Action Research Resources Writing a Research Report

This short guide is written to help you approach the writing of a research report and our best advice is to start thinking about this as soon as you can and planning it into your work/life schedule. The guidelines provide a general introduction to planning and writing a report but it is suggested that you read about writing research reports/dissertations before starting see bibliography and our resources guide on this site. We hope that you enjoy the experience of carrying out research and remember that your mentor/tutor is there to support you through the process. It might also help you to join a research action set of others writing their reports.

GETTING STARTED TOPIC, CHOICE AND STRUCTURE A good research report should demonstrate:

an understanding of underpinning themes critically evaluated gained from extensive, relevant reading of relevant literature on previous research. the ability to collect data and evidence systematically and justify your choices the ability to interpret, analyse and evaluate data and evidence an ability to present data and evidence accurately and appropriately critical thinking raise and discuss issues, not just present findings an ability to report effectively an ability to reflect on learning

It is useful to discuss the following with your mentor/tutor at the first meeting on your research report.

PRACTICAL POINTS:

Agree a target submission date Word limit Intermediate dates Presentation format Available support House style

ACTION PLAN 1. Decide on a possible focus and discuss with mentor/tutor. 2. Draw up a schedule: include completion dates for different stages 3. Decide on literature to be reviewed 4. Investigate research methodology 5. Set up project and collect data 6. Sort/study data 7. Analyse/interpret data 8. Draw conclusions 9. Make recommendations 10. Evaluate and write personal reflections

TIMESCALES These will vary depending on the type of research report you are doing and the available time within any given contract or semester. Ideally the following is an idea of timescales you might need to ensure that you give sufficient time and attention to each part of the process. 2 months: Reading, making notes, planning, setting up systems, writing introduction 2 months: Writing literature review 1 month: Refining/writing up research methods 1 month: Collecting/recording data 1 month: Analysing data 1 month: Writing conclusions and compiling bibliography and appendices 1 month Proofreading, correcting, binding CHOOSING THE SUBJECT General guidance

Choose something that interests you but without any pre-conceived ideas of what you are likely to find out. This could/should (depending on brief) be an area that would be useful to the organisation. If this involves your organisation, discuss terms of reference with them to ensure they agree the research is appropriate and whether the research can be published. Consider feasibility such as "Life" of topic Likely result/usefulness Timescales Literature available 2

 Ethical/moral considerations Anticipated problems STUCK FOR IDEAS? Jot down possible areas of interest. Draw up a shortlist of topics. Check in library how much has been written about a topic. Use internet to check for research journals/articles written on similar topics. Compare/contrast a couple of articles on a topic. Discuss with others in the organisation or in your research action set.

NARROW DOWN THE TOPIC: Process of refining and clarifying: 1. Identify broad area of study 2. Refine to aspect of particular interest 3. Decide purpose (to develop theory, monitor practice, evaluate, increase understanding, practical outcomes?) 4. Ask basic initial questions to narrow down to specific area (who, what, where, when, why, how?) 5. Refine questions to define precise focus. 6. Draft title - use positive terms in title to reflect purpose (e.g. evaluate, examine, measure, survey, assess) An example of how to do this is taken from Barnes, R. (2004) as follows: Broad area of study: Unemployment Particular interest: Youth unemployment Initial questions: o Who do I mean by youth? o Which young people in particular am I interested in? o What is the context? o What aspects of unemployment am I concerned about and why? Specific area: Unemployment among 16 to 25 year olds in Nowheresville. Purpose: To find out how many young people are unemployed and how this affects them and their community. To suggest ways of improving things. Precise focus: The effects of unemployment on16-25 year olds in Nowheresville and on the local community. Meet with your mentor/tutor and take a few possible titles for discussion.

