Development of zero-emission vehicles

BY TAEHYUNG KIM, OLEG VODYAKHO, & JEFFERSON YANG

N THIS ARTICLE, THE structure and control of a fuel cell hybrid electric scooter for mass production are presented.
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The development of a zero-emission scooter can improve air quality and protect the environment, especially in Asia and Europe, where more than 25 million scooters are produced annually. The generic advantages of low-pressure hydrogen storage of the fuel-cell-powered scooter are explained, and the control strategies of the hybrid scooter are presented. Additionally, experimental verifications and discussions are presented based on a prototype system controller. Zero-Emission Vehicles The development of an internal combustion engine (ICE) is one of the greatest achievements in modern history. Vehicles based on the ICE have made huge contributions to the growth of modern society, facilitating mobility in everyday life. However, the growing number of vehicles has caused serious air pollution, global warming, and depletion of petroleum resources. The global community faces many challenges to meet the worlds increasing energy needs while decreasing air pollution [1].
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIAS.2010.939811 Date of publication: 21 January 2011
JDH2550

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1077-2618/11/$26.002011 IEEE

TABLE 1. SPECIFICATIONS OF ZES IV.5. Dimensions Weight Nominal voltage Fuel Fuel consumption Range (1) Rated output current Rated power 1,576 3 440 3 1,087 mm 113 kg 24 V Hydrogen 1.13 g hydrogen/km 86.6 km at 30 km/h 60 A 1,300 W Motor Type Transmission Max. speed Climb Refuel Range (2) Max. output current Peak power BLDC Motor Timing belt 50 km/h 10 km/h at 6 Canister exchange 62.1 km at city mode 100 A (for 30 s) 2,100 W

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In Asia and parts of Europe, a major source of pollutant emission comes from the exhaust of gasoline scooters. The scooter is a major form of transportation in Asia (such as in China, Taiwan, and Japan) and has a global annual production of more than 25 million vehicles. Therefore, the development of zero-emission scooters is of paramount importance in improving air quality and protecting the environment of Asia, and in turn, the global community [2]. The fuel cell, first discovered in 1839, is used to generate electricity by reversing the electrolysis of water [3]. The environmental concerns and needs of new energy sources have spurred the investigation and development of fuelcell-powered vehicles. The fuel cell hybrid electric scooter has an inherent advantage, compared with the fuel-cell-powered passenger cars, by using a low-pressure metal-hydride hydrogen storage (MHHS). The MHHS scooter system meets safety, ease of distribution, and user-convenience requirements of the hydrogen infrastructure. Currently, the low-pressure MHHS is the most suitable hydrogen-storage technology for small vehicles such as scooters. The development of zero-emission fuel-cell-based hybrid electric scooter will make a serious contribution in the effort to protect the environment and increase energy independence. Development of Fuel Cell Hybrid Scooters Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technology, Ltd. (APFCT) has developed a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel-cellbased zero-emission hybrid electric scooter. The PEM fuel cell has the inherent attributes of low temperature, rapid startup, and high power density. Integration with the safety and convenience of the low-pressure MHHS

