A-9 Typical Liquid Compressibilities Table A-10 Gas-Viscosity Temperature Function for the Bromley and Wilke Equation Table A-11 Liquid Molal Volume at the Normal Boiling Point Table A-12 Structural Contributions to Calculate the Constant B in Eq. 2.54 Table A-13 Group Contributions to the Parachor, [P] Table A-14 Group Contributions to the Molar Refraction [RD] Table A-15 Constant for the Eykman Equation Table A-16 Constants for the Pelofsky Equation Table A-17 Values of the Constant a in the Meissner and Michaels Equation

Index