REPORT STRUCTURE 3

When writing your report, you need to think about your reader and present it in a way that is easy to follow. Use of headings, paragraph numbers, tables, charts and diagrams all help to take your reader on a clearly signposted journey. We suggest you use the following headings to structure your report:

Title page - title of report, your name, organisation, date of submission, name of tutor. Acknowledgements - optional Contents page - chapters, appendices, tables, figures, illustrations Executive Summary This is a summary and outline of main findings including context, purpose, objectives, methods, main results, conclusions and recommendations for the reader to get a feel for whether the rest of the report is of sufficient interest to warrant spending time reading it! Introduction including background, organisational context and circumstances leading to the investigation, the terms of reference, aims and objectives. Literature review a critical analysis of the most significant contributions to the literature, the theories, concepts, issues and research reports that have shaped your research questions and the approach you have chosen. Put your own work into context. Move from general background/standard theoretical works to more precise, recent work relevant to your topic. Cover a range of positions not just those you agree with. Show how existing theories/research findings clarify your work. Research methodology Evidence of systematic data collection and clear presentation of findings. This includes a justification for the choice of methods chosen to investigate your topic, the procedures used, any ethical issues, strengths and weaknesses of the approach, issues of validity and reliability. Explain approach taken and why particular methods and techniques were used. Describe procedures, size of samples, methods of selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of measurement, etc. Mention deficiencies in methods. Clear presentation of the findings using charts, graphs etc. where appropriate. Analysis and interpretation of Findings Comprehensive analysis and interpretation of findings in a holistic and integrated manner. Construct a logical, consistent argument based on the findings which analyses the information in the light of your research objectives and the literature reviewed. Conclusions Summarise main points and state any conclusions which can be drawn. These must be based on evidence and indicate how firm the conclusion is. Conclusions links the analysis of your findings with your recommendations Recommendations these are a natural follow-on from your conclusions and are actions for the future. They should be realistic, timely and cost-effective and supported by an action plan.

Evaluation/personal reflections this is where you can tell your reader what you have learned from the whole process of your research. Include comments from the organisation where appropriate. Bibliography/Webliography this is your list of sources used. You must reference properly and fully to avoid plagiarism whether intentional or not. Please ensure that any quotations are acknowledged We use the Harvard system of referencing, so do speak to your mentor/tutor if you arent sure whether you are following the conventions correctly. Appendices Typical items to go in this section could be copies of any questionnaires, interview schedules etc. Please do not use this section as a dumping ground for including all the information you want to put in the report but would go over the word limit in doing so! It can be very irritating for the reader to have to flip back and forth to follow your discussion. The report should stand alone without the appendices! LITERATURE REVIEW WHY READ? Having decided on a topic it is essential to start reading to find out what is already known about that subject. A key feature of any project is to demonstrate an awareness of how it fits into the wider context of theory and practice and this will be shown through the literature review. This is good practice for any project you undertake. The theoretical models which are identified will run as a theme through the report. They will have a number of benefits as you progress through the report including: Getting ideas for your project Once you have identified a topic, by reading around it you can see how other people have tackled similar investigations. You can also get a feel for the sort of views that are relevant to your topic, particularly views that might not be expressed in an everyday work or managerial environment. In this way you can generate fresher or more interesting ideas and you should be able to clarify your initial thoughts about the way forward with your project. It is important to read literature which both confirms and disconfirms your ideas so that you can generate a balanced viewpoint. Developing a framework for analysis When you have gathered your data, later in the project, you will have to analyse and interpret it. In order to do this effectively you will need to know what the key issues and concepts are and how they relate to each other. These key issues and concepts will come from a critical analysis of the literature you have read. Collecting secondary data 5

