Chapter 3 - Cells & Tissues In 1600s, Robert Hooke named structures cells smallest unit or building block of all

all living things, plants, and animals alike.

Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life cells made of 4 primary elements: nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, & carbon Living cells are about 60% water All body cells are bathed in a dilute saltwater solution called interstitial fluid- all exchanges made between cells and blood are made through this fluid Cells vary in length from 2 micrometers to over a meter Cells have different shapes Cells vary in functions

Anatomy of a Generalized Cell All cells have 3 main parts: nucleus, cytoplasm, & plasma membrane

The Nucleus Control center or gene-container Resembles the shape of the cell. Elongated cells have elongated nuclei Nucleus has 3 main structures inside it: nuclear envelope, nucleoli, & chromatin Nuclear envelope double membrane barrier surrounding the nucleus & includes nuclear pores & contains jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm Nucleoli sites where ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis) are assembled Chromatin when cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined with protein and forms a loose network of bumpy threads Chromosomes when threads of chromatin are coiled and condensed to form dense, rod-like bodies

The Plasma Membrane fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment phospholipid bi-layer

Specializations of the Plasma Membrane include things like microvilli & membrane junctions Microvilli tiny finger-like projections that greatly increase the cells surface area for absorption Tight junction impermeable junctions that bind cells together into leak proof sheets that prevent substances from passing through the extracellular space between cells EX: adjacent plasma membranes fuse together tightly like a zipper Desmosomes anchoring junctions that prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart Gap junction commonly seen in heart and between embryonic cells, main function allow communication. Chemical molecules such as nutrients/ions can pass directly from one cell to another through them. Neighboring cells are connected by connexons.

The Cytoplasm

cytoplasm cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane factory area of the cell has 3 major elements cytosol, organelles, and inclusions cytosol semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements organelles specialized to carry out a specific function for the cell as a whole inclusions chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on the specific cell type. Most inclusions are nutrients or cell products

Cytoplasmic Organelles mitochondria consists of a double membrane mitochondrial wall: outer membrane is smooth but inner membrane has protrusions called cristae, create ATP and known as the powerhouse of the cell ribosomes actual sites of protein synthesis Rough ER accounts for about half of a cells membranes, cells membrane factory Smooth ER functions in lipid metabolism & detoxification of drugs & pesticides Golgi Apparatus modify & package proteins via transport vesicles & secretory vesicles Lysosomes membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes to eat up worn out or non-usable cell structures and foreign substances that enter the cell Peroxisomes membranous sacs that contain powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular Oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde. Most important function is to disarm free radicals free radicals highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble protein structure and nucleic acids cytoskeleton elaborate network of protein structures throughout cytoplasm and internal framework that determines the shape of the cell, support organelles, and provides machinery to transport and other cellular movements microfilaments involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell shape intermediate filaments strong, stable ropelike structures that help form desmosomes and resist pulling forces on the cell microtubules determine overall shape of the cell and distribution of the organelles, very important during cell division centrioles made up of microtubules and direct formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division cilia whip-like cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface flagella long projection that helps propel cell forward. EX: sperm cell

Cell Diversity 200 cell types vary greatly in size, shape, and function 1) Cells that connect body parts: fibroblasts cable-like fibers 2) Cells that cover and line body organs epithelial cell hexagonal shape and allows epithelial cells to pack together in sheets & has abundant intermediate filaments that resist tearing when epithelium is rubbed or pulled 3) Cells that move organs & body parts skeletal muscle & smooth muscle elongated and filled with contractile filaments 4) Cells that store nutrients fat cell huge spherical shape contain large lipid droplet in cytoplasm 5) Cell that fights disease macrophage extends pseudopods to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites

6) Cell that gathers information and controls function nerve cell (neuron) receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures in the body 7) Cells of reproduction female (oocyte) largest cell in the body and contains many copies of all organelles for distribution to the daughter cells & male (sperm)- built for swimming to the egg for fertilization & its flagellum helps propel the sperm Cell Physiology Membrane transport solution homogenous mixture of 2 or more components: such as air, seawater, alcohol, etc. solvent substance present in the largest amount in a solution. ex: water is the bodys chief solvent solutes components or substances present in smaller amounts & are so tiny that they do not settle out intracellular fluid solutions containing small amounts of gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide), nutrients, and salts in dissolved water. EX: nucleoplasm & cytosol interstitial fluid fluid that constantly bathes the EXTERIOR of our cells plasma membrane selectively permeable that allows some substances to pass through while excluding others movement through the plasma membrane happens in 2 ways passive transport or active transport passive transport substances transported across membrane without any energy input from the cell active transport cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) that drives the process

