Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
myF
v
jiyf
gf
v
ca
1.
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
2.
moikahjY eyth
23
3.
kj cl cW klyf mik
braghLfS
33
4.
57
5.
yFyf
79
6.
brfS RfS
103
7.
c - nta RH
125
8.
133
nta
9.
149
10.
mQ mik
163
11.
nt rkghL
177
12.
191
13.
ntizf
209
aa
14.
msL fUf
223
15.
afK utfS
233
16.
ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
259
17.
xa
277
brKiwf
291
iii
myF 1
cz Mjhufis
nkgLJj
myF-1
ca
1.1. g cg nkghL
ClrJ
jhaf
fhnghiAnuLf
gU tiff
uj
bfhG kW uj
jhJ cf kW
itlf
1990
j glfUJ eh vd bjJbfhnwh?
kf bjhif bgUf milJsJ.
ef tilJ, efukakhfgLsJ.
tskhd isyf mfgL, LfS bjhrhiyfS flgLsd.
kf bjhifbgUf
isyf
Fiw
cz njit
mf
cz gwhFiw
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
n
kgLjgl auf
fis mKfgLJj.
cz gwhFiwia fhQ
tKiwf _y fyh.
wj trha Kiwfis gWj
Mat _y gkfNiy
mffyh.
i) g cgia mfj.
ii) isyfis kw gagho
UJ jJ, jf itJ
bfhSj.
iii) iu
cfjKiw
F gagLJj.
trha
iv) czbghUf
kW
nahf
nkgLJj.
ghJfh
Kiwia
jhtu
gbgUffhd fhuf
mf kfN
nkgLjgl
ju
c kW
cuw
fhuf
vjik
K Kiw
khw
mf
jftik
jik
UgjF
ntsh
gf
caukhd kW
mf isf cila jik,
fh
eil tdgfSF
UgjFj gf MF.
Filjik
jhatif
gf
gghF.
UgjF gfis cila uffis cUthFtJ mf
isriyjU.
3
myF-1
ca
gf kW ff y nkgLjgl uff
1
gf mf kfN vgJ
clgL
braKiwfshd
nkgLjgl
ijf,
cuf
Lj,
ed
ijj
Kiwf
kW mWtil br Kiwfis
bghWjJ. jhtuf ts kW
nkghoF vzw ClrJf
njitgLwd.
jhtuf
fhW,
kW
kUJ
ClbghUfis
bgWwd.
jhtuf
ts
kW
dbgUfF Rkh 16 jkf
aikahjitahf csd.
jhtuf
n j i t nfg,
jkf
bgUCl
jkf
(nknuhjkf) kW ECl
jkf (iknuhjkf) vd nkY
tifgLjgLwd.
bgUCl jkf (nknuh
jkf)
jhtu
tsF
mf
ms
bra 1.1
uL
bjhof
iu
gl. mtiw m kW M
vdbgal. m bjhobroF
gR rhz myJ ah mJ
bjf. M bjhobroF
kL bjf. tiw Na
x itJ 15-20 ehfSF
mt tsia ftf.
t vJ ntfkhf tswJ? V?
aif cu vgJ xU fk
bghUshF. jhtu kW yF
fbghUf ijfgL J
jahfgLwJ.
gagLjgL cbghUf
mogil
aif
cufis
flthW tifgLjyh.
4
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
gRjh cu
2. gRjh cu
bra 1.2
yF
ffshd
gR
rhz,
jhtuff,
L
ff, rhfil ff nghw
tiw nrfJ, njhl xU
F yehfSF ijw
brf. vd ilwJ?
jhtu kW yF ffis
iu ijgjfhf kGfis
gagL jahfgL bjhGcu
myJ aif cu, kG bjhGcu
myJ kG aif cu vdgL.
rzig
kGcu
braif cuf
bjhrhiyf tf ahf jahfgL, jhtu ClbghUfshf
gagLjgL ntbghUf braif cuf MF. it ieu#, ghgu,
bghlha nghwtiw mwd. ey cly ts bfhl Mnuhakhd
nehaw jhtufis cUthFtjF it gagLjgLwd.
braif cuf tiff
ieu# cuf
vLJfhLf
ah, mnkha r~ng, mnkha
ienu nghwit.