forms the fuel-cell-based scooter. The specifications of the developed fuel cell scooter (APFCTs ZES IV.5), which is efficient and mass producible with zero emission, are presented in Table 1. APFCT, following the initial proof of a concept fuel cell scooter, ZES I, successfully completed in April 2000, has developed a total of eight fuel cell scooter prototypes [2]. The newest versions scooter control (ZES V, which is under development) from the electric side is presented in this article. The low-pressure MHHS is ideally suited for an onboard vehicle and mobile generator. APFCT has completed the development and testing of a low-pressure MHHS canister system and has demonstrated the validity of a hydrogen infrastructure model based on the distribution and exchange of canisters [2]. As briefly alluded earlier, the hydrogen supply to the fuel cell is stored in canisters. A hydrogen-depleted metal-hydride canister can be easily refilled with hydrogen. In addition, the material is commercially readily available. Figure 1 shows the ZES IV.5 fuel cell scooter and MHHS canister. For fuel-cell-powered products with MHHS, the hydrogen distribution infrastructure does not present a problem, as it employs an existing gasoline distribution infrastructure. For fuel cell scooters, hydrogen can be made even more convenient and readily available than gasoline, because all existing scooter shops and retailers, indeed even convenient stores, can become hydrogen canister stations. When the fuel is running out, a scooter rider would stop at any gasoline station, scooter shop, or convenience store, exchanging empty canisters for fully charged ones for a fee. To the rider, the process can be easier and quicker than filling up with gasoline. Table 2 presents the specifications of MHHS. System Configuration and Control The main structure of the fuel cell hybrid electric scooter is illustrated in Figure 2. The main components of the electrical system are 1) a fuel cell controller 2) a motor driver (MD) 3) a battery manager (BM) 4) a boost converter (BC) 5) an ultracapacitor manager (UM). For startup, the rider puts the key switch (main on/off switch) in the on position. Then BC, BM, UM, and MD modules are sequentially activated. Next, the hybrid

(a)

(b)

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APFCTs ZES IV.5 (a) fuel cell scooter and (b) MHHS canister. (Photo courtesy of APFCT.)

system is ready to drive a brushless dc TABLE 2. SPECIFICATIONS OF MHHS. (BLDC) motor, waiting for the throttle command. When the rider turns Construction Aluminum alloy extruded body off the main switch, the motor drive is Dimension (mm) Diameter 76.2, Length 365 shut off. Subsequently, the UM, BM, Safety mechanism Overpressure relief valve protection and BC are shut off sequentially. Also, the battery is completely disconStorage material Metal hydride, AB5 alloy nected from any loads to minimize Charge condition full 1 MPa, 30 min, 1020 C draining of the battery charge when the scooter is not in use. For lightCharge condition 90% full 1 MPa, 10 min, 1020 C to-medium loads, the fuel cell will Discharge 016 slpm, 1 atm provide all the power to the MD and the system-parasitic loads. When Hydrogen content 500560 SL the load increases and the power limit Total weight 4.5 kg of the fuel cell is reached, the bus voltage will decrease down to the battery voltage. Then the battery will assist. If the load increases further and the battery power limit is the dc bus voltage is quite low, an isolated BC structure is reached, the power delivered to the MD is reduced. The soft- not used. In a normal operation, the BC boosts the fuel cell voltware flow chart of the system on/off procedure is illustrated age up to 55 V. If the motor load increases more than in Figure 3. The BC module delivers a regulated constant voltage the fuel cell power limit, the main bus voltage starts to the bus. When the fuel cell voltage drops considerably to fall and eventually falls off the battery voltage. Then, resulting from an increased load, the BC module balances the battery adds current to the main bus to supply the the power supplied by the fuel cell and battery. In normal motor drive. When the switch is on, the inductor voltage, VLb of the operation, for a prototype scooter, the BC boosts the fuel cell voltage up to 55 V on the main bus. If the MD load BC is (ignore the switch voltage drop) increases more than the fuel cell power limit, the main VLb Vfc (on): (1) bus voltage starts to fall and eventually sinks to the battery voltage. The battery adds current to the main bus to supply the MD. The BC monitors the fuel cell voltage When the switch is off (ignore the diode voltage drop), and computes the current limit to restrict the input power. VLb Vfc Vbus (off ): (2) The BC module configuration is shown in Figure 4. Since

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Fuel Cell Hybrid Scooter

Motor Driver dc/ac Inverter

Fuel Cell and Support System

Boost Converter

Relay Fuel Cell Controller Charging and Discharging Circuit dc/dc Converter Li-Ion Battery BLDC Motor

Charging and Discharging Circuit

Gear

Fuel Cell and Controller

Voltage Temperature Current Battery Management

Temperature Current Voltage Ultracapacitor Management

Battery Manager
System configuration of the fuel cell hybrid scooter.

