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The
Skeletal System
Cartilage
Ligaments
Tendons
Skeletal Cartilage
Has
high water content which accounts for its resilience or ability to spring back to its original shape after being compressed.
Contains
no nerves or blood supply and is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular connective tissue (perichondrium) that resists outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed.
Skeletal Cartilage
3 types: 1) Hyaline Cartilages
provide support with resilience most abundant includes
articular
cartilages - cover ends of most bones at moveable joints costal cartilages - connect the ribs to the sternum respiratory cartilages - form the skeleton of the larynx (voicebox) and reinforces respiratory passageways
Skeletal Cartilage
2)
Elastic Cartilages
Contain stretchy elastic fibers so they are better able to stand up to repeated bending Found
External
ear Epiglottis - the flap that covers the opening of the larynx each time we swallow.
Skeletal Cartilage
3)
Fibrocartilages
Highly compressible Have great tensile strength Consist of roughly parallel rows of chondrocytes alternating with thick collagen fibers Found in sites that are subjected to both heavy pressure and stretch, such as the padlike cartilages (menscii) of the knee and the discs between the vertebrae
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Bone
Supports
the body Protects organs Facilitates movement Stores minerals and fats Site of blood cell production
Bones
206
Axial
skull,
Appendicular
bones
of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder and pelvic)
Classification of Bones
Bone shape: Individual bones can be classified as
long
(humerus, femur) short (carpals, tarsals) flat (parietal, sternum) or irregular (vertebrae, pelvic)
Classification of Bones
Bone shape: Individual bones can be classified as
long
(humerus, femur) short (carpals, tarsals) flat (parietal, sternum) or irregular (vertebrae, pelvic).
Classification of Bones
Bone shape: Individual bones can be classified as
long
(humerus, femur) short (carpals, tarsals) flat (parietal, sternum) or irregular (vertebrae, pelvic).
Classification of Bones
Bone shape: Individual bones can be classified as
long
(humerus, femur) short (carpals, tarsals) flat (parietal, sternum) or irregular (vertebrae, pelvic).
Bone anatomy:
The
diaphysis is the shaft of a long bone, and the epiphyses are the ends. epiphyseal plate is the site of bone growth in length.
The
Bone anatomy:
The
Red
marrow is the site of blood cell production, and yellow marrow consists of fat.
Bone anatomy:
The
Bone anatomy:
Bone anatomy:
The
endosteum lines cavities inside bone and contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Bone anatomy:
Short,
flat, and irregular bones have an outer covering of compact bone surrounding cancellous bone.
Bone Histology:
Bone matrix Bone is composed of an organic matrix (mostly collagen) that provides flexible strength and an inorganic matrix that provides compressional strength.
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Bone Histology:
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and become osteocytes. Osteocytes are located in lacunae (la cue knee) and are connected to each other through canaliculi. Osteoclasts break down bone.
Bone Histology:
2. Cancellous bone: Lamellae (little plate) combine to form trabeculae (tra bec u lee), beams of bone that interconnect to form a latticelike structure. The trabeculae are oriented along lines of stress and provide Illinois State University structural strength.
Bone Histology:
3. Compact bone: Canals within compact bone provide a means for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products: canaliculi connect osteocytes to each other and to haversian canals;
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Bone Histology:
Haversian
canals contain blood vessels that pass to Volkmanns canals; and Volkmanns canals carry blood to and from the periosteum or endosteum.
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Bone Histology:
Compact bone consists of highly organized lamellae: circumferential lamellae (la mel lee) cover the outer surface of compact bones; concentric lamellae surrounding Haversian canals, forming osteons; interstitial lamellae are remnants of the other lamellae left after bone remodeling.
Bone Histology:
embryonic connective tissue begins as mesenchyme. Intramembranous bone formation = formation of bone directly from mesenchymal cells. Endochondral ossification = formation of bone within hyaline cartilage.