Reading around the subject might also reveal relevant examples of other organisations in a similar position or numerical data that is useful for comparison with your data or for benchmarking purposes. Start reading as soon as you have an idea for your report. As you read note different ideas down and critically evaluate them against your own organisation and ideas/models from other literature. Start your bibliography using the Harvard referencing system and note books or journals in it as you read them. Draft ideas and send to/make notes for your mentor/tutor for discussion. This is really useful as it gives an opportunity to share your reading and evaluation with your mentor/tutor and explore the relevance of the literature to your topic. WHAT TO READ? If you are part of an academic establishment then you will undoubtedly have access to a large library and online journals and these make a good starting point for your literary research. However, practitioners in the workplace might not have this luxury and it is suggested that around 6 books plus academic journals and other sources are used so here are a few hints and tips: A useful start, where you are a member, are the professional bodies websites. They usually have books on the subject in their library, fact sheets and articles which might be relevant. The fact sheets and articles often also have bibliographies. This will give you an idea of some of the books and journals which deal with your topic. Once you have some titles of books, it is useful to find reviews so that you can get an idea of how useful they will be to your particular area of research. Useful sites for this are online book companies like Amazon which give book reviews. Also check whether your company subscribes to any online book companies like books 24 which offer an online subscription service for management books. Having decided on 5/6 books that look interesting you could ask your public library to get these for you most libraries offer a service where they will get almost any book in print for you in 2-3 weeks. It might be worth buying one or two key texts. Books are an excellent way of getting background reading on a topic and finding out the established views. However research into different aspects is ongoing and it is important to have up to date academic research to show that you are aware of the latest thinking. This does need to be credible, valid and reliable and therefore it is suggested you only use reliable sources. When using general web searches ensure that they are from credible sources such as universities (they have ac in their url eg www.leeds.ac.uk). Tip: As you read note down useful quotes and start bibliography this way you wont forget which books youve read and where the quotes came from! Doing the bibliography as you go along also seems less daunting. 6

EVALUATING AND ANALYSING THE LITERATURE Being critical does not necessarily mean being negative, but it does involve you in responding to what you have read in a way that examines the reading objectively. There are a number of ways of doing this: Include work that supports your ideas but also consider approaches that oppose them. Make explicit the values and theories that underpin what you are reading about and then consider how well they link together Discuss what you are reading in the light of existing critiques of the theories and concepts Relate different readings with each other look for similarities but also for contradictions or tensions between the opinions and approaches of different authors Support your arguments and judgements about the value of different approaches with reasoned explanations.

How to approach the literature review Start at a general level and outline the main contextual features of the topic you are researching. Provide a brief overview of key ideas that are relevant to the topic. Summarise, compare and contrast the work of key writers in the field Narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research Highlight any areas where your research will provide fresh insights. Points to remember! Include theories that are relevant to your investigation Demonstrate that you are up to date in your knowledge of the topic. Write a critical assessment of previously published work on the topic. This involves identifying its strengths and weaknesses as well as any areas that may have been left out or handled in a biased way. You must show adequate references to substantial and appropriate research-oriented journals within your literature review. Harvard Referencing
As you find your sources get into the habit of using a referencing system. The most common system is the Harvard and looks like this: ANDERSON, V. (2004) Research Methods in Human Resource Management, London, CIPD. PEOPLE MANAGEMENT (2000) Managers fail to blow whistle on fraud 28 December.

PURCELL, K. and ELIAS, P. (2003) On higher ground, People Management, 29 May. BELL, J. (1993) 2nd. edn. Doing Your Research Project, Buckingham, OUP LESTER STAN http://www.devmts.demon.co.uk LESTER STAN (1997) Learning for the 21st Century, LESTER STAN (1996) Beyond Knowledge and Competence,

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The term methodology means an analysis of and rationale for the particular method or methods used (Jankowicz (2000) pp 212-13) and an explanation and justification of the methods you have chosen to use for your research is required for the MRR. This justification includes the choice of methods chosen to investigate your topic, the procedures used, any ethical issues, strengths and weaknesses of the approach, issues of validity and reliability. You will also need to explain the approach taken and why particular methods and techniques were used, describe procedures, size of samples, methods of selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of measurement, etc. and mention any deficiencies in methods. When planning to collect your data your starting point is to think about the following (taken from Valerie Anderson):

What are my research questions? Specifically what information do I need to answer my research questions? How or where can I get the information I need?