Ultracapacitor Manager

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(PI) voltage regulator and an innerloop PI current regulator. Start The software flow chart of the BC module is presented in Figure 5. When the main switch is turned on Read Main On/Off from the off position, the BC is actiSwitch vated. The pulsewidth modulation (PWM) duty ratio is initially limited at no-load situation (when the motor No flag is zero) to avoid the unstable On? operation because of the discontinuous current conduction mode. Figure 6 illustrates the battery cell Yes (lithium-ion) voltage characteristics. Motor_Stop_Flag = 0 In addition, Table 3 shows the bat(Reset) tery cell specifications. The BM modLoop Boost_Converter_Flag = 0 ules circuit configuration is depicted Battery_Flag = 0 in Figure 7. Run BC Module UM_Converter_Flag = 0 The battery charging current is Motor_Flag = 0 regulated based on a PI controller. Relay Off Run BM Module However, for the scooter, the discharging current is not regulated from the battery dc/dc converter side for control Run UM Module simplicity and cost savings. Instead, the load dc current is regulated and Run MD Module limited not to surpass the batterys maximum discharging current to Run CAN, RS232 protect the battery (also, the fuel cell Functions current and ultracapacitor current are regulated). Under a steep-hill condition, at End maximum motor torque (in a possible 3 full throttle situation), the fuel cell, Flow chart of the system manager module. battery, and ultracapacitor (if it was charged) supply power together. If the ultracapacitor is fully discharged, Introducing the duty ratio D, the steady-state dc bus the battery should provide the majority of the power demand, since the fuel cell has a current transition limitavoltage is given as tion. The motor drive maximum current is limited based Vfc on the worst-case battery discharging scenario to protect : (3) Vbus the battery. (1 D) When the load increases, the dc bus voltage will The BC monitors the fuel cell voltage and sets the cur- decrease if the fuel cell and ultracapacitor (if it was charged) rent limit. The BC switching frequency is 20 kHz. The cannot supply enough current. Once the dc bus voltage controls consist of an outer-loop proportional-integral becomes lower than the battery voltage, the battery will discharge, supplying current together with the fuel cell and ultracapacitor (if it was charged). If the dc bus voltage is lower than 42 V, the battery is Current Sensor dc Bus + disconnected through the relay to Lb protect, and then the motor current (load current) limit is reduced acIfc PWM cording to the fuel cell voltage. Fuel Cell Vbus When the switch is on, during the Vfc System Bus charging, the inductor voltage, VLbm , Voltage Capacitor shown in Figure 7 is Sensor VLbm Vbus Vbat :
dc Bus dc/dc Boost Converter
BC hardware configurations.

(4)

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When the switch is off, VLbm Vbat : (5)

Introducing the duty ratio D, the steady-state voltage equation is given as D(Vbus Vbat ) (1 D)Vbat : Therefore, the battery voltage is Vbat DVbus : (7) (6)

Start

State of Charge (%)

If the battery voltage falls below 42 V, the relay of the battery-discharging side, as shown in Figure 7, is opened to protect the battery from deep discharging. When the dc bus voltage rises above 42 V, the relay can be closed again. For a 16-cell lithium-ion battery, the dc bus voltage is regulated at 55 V, to charge the battery. When the battery voltage reaches 53 V (almost full charge for the 16-cell battery), the charge function shuts off. The MD module controls the motor current with a 20kHz frequency. The current command is given from the throttle through an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.

In the MD module, the regenerative braking operation is implemented. When the driver pushes the brake pedal, the motor restores the energy into the ultracapacitor. If the battery is being charged, some amount of regenerative energy will also be stored into the battery. During regenerative braking, a dc bus voltage regulator controls the motor current to prevent voltage rising because of the reverse current, which charges the ultracapacitor and battery. The UM module captures the regenerative energy from the MD during the braking operation and sends back the charged energy during motoring operation. Therefore, the ultracapacitor voltage will be maintained at around zero after sufficient discharging time during the motoring

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2.5

2.7 2.9 3.1 Battery Voltage (V/Cell)

3.3

3.5

Main On/Off Switch Is On? Yes

No

Single battery cell (lithium-ion) voltage characteristic.