Fibrous connective tissue membrane 2. Bone matrix is secreted 3. Woven bone and periosteum form 4. Compact bone forms and red marrow appears
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Fibrous connective tissue membrane 2. Bone matrix is secreted 3. Woven bone and periosteum form 4. Compact bone forms and red marrow appears
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Intramembranous Ossification:
Beneath
the periosteum, osteoblasts lay down compact bone to form the outer surface of the bone. are areas of the membrane that are not ossified at birth.
Fontanels
Endochondral Ossification
Begins the second month of development
1.
2.
Cartilage deteriorates in the center A nutrient artery supplies the internal cavity
3.
Endochondral Ossification
4.
5.
Between
Growth
Only by appositional growth at the bones surface Periosteal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and form bony ridges and then a tunnel around periosteal blood vessel. Concentric lamellae fill in the tunnel to form an osteon.
Bone Growth
Appositional Growth: 1. Long bones grow in width by bone apposition on the outer surface of the bone.
2.
Short, flat, and irregular bones mostly increase in size by appositional growth.
Bone Growth
Endochondral Growth: 1. Endochondral growth involves the interstitial growth of cartilage followed by endochondral ossification of the cartilage.
The
Nutrition adequate levels of minerals and vitamins calcium and phosphorus for bone growth vitamin C for collagen formation vitamins K and B12 for protein synthesis
Sufficient levels of specific hormones during childhood need insulinlike growth factor promotes cell division at epiphyseal plate need hGH (growth), thyroid (T3 &T4) and insulin sex steroids at puberty growth spurt and closure of the epiphyseal growth plate estrogens promote female changes -- wider pelvis
Hormonal Abnormalities
Oversecretion
of hGH during childhood produces gigantism Undersecretion of hGH or thyroid hormone during childhood produces dwarfism Both men or women that lack estrogen receptors on cells grow taller than normal
estrogen responsible for closure of growth plate
Bone Remodeling
Ongoing
since osteoclasts carve out small tunnels and osteoblasts rebuild osteons.
osteoclasts form leak-proof seal around cell edges secrete enzymes and acids beneath themselves release calcium and phosphorus into interstitial fluid osteoblasts take over bone rebuilding
Continual
closed reduction = restore pieces to normal position by manipulation open reduction = surgery
Fractures
Formation
of bony callus
osteoblasts secrete spongy bone that joins 2 broken ends of bone lasts 3-4 months
Bone
remodeling
compact bone replaces the spongy in the bony callus surface is remodeled back to normal shape
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is reservoir of Calcium & Phosphate Calcium ions involved with many body systems
nerve & muscle cell function blood clotting enzyme function in many biochemical reactions
Small
changes in blood levels of Ca+2 can be deadly (plasma level maintained 9-11mg/100mL)
cardiac arrest if too high respiratory arrest if too low
on bone by skeletal muscle and gravity is mechanical stress . Stress increases deposition of mineral salts & production of collagen (calcitonin prevents bone loss) Lack of mechanical stress results in bone loss
reduced activity while in a cast astronauts in weightlessness bedridden person
Weight-bearing
(walking or weight-lifting)
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Mesenchymal
Mesenchymal Cells
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cells transform into chondroblasts which form cartilage OR Mesenchymal cells become osteoblasts which form bone
Developmental Anatomy
5th Week =limb bud appears as mesoderm covered with ectoderm 6th Week = constriction produces hand or foot plate and skeleton now totally cartilaginous 7th Week = endochondral ossification begins 8th Week = upper & lower limbs appropriately named
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very rapid in women 40-45 as estrogens levels decrease in males, begins after age 60
Osteoporosis
Decreased
or decrease in severity
adequate diet, weight-bearing exercise, & estrogen replacement therapy (for menopausal women) behavior when young may be most important factor
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salts are not deposited properly bones of growing children are soft bowed legs, skull, rib cage, and pelvic deformities result
Osteomalacia
new
adult bone produced during remodeling fails to ossify hip fractures are common