ghgu cuf
(f rJf)
j Ngghng, o Ng ghng
(Kka Ng ghng).
bghlha cuf
(rhg rJf)
fy cuf
myF-1
ca
bgUks mf ghrgLbghGJ
fiuJ, moJbrygLwd.
it
jhtufsh
KGtJkhf
crgLtiy.
njitaw
jhtuf tsF
fhuzkhwJ.
j
jhtuf
iyfis
Xlij
ghwd. j isthf f
kW w cdfSF nghJkhd
x kW M# ilfhk
wJLwd.
j mfgoahd braif cu
Fsf, Vf, fhthf kW
MWfSF
moJbrygL,
Mfhajhkiu, Mfhf nghw
bra 1.3
braif cuf
fkbghUf 2. braif
MF.
3. aif cuf
jahf gLwd.
cuf
fkbghUf
4.
aif cuf vyh Cl 4. it xW myJ mjF nkgl
bghUfis Fiwj ms
Fl ClbghUfis kL
bfhLsd.
mf ms bfhLsd.
5.
aif cuf kF mf 5. braif cuf kF kF
ms kid nrJ, k
nrgiy.
jikia nkgLJwd.
6. aif cuf Fiwj ms 6. braif cuf fiu jik
fiu jik cilajh v
cilajh v crgLwd.
crgLtiy.
7. aif cuf Fiwj msnt 7. braif cuf v dh
fiuwd. it kUJ
moJ brygL. nkY, t
v uh moJbrygLt
is Fiwj fhyF kLnk
iy. vdnt, t ga l
tU. vdnt, tiw L L
ehfSF iyUF.
cgnahfgLj ntosJ.
6
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
rahd
ms
kW
rahd
fhy
braif
cufis
ftdkhf
gagLjntL.
nkY,
tiw
KYkhf
gagLJt gaghoF KD,
Dkhd vrif eltoiffis
nkbfhtJ mta.
nkY mJ bfhnth
cUstUJ
bgwgL
cuf c-cuf vdgL.
c-cuf Mjhu ghOah,
ygRgh
(randhghOah)
kW irf MF. ccuf L JfjFj
tif
nkY
khRgLjhj
jhtu ClbghUf
MF.
it
k
jikia
nkgLJwd. iunrha kW
randhghOafshd
mddh
kW ehlh nghwit bghJthd
c-cuf MF.
1.4. Ff kW
nehfUJ ghJfh
i s g f i s n a h
myJ
nr
cs
jhtu
cgbghUfisnah
jh
mF jhtu myJ yd
cf Ff vdgL. ij
ijFbghGJ, mWtil br
bghGJ, nrFbghGJ kW ga
gLJbghGJ Ff jhFtjh
g kfN milwJ. J nja
bghUshjhuF xU fbga H
MF.
F bfhfis bjj
(ilFnshnuh
vdgL. v.fh. D.D.T.
ilid
iuFnshnuh
<nj),
khyah nghwit.
ii) irbfhf
irfis mf cj nt
bghUf irbfhf vdgL.
v.fh. nghlh fyit.
1.4.1. F fLghL
Ffis
fLgLj
gyKiwf csd. Ffis
fLgLJt f bghJthd
Kiw Fbfhfis ga
gLJtJ MF.
iii) fisbfhf
fisfis
(njitaw
brof)
mfgagL
ntbghUf
fisbfhf vdgL. v.fh.2,4-D
(2,4-ilFnshnuh dh mo
my)
Fbfhf
bfhf,
irbfhf,
fisbfhf,
vbfhf
vW mt gagLjYF Vg
tifgLjgLwd.
iv) vbfhf
vf, Rblf kW m
fis nghw bfhF yFfis
bfhy gagL ntbghUf
vbfhf vdgL. v.fh.Jjehf
ghng, Mr nghwit.
i) bfhf
fis
bfhy
gagL
ntbghUf
bfhf
7
myF-1
ca
1.4.2. Ff
i) bkY f
it jhtuf nt, jL kW iyfis foJ bkY jik
bfhlit. v.fh. btLf, fg f.
fU
cJisgh
igyh (fU
iy jJ )
f
fU jL
Jisgh
fLF mRt
gtz
g jhtuf y bghJthd a Ff
k
bfhfis
fygj
_y
nt
jhF
fis fLgLjyh. v.fh..