Boost_Converter_Flag = 1

TABLE 3. BATTERY CELL SPECIFICATIONS. Nominal voltage 3.3 V 3.65 V 2.10 V 80 A 100 A 30 A 85 Wh/kg 10,000 mAh

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Fuel cell Current > OC_Limit? Yes Boost_Converter_Flag = 0

No

Charging voltage Cutoff discharge voltage Max. continuous discharge current Max. 18-s peak current Max. charge current

No

Energy density
Boost_Converter_Flag = 1? Yes Control Bus Voltage Control BC Current
dc Bus + PWM

Nominal capacity
Loop

No PWM

Motor_Flag = 1? No Limit Duty Ratio

Yes
Bus Capacitor Lbm Lithium-Ion + Battery

Relay

End Generate PWM Pulses

dc Bus

Battery Charging/Discharging Circuit

5
Software flow chart for the BC. BM hardware configuration.

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operation and will be ready to capture the regenerative braking energy. When regeneration from the MD occurs, the dc bus voltage will be pumped up and attempt to exceed a commanded voltage. At this point, the UM will draw current from the main bus and charge the ultracapacitor. If the regeneration energy is large and the ultracapacitor is fully charged or the regenerative energy flow rate is greater than the UM charging rate, the bus voltage will rise above a maximum limit. Then the voltage controller of the regenerative braking will limit the bus voltage by decreasing the motor current (regenerative braking current) command. Figure 8 shows the UM module structure. Experimental Results and Discussions The system control is evaluated and verified based on a prototype controller board and a power electronics board developed at the University of Michigan-Dearborn (shown in Figure 9). The prototype test-bed consists of MOSFET switches (100 V, 180 A), power diodes, inductors, bus capacitors, relay, sensor-interfacing circuits, Texas Instruments TMS320F2812 DSP, and current-protection circuits (Xilinx CPLD is used). The test bed is oversized to have various load tests as a prototype test bench. When the main switch is turned on, the BC module function immediately starts checking the level of input (fuel cell) voltage. The PWM duty ratio of the BC is initially limited because of the discontinuous current conduction mode in the no-load situation. Once the traction load is applied, the limited duty ratio, given initially, is released.

Figure 10 illustrates the dc bus voltage, which is the output of the BC module when the main switch is on. The initial maximum peak voltage at the transition is observed around 85 V and is soon regulated at 55 V. The BC module is started first when the main switch is on, and then the BM module functions once the bus voltage is under regulation. As shown in Figure 10, the battery starts charging after the dc bus voltage is under regulation. Figure 11 presents the BC module function when the motor load is applied. The motor is accelerated and regulated at 3,000 r/min (for this testing, a PI-speed controller is implemented in the MD software structure only for testing purposes). The bottom waveform is the BC input power from the fuel cell. A power limit (in this case 500 W/s) is applied to protect the fuel cell stack from heavy discharging. The UM module is controlled based on two MOSFET switches. A dead band is set to prevent short circuit through the switches. The regenerative braking module implemented has a current controller (PI controller) to limit the regenerative

0V

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dc Bus +
VBus

PWM Current Sensor Voltage Sensor PWM

LUcap IUcap

2 1) CH1 (60 V, 500 ms) 2) CH2 (10 V, 500 ms)

10
The BC function when the main switch is on. Upper: dc bus voltage [60 V/div]; lower: battery-charging current (ibat) [60 V, 10 A/div; 500 ms/div].

dc Bus

Ultracapacitor

Ultracapacitor Charging/Discharging Circuit

8
UM configuration.

Li-Ion Battery

Ultracapacitor

0 r/min

1) CH1 (2,000 r/min, 500 ms) 2) CH2 (1,200 W, 500 ms)

2 System Controller
Prototype hybrid system controller.

BLDC Motor

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11
Upper: motor speed; lower: input power [2,000 r/min, 1,200 W/div; 500 ms/div].