Passive Transport Processes diffusion important for every cell of the body filtration occurs only across capillary walls Diffusion process by which molecules (and ions) scatter themselves throughout available space. As a result of kinetic energy these molecules move away from region of high concentration to low concentration (moving DOWN the concentration gradient). Speed of diffusion is affected by size and temperature of the molecules. Ex: cup of coffee and adding a cube of sugar plasma membrane = physical barrier to diffusion. Molecules will move passively through the membrane by diffusion if (1) the molecules are small enough to pass through the pores or (2) they can dissolve in the fatty portion of the membrane simple diffusion unassisted diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane. Solutes transported this way are either lipid-soluble or small enough to pass through membrane pores osmosis diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane such as a plasma membrane. Water passes through special pores called aquaporin. (movement DOWN the gradient). facilitated diffusion passage of certain substances (glucose mainly) that are both lipid-insoluble & too large. substances move DOWN the concentration gradient but a protein channel is used or a protein molecule is used as a carrier to transport the molecule Substances that pass into and out of the cells by diffusion save the cell a great deal of energy Filtration process by which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure. In the body, hydrostatic pressure is usually exerted by the blood. Instead of a concentration gradient there is a pressure gradient that pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from higher pressure area to a lower pressure area.

Active Transport Processes process of going against the concentration gradient

2 most important example = solute pumping & bulk transport solute pumping similar to carrier- mediated facilitated diffusion in that both processes require protein carriers. However, solute pumping uses ATP to energize its protein carriers, which are called solute pumps. Amino acids, some sugars, and most ions are transported by solute pumps and most move against the concentration (electrical) gradients. sodium-potassium pump carries sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell for normal transmission of impulses by nerve cells bulk transport exocytosis & endocytosis exocytosis moves substances out of cells. It is the means by which cells actively secrete hormones, mucus, and other cell products/wastes. The product to be released is typically packaged into a small membranous sac by the golgi apparatus and the sac migrates to the plasma membrane and fuses with it, rupturing and spilling the contents out of the cell endocytosis includes those ATP requiring processes that engulf extracellular substances by enclosing them in a small membranous vesicle. Once vesicle formed it detaches from the plasma membrane and moves into the cytoplasm where it fuses with a lysosome and its contents are digested. phagocytosis if particles engulfed by endocytosis are too large such as bacteria or dead body cells, the process is known as this. it is a protective mechanism pinocytosis ( fluid-phase endocytosis) . instead of a molecules, wraps around droplet of extracellular fluid containing dissolved proteins or fats. routine activity of most cells, especially important in cells that function in absorption such as the ones lining the small intestines and kidney tubules receptor-mediated endocytosis main cellular mechanism for taking up specific target molecules. Substances endocytosed by this process include enzymes, hormones, cholesterol, and iron. Flu viruses also use this route to attack our cells

Cell Division Cell life cycle series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it divides 2 major periods: interphase cell grows and carries out metabolic activities & cell division reproduces itself interphase longest phase of the cell cycle, resting only from division, metabolic phase

Preparation: DNA Replication genetic material is duplicated toward the end of the cells interphase period DNA = double-helix with ladder = phosphate and sugar units & rungs = nitrogen containing bases mitosis division of the nucleus cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm, begins when mitosis is nearly completed When the nucleus divides, each daughter cell ends up with exactly the same genetic information as the original mother cell STAGES OF MITOSIS: prophase chromatin threads coil & shorten into chromosomes. Centrioles separate from each other and move to opposite sides of the cell, directing assembly of a mitotic spindle, nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down & disappeared metaphase chromosomes cluster and align at metaphase plate (center of cell) anaphase centromeres split, chromatids begin to move to opposite sides of cell telophase chromosomes at opposite ends of cell uncoil and become thread like chromatin again, nuclear envelope forms and nucleoli appear, cleavage furrow takes place.

mitosis is typically same in all animal cells. depending on the type of tissue, it takes anywhere from 5 minutes to several hours to complete, typically lasting about 2 hours cytokinesis begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase. 2 daughter cells result at end of mitosis, each is smaller and has less cytoplasm than the mother cell but is genetically identical to it If cytoplasm doesnt divide then it leads to formation of binucleate or multinucleate cells: fairly common

Protein Synthesis In addition to replicating itself, DNA serves as blue-print for protein syntheses gene DNA segment that carries the information for building a protein proteins are key substances for all aspects of cell life enzymes functional proteins each sequences of 3 bases calls for a particular amino acids a simple gene has b/w 300 and 3000 base pairs 3 varieties of RNA play role in protein synthesis tRNA (transfer RNA) rRNA (ribosomal RNA) helps form ribosomes mRNA (messenger RNA) long, single nucleotides strands that resemble half of a DNA molecule and carry the message from the DNA gene in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm 2 major phases of protein synthesis transcription and translation transcription when complementary mRNA is made at the DNA gene in the nucleus translation when information carried in mRNA is decoded and used to assemble proteins During transcription, each 3-base sequence specifying a particular amino acid on the DNA gene is called a triplet and the corresponding 3-base sequence on the mRNA is called a codon translation language of nucleic acids is translated into language of proteins. Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the 3 varieties of RNA Once mRNA attached to ribosome, tRNA comes in to transfer amino acids to the ribosomes. There are 45 common types of tRNAs and each capable of carrying one of 20 common types of amino acids but they have to recognize the mRNA codons calling for the particular amino acid to code and this is helped by an anticodon that binds to the complementary codons as amino acid is bonded to the chain, its tRNA is released and moves away from the ribosome to pick up another amino acid when stop codon is read, protein is released