Fnshnuhiggh.
ii) cR f
it
jhtuf
gntW
ghff
brrhid
cR
wd. v.fh. iyjJ f,
mRt(jhtung) nghwit.
j
L kW iyfis foF
kW
JisF
fis,
bfhfis j myJ
bjj _y fLgLjyh.
v.fh. khyah, nl kW
ijnahlh.
iii) JisF f
it
jhtuf
gntW
ghffis
JisJ,
cns
EiHJ jhtuRfis czthf
vLJbfhwd. v.fh. fU
Jisgh.
1.4.3.
Fia
gLJ Kiwf
r
hW cR fis,
bfhfis bjgj _y
fLgLjyh. v.fh. ilnjhna
kW bklhlh
fL
1.4.4. g nehf
gytifahd Ff
jhfij tU Kiwf _y
fLgLjyh.
ghOah, itu kW
Kjyhd
gytifahd
8
ir
jhtu
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
nehf ekJ RWw gu
fhzgLwd.
ts
kW
bgUffhd rhjfkhd Niy
ilF bghGJ, mit bgU
gjhtufis jh mt
nehia VgLJwd. neh gu
mogil, jhtu nehf ehF
tiffshf tifgLjgLwd.
yfliy iy neh
1.
2.
3.
4.
fhW _y
gu nehf
_y gu
nehf
Fbfhf
midJ
eR jik bfhl ntbghUfsh
Mdit. vdnt, it RWNH
khRghil
VgLJ.
vdnt,
msffkhf Fbfhfis
gagLJtij jf ntL.
gfis
FflUJ
ghJfhf fl jL Kiwfis
gw ntL.
fk F bfhf
nehvw
cs
g
tiffis gLj.
gRHKiw
kW
gL
Kiwfis gWj(xU y
mLjLj gUt btntW
tif gfis gLtj _y
Fl X Ff
mJL).
ikahd trha(gLtjF
K trha yij rahf
ik brj).
nfhil cH.
myF-1
ca
jhaf nr
fhuf fl ghfis
VgLJwd.
bgUghyhd gf MoF xU
Kiw kLnk mWtil bragLwd.
ML KGtJ czbghUfis
bjhlJ bgWtjfhf ghJfhghd
nr lFf it nrJ
itfgLwd.
f jhf.
ju Fiwj.
vil Fiwj.
Kis w Fiwj.
cgbghU wkhw.
jhatiff
myJ
cz
bghUf
trhfshY,
ahghfshY kW a cz
fHfjhY(FCI) nrJ itf
gLwd.
nrFbghGJ jhaf kW
ijf gntW fhufsh mF
cgLwd. jifa mF
fhuzkhd fhuf
cg
bghUfis
d
gagLJtjfhf nrJ itF
bghGJ, ghJfhghd kW fLghL
Kiwfis
gagL
nrf
i) c
fhuf
(f,
ntL. nrgjF K cg
bfhF yFfshd m
bghUf eF Rj bragLj,
kW v, gwitf, irf,
bt fhaitJ H
cf kW ghOah)
cyJj, ntbghUfis ga
ii) c
uw fhuf (<ugj kW gL ifl _y Ffis
btg) MF.
bfhYj nghwit t mlF.
gU tL
fuh tL
m mJ
nr jhaf y Ff
bra 1.4
mU cs isyfSF
brW fisf, Ff
kW gf fhzgL nehfis
ghJ, dflf.
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
cUthF Kiw fydbgUf
myJ fydnrif vdgL.
fyd nrif _y UgjF
gfis cila xU jhtu ufij
cUthf Ko.
UgjF gfis bfhl
bgnwhfis
njbjLj
fydnrif
cslaJ.
gaDs gf gy uff gu
fhzgL. fyd nrif _y
midJ gaDs gfis xnu
uf bfhL tu Ko.