Secondary data Published sources Unpublished sources eg company documents

Primary data Qualitative data Quantitative data

How will I identify and access potential sources of secondary Information?

What is the research population? What would form a representative sample of the research population?

How will I record the data I obtain? How reliable and valid will my data be?

Once you have decided on the questions/objectives of your research then you can plan the methods that will give you the information you need. Some basic research methods with their advantages, disadvantages and challenges are given below see www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.

Overview of Basic Methods to Collect Information

Written by Carter McNamara, PhD | Applies to nonprofits and for-profits unless noted

The following table provides an overview of the basic methods to collect data.
Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges -might not get careful feedback -wording can bias client's responses -are impersonal -in surveys, may need sampling expert - doesn't get full story

questionnaires, surveys, checklists

-can complete anonymously -inexpensive to administer when need to quickly and/or -easy to compare and analyze easily get lots of information -administer to many people from people in a non threatening -can get lots of data way -many sample questionnaires already exist when want to fully understand -get full range and depth of someone's impressions or information experiences, or learn more about-develops relationship with client their answers to questionnaires -can be flexible with client

-can take much time

-can be hard to analyze and compare -can be costly -interviewer can bias client's responses -often takes much time -info may be incomplete -need to be quite clear about what looking for -not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists

interviews

documentation review

when want impression of how program operates without interrupting the program; is from review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc.

-get comprehensive and historical information -doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program -information already exists -few biases about information

observation

to gather accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes

-can be difficult to interpret seen behaviors -view operations of a program as -can be complex to categorize they are actually occurring observations -can adapt to events as they occur -can influence behaviors of program participants -can be expensive -can be hard to analyze responses -need good facilitator for safety and closure -difficult to schedule 6-8 people together

focus groups

explore a topic in depth through -quickly and reliably get common impressions group discussion, e.g., about -can be efficient way to get much reactions to an experience or range and depth of information in suggestion, understanding common complaints, etc.; useful short time - can convey key information in evaluation and marketing about programs

case studies

to fully understand or depict client's experiences in a program, and conduct comprehensive examination through cross comparison of cases

-fully depicts client's experience in-usually quite time consuming to

program input, process and results collect, organize and describe -represents depth of information, -powerful means to portray rather than breadth program to outsiders

As you investigate these questions note the reasons for your choice and also the reasons for not choosing different methods and write these up. Tip: You will need to justify your decision so write up the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods, why you decided on the method you chose and why you didnt chose the other possible methods. When thinking about the type of data you want to collect you will also need to ensure you have both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data is objective o concerned with observable, objective, measurable facts, physical characteristics and the outside world o hypothesis indicated at beginning of research then tested through experiment involves measurement and comparison of data at beginning and end of period o large samples involved o results presented as %s and in graphs o researcher remote from group Qualitative data is subjective often concerned with social aspects of lives of groups and individuals concerned with immeasurable features - meanings and experience data used to generate new hypothesis or theory concerned with explanation and interpretation involves techniques such as case study, informal discussion, self discovery o smaller samples involved o results analysed and reported o researcher more involved with group o o o o o Getting and Analysing the data You now have a clear plan of what data you need to find the answers to your research objectives and how you are going to get it. The next stage is to carry this out.

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Tip: When using research that isnt face to face remember to explain why you are asking for the information and to thank people for their contribution. It is also useful to note that the return on mailings is not very high so where possible consider other methods. Once the data starts to come in, there are a number of things to consider:

Have you got enough information to work with? If not, why do you think that is? Are the results reasonably representative of the planned sample? How do the results link back to your aims and objectives? What does the information prove? How do they link to the things you have read in your literature review? Do they support or contradict what you have read? PRESENTING THE DATA