(a) 4,000 r/min 2 55 V 1 0A 3 3 1) CH1 (500 r/min, 100 ms) 2) CH2 (5 V, 100 ms) 3) CH3 (50 A, 100 ms) (d) 1) CH1 (20 V, 2 s) 3) CH3 (20 A, 2 s) 2) CH2 (100 A, 2 s) 4) CH4 (5,000 r/min, 2 s) (b)

(c)

12
Upper: motor speed [500 r/min/div]; middle: dc bus voltage [5 V/div]; lower: motor phase current (phase A) [50 A/div; 100 ms/div].

13
From top to bottom: (a) dc bus voltage [20 V/div]; (b) motor current [100 A/div]; (c) ultracapacitor current [20 A/div]; (d) motor speed (0 4,000 r/min 0) [5,000 r/min/div.; 2 s/div].

braking current and a voltage controller to limit the bus voltage. Figure 12 illustrates the regenerative braking action (transient behavior). The dc bus voltage was regulated at 55 V initially, before a braking action. At the braking, the motor current is reversed to restore the power to the ultracapacitor. The bus voltage command for the regenerative braking is set a little higher than the normal bus voltage command to limit the bus voltage, preventing dangerous voltage jumping due to a fully charged ultracapacitor and battery. As shown in Figure 12, the dc bus voltage is increased immediately after the braking action because of the larger bus voltage command. The motor speed is initially 4,000 r/min and decreases to zero during braking. The regenerative braking action is shut off when the speed is lower than a certain threshold number (400 r/min for the testing). At low speed, the back electromotive force is very small and, hence, unable to generate meaningful power. The mechanical brake is used below 400 r/min. Figure 13 presents a system behavior during acceleration and braking. The motor speed command is initially zero, increases to 4,000 r/min, and then a braking command is given to stop the motor. The dc bus voltage is under regulation [Figure 13(a)] during the motoring mode. For regenerative braking, the dc bus voltage increases up to 60 V for a short period of time and then returns to 55 V after braking. Even though the ultracapacitor is fully charged, due to a possible long regenerative braking, for example at a downward slope, the bus voltage will not increase much more than 60 V because of the voltage controller in the regenerative braking module. The ultracapacitor current waveform [Figure 13(c)] shows the charging/discharging behavior. During braking, the ultracapacitor charging current is increased to charge the ultracapacitor and goes negative when the braking is completed to discharge.

Conclusions In this article, the controls of a fuel cell hybrid electric scooter for mass production are presented. The low-pressure hydrogen storage, which is readily available, is an advantage to drivers, from the safety point of view. The ultracapacitor is used to capture the regenerative braking power for faster response and to protect the battery. The experimental results well verify the control structures of the fuel cell hybrid electric scooter. References
[1] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2005. [2] Available: www.apfct.com [3] J. Larminie and A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003. [4] H.-J. Chiu and L.-W. Lin, A bidirectional dc-dc converter for fuel cell electric vehicle driving system, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 950958, July 2006. [5] B. Lin, Conceptual design and modeling of a fuel cell scooter for urban Asia, J. Power Sources, vol. 86, no. 1-2, pp. 202213, Mar. 2000. [6] A. Emadi, K. Rajashekara, S. S. Williamson, and S. M. Lukic, Topological overview of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicular power system architectures and configurations, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 763770, May 2005. [7] M. Uzunoglu and M. S. Alam, Modeling and analysis of an FC/UC hybrid vehicular power system using a novel-wavelet-based load sharing algorithm, IEEE Trans. Energy Conv., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 263272, Mar. 2008. [8] P. Thounthong, V. Chunkag, P. Sethakul, B. Davat, and M. Hinaje, Comparative study of fuel cell vehicle hybridization with battery or supercapacitor storage device, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 38923904, Nov. 2009.

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Taehyung Kim (taehyung@umich.edu) is with the University of Michigan-Dearborn in Dearborn, Michigan. Oleg Vodyakho is with Florida State University in Florida. Jefferson Yang is with Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies in Chunan, Taiwan. Kim and Vodyakho are Members of the IEEE. This article first appeared as Control of a Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Scooter at the IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Expo.

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