FLOOD CONTROL Flood is the result of runoff from rainfall in quantities to great to be confined in the low-water channels of streams.

On the other hand, flood control embraces the methods for combating the effects of excess water in streams and reduces the flood damage to a minimum. Measures for Reducing Flood Damage: 1. Reduction of peak flow by reservoirs. 2. Confinement of the flow within a predetermined channel by levees, floodwalls, or a closed conduit. 3. Reduction of peak stage by increased velocities resulting from channel improvement. 4. Diversion of floodwaters through a flood bypass, which may return the water to the same channel at a point downstream or deliver it to another channel of different watershed. 5. Floodproofing of specific properties. 6. Reduction of flood runoff by land management. 7. Temporary evacuation of flood threatened areas on the basis of flood warning. 8. Flood plain management. 1.0 Design Flood In the design of a flood control project it would be desirable to provide protection against the maximum probable flood if economically feasible. However, it is impracticable to provide absolute flood protection because high costs and acquisition of adequate rights-of-way would involve unreasonable destruction or modification of properties along the floodway. As a rule, some risk must be accepted in the selection of a design discharge. Risk should be based on careful consideration of flood characteristics, potentialities in the basin, class of area to be protected, and economic limitations. Intangible benefits resulting from provision of a high degree of security against floods of a disastrous magnitude, including the protection of human life, must be considered in addition to tangible benefits that may be estimated in monetary terms. The standard project flood is usually determined by transposing the largest rainstorm observed in the region surrounding the project and converting the storm to flow by use of a rainfall-runoff relation and unit hydrograph. In considering the effectiveness of a flood-mitigation project, its impact on flood damage and loss of life over the entire spectrum of possible floods should be evaluated and the design flood or the maximum flood against which the project is expected to be fully effective selected on the basis of all relevant social, economic, and environmental factors. 2.0 Flood Mitigation Reservoir There are two types of flood-mitigation reservoirs, which are the storage reservoirs and retarding basins, differing only in the type of outlet works provided. The discharge from a storage reservoir is regulated by gates and valves and differs from conservation reservoir only in need for a large sluiceway capacity to permit rapid drawdown in advance of or after a flood. On the other hand, retarding basins are provided with fixed, ungated outlets that automatically regulate the outflow in accordance with the volume of water in storage. Retarding basins are preferable for relatively small streams and storage reservoir are preferable for large streams.

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Purpose of Flood-Mitigation Reservoirs The function of a flood mitigation reservoir is to store a portion of the flood flow as to minimize the flood peak at the point to be protected. In ideal case, the reservoir is situated immediately upstream from the protected area and is operated to cut off the flood peak. The reservoir discharges all inflows until the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. All flow above this rate is stored until inflow drops below safe channel capacity, and the stored water is released to recover storage capacity for the next flood. Location of Reservoirs A significant, although largely qualitative, criterion for evaluating a flood-mitigation reservoir is the percentage of the total drainage area controlled by the reservoir. In general, at least one-third of the total drainage area should be under reservoir control for effective flood reduction. Economic analysis and other factors often favor the upstream site despite its lesser effectiveness. Often several small reservoirs are indicted in preference to a single large reservoir. No general rules can be set forth because each problem is unique. Size of Reservoirs The potential reduction in peak flow by reservoir operation increases as reservoir capacity increases, since a greater portion of the floodwater can be stored. The storage capacity, usually expressed in mm of runoff from its tributary drainage area is likewise a criterion for evaluation of a flood-mitigation reservoir. If this value is compared with the possible storm rainfall over the area, we can obtain a rough idea of the potential effectiveness of the reservoir. The maximum capacity required is the difference in volume between the safe release from the reservoir and the design-flood inflow. Retarding Basins The outlet of a retarding basin usually consists of a large spillway or one or more ungated sluiceways. The type of outlet selected depends on the storage characteristics of the reservoir and the nature of flood problem. Generally the ungated sluiceway functioning as an orifice is preferable because its discharge equation ; Q = Cd A (2gh)0.5 results in relatively greater constricting of flow when the reservoir is nearly full than would a spillway operating as weir. A simple spillway is normally undesirable because storage below the crest of the spillway cannot be used. However, a spillway for emergency discharge of a flood exceeding the design magnitude of the outlets is necessary in any case. As flood occurs, the reservoir fills and the discharge increases until the flood has passed and the inflow has become equal to the outflow. The water then is automatically withdrawn from the reservoir until the stored water is completely discharged.

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3.0 Levees and Flood Walls

Levees and flood walls are essentially longitudinal dams erected roughly parallel to a river rather than across its channel. A levee is an earth dike, while a flood wall is usually of masonry construction. In general, levees and flood walls must satisfy the same structural criteria as regular dams. Levees are most frequently used for flood control because they can be built at relatively low cost materials available at the site. Real estate costs for levees may be reasonable in rural areas, but in cities it is often difficult to obtain enough land for earth dikes. In this case concrete flood walls may be preferable solution. Flood walls are designed to withstand the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the water when at design flood level as well as the uplift forces. If the wall is backed by an earth fill, it must also serve as a retaining wall against the earth pressures when stages are low. 3.1 Location of Levees A city or agricultural district may be protected by a ring levee, which completely encircles the area. If a river is reasonably straight and land values are about equal on both sides, levees will be spaced equidistant from each side of the river. Levee construction for flood control goes hand in hand with bank protection and channel improvements, since a combination of these two techniques usually provides more protection per unit cost. Interior Drainage Most streams and sewers can discharge by gravity during low flows if tide gates or other closures are provided to prevent backflow of river water during floods. The water may be collected at some low point and pumped over the levee during floods when gravity flow through outlet gates is impossible. This is the most widely used. The water may also be collected in an open channel on the land side of the levee and diverted downstream to some point where gravity discharge is always possible. Tributary streams are sometimes enclosed in a pressure conduit whose upstream end is at an elevation that permits gravity flow into the main stream at all times. Water is collected in a storage basin until gravity discharge to the stream is possible.

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4.0 Closed Conduits In urban areas it is common to replace an open channel with a closed conduit, usually a reinforced-concrete-box structure. It is very important that the closed conduit have adequate hydraulic capacity so that it will not throttle the flow and cause the water to back up to create flooding upstream. 4.1 Channel Improvement Reduction in stage on a stream can be often be achieved by improving the hydraulic capacity of the channel. Removal of brush, snags, dredging of bars, straightening of bends and lining can be effective in reducing Mannings n and improving the hydraulic capacity of the channel, though care must be taken not to make the channel susceptible to bank erosion. Stepped sidewalls and fenced vertical walls provide safety to people.

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Flood Bypasses Flood bypass, also referred as floodway is created by diversion works and topography that permit excess water in a river or stream to be directed into a depression that will convey the floodwater across land that can tolerate flooding. A bypass is ordinarily used during major floods, and the land in a bypass may be used for agriculture but usually no fixed improvements of any value are permitted in the bypass area.

5.0 Evacuation and Floodproofing With reliable flood forecasts emergency evacuation is adapted to sparsely settled areas where property values do not justify other controls and loss of life can be prevented. A good flood-forecasting service is relatively inexpensive and can often provide adequate warnings sufficiently far in advance to permit orderly and complete evacuation. In instances, where only isolated units of high value are threatened by flooding, they may sometimes be individually flood-proofed. 6.0 Land and Flood-Plain Management