When you have collected all the data, you need to be able to analyse it. To do this the data needs to be presented in a manageable way. There are many ways of presenting data and it is suggested that you think about how you will do this before deciding on the most appropriate research methods to choose and this will form part of the rationale for your choice. When presenting quantitative data it is helpful to use graphs, charts and diagrams to make it easier to analyse. When presenting qualitative data, summarise the comments where possible into x number of people commented that . Tip: Can you present the information in charts, diagrams and tables for ease of analysis and presentation? ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Explore key themes what answers does it give to the research question? What was surprising about the information, were there any unplanned issues! Discuss your interpretation of the findings and link it back to your terms of reference, the project objectives and the literature review. When analysing the data some useful guidelines are:

It is not enough just to present findings Need to show how findings support your argument o what light do they shed on the topic? o what significance do they have for the topic? o what weight can be given to them? o how do they relate to other views? Need to interpret, analyse, criticise 11

Look for similarities, groupings, patterns, items of particular significance Need to raise/discuss issues What is fact and what is opinion? Any weaknesses, errors, omissions? Other explanations possible? Do not claim more for the results than they provide are they reliable and valid? Do not attempt generalisations based on insufficient data COMING TO CONCLUSIONS

Make notes about the results, paying particular attention to the things you are concluding from them. When you write up your report, it is extremely important that you are able to justify your conclusions by drawing on the things you have read, the benchmarking you have carried out and your research questions. The main things to be aware of in drawing your conclusions are as follows:

There must be an audit trail from your conclusions to their origin. The reader should be able to trace your conclusions to your line of thought/argument/discussion. Conclusions should be firmly based on the evidence you present. If you cannot substantiate any claims you want to make, leave them out If your results are inconclusive, dont worry! This is all part of the investigation. You should acknowledge the inconclusiveness and note the issues involved, e.g., flawed method(s), poor number of responses, ambiguities in the data, how the results compare to best practice. Your conclusions should act as the business case that clearly signposts your recommendations

MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS
These should come naturally from your conclusions and therefore be linked to your results, analysis and discussion. You should state your recommendations in action terms and include where you can,

who is responsible, cost/benefits, feasibility, priorities and timescales, likely outcomes/impact on the organisation (threats? opportunities?)

You may want to consider using a tabular format for this section of your report.

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RECOMMENDATION

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE

RESOURCES REQUIRED COST/BENEFIT

OUTCOMES/ SUCCESS MEASURES/ THREATS/ OPPORTUNITIES

TIMESCALES PRIORITY FEASIBILITY RATING

PERSONAL EVALUATION/REFLECTION
It is important that you reflect on what you have learned during your research and that you express this.

What worked and why? What didnt and why? What would you do differently and why?

The answers may lie in the choice of subject, the research methods chosen, the literature available, organisational issues, timing . There are a host of different things that may have arisen during your study so,

ASSESSMENT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT The process for assessment of research reports will vary depending on their focus, for instance whether it is part of your teacher training qualification, whether it is a report for an organisation or a funded project by LSIS. Within the teacher training qualification, it is usual to have: Development stage During this stage you will get formative feedback from your Advisor Assessment stage Your report will be formally marked against the criteria Internal Moderation The tutors will meet to share their comments and grades given, External Moderation Samples of research reports will be externally moderated to ensure fair and reliable assessment across all centres.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON, V. (2004) Research Methods in Human Resource Management, London, CIPD BARNES, R. (2004) 3rd Edn. Successful Study for Degrees, Routledge BELL, J. (2005) 4th edn. Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in Education, Health and Social Science, Buckingham, Open University Press BLAXTER, L., HUGHES, C and TIGHT, M. (2006) 3rd edn How to Research Buckingham, Open University Press ORNA, E and STEVENS, G. (1995) Managing Information for Research, Buckingham, Open University Press CRYER, P. (2006) 3rd Edn. The Research Students Guide to Success, Buckingham, Open University Press SWETNAM, D. (2000) 3rd Edn. Writing Your Dissertation: The Bestselling Guide to Planning, Preparing and Presenting First-Class Work Publisher: Oxford, How To Books Ltd

WEBLIOGRAPHY McNamara, C. Free Management Library: Overview of basic methods to collect information Available from world wide web: www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.

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