MO17
(uL
tiffSF
B 73
F1
nrhs fyd tif
ii) dfSilna
(xnu
ngd uL dfS
ilnaahd fy)
fydnrif braKiw
goiyfis cslaJ. mit
gy
i) bgnwhfis
njbjLj
ii) bgnwh jfy iii) kfujjh
f
iv) igLj,
fLj
kW FLj v) fy brj
vi) fyd ijfis mWtil brJ
jiyKiwfis
njhWj
F1
Kjad MF.
iii) ngdfSilna
(ntWgl
ngdfSilnaahd fy)
nkny cs _W tiff,
tiffSF
ilnaahd fy
gbgUf
mf
ms
nkbfhsgLwJ.
myF-1
ca
5. cg w
6. ey cl ey
dnj
7. dbgUfF Vw taJ
cg w gilj wj
yFfis dfy brtjfhf
njbjLF Kiwia dnj
vg.
jfhy
dnjKiw
Kija
braw
mogil
nkbfhsgLwJ.
btfy dbgUf
nfh ts Tl
sF dfy
Kiwf
btntW
cfy dbgUf
xnu dij rhj beUa
cwila uL cfSilna
eilbgW dbgUfij cfy
vg.
cfy KaJtf
br
1. Ugjf
tiffis
bfhl cfis cUthf
ku xj f gfis
btbfhzu
Kiw
gagLjgLwJ.
2. Ugjfhj xLF fis
bfhl cfis fla
nkY
mfis
jikgLj
Kiw
gagLjgLwJ.
3. cfy brtj _y xUKf
jik CFfgLwJ.
4. cfy vgJ dnjl
bjhlilaJ. nkY j _y
m. Xdfy
xnu
dij
nrj
xnu
_jhijafis
bfhouhj
U
cfSilna eilbgW fy.
M. ntdfy
uL
ntWgl
df
Ugjf, nkgl gfisila
M,
bg
cfSilna
eilbgW fy.
. ntWgl wdfy
uL ntWgl wdfis
Ugjf nkgl gfisila
M,
bg
cfSilna
eilbgW
fy.
jdh
y
ntisf ajhf cUthd c
jh kW jij Ma Utif
df UgjFj gfis
xnu dF fheilfis fy
brj
12
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
bfhljhf mikJL. jF
vLJfhlhf bg Fiuia, M
fGijia fy brjh cUthtJ
nfhntW fGij. Kiw cUthd
nfhntW fGij mj bgnwhfshd,
Fiu
kW
fGijial
wghdjhf,
gyKilajhf,
cl cWl fhzgLwJ. J
kLkyhJ fuLKulhd, kiyghfhd
gFf mf Rikfis vLJ
brY wD bfhLsJ. tif
fy uL tifgL.
njbjLfgl
bg
c
diHD
brYjgLwJ.
Kiw _y md wj
rjf cUthwd.
w jikf
1. Kiwyhd fyd cg
wj
gfis
bfhl
rjfis cUthfyh.
2. Kiw xU MyUJ
bgW J_y mf ms
bg yFf fUUwd.
vdnt
bghUshjhu
fdkhdjhf fUjgLwJ.
1. aif Kiw
j
_y
cgwid
mfF bghUL ehL dij
ma dij
izJ a
dij njhWfyh.
2. braif Kiw l
Kiw U gfisila
M c J nrffgL,
jFj
fUia
bfhL
bra 1.5
brW
fheilia
jhF
nkY mJ bfhnth
yd
bghUf
bfhG
%
uj
%
rfiu
%
jkf
%
gh
3.60
4.00
4.50
0.70
87.20
Kil
12.00
13.00
1.00
74.00
khr
3.60
21.10
f Fiwj
ms
1.10
74.20
2.50
19.00
1.30
77.20
yFfSF
njitahd
czit
13
mj,
2.
yFfSF
myF-1
ca
njitahd a Foiu tHFj,
3. yFfSF njitahd ciwl
mikj, 4. nehjL kW nehia
FzgLJj, 5. jFj Kiw
dbgUf brj.
ghJfhF
jikilajhf
UfntL. ngha btrK,
ey fhnwhlK foghf Uf
ntL. nkY yF ffshd
rhz, va czbghUf kW
W Matiw btnaWtjFa
tofh trfS UfntL.
1. fheil cz
fheil cz uL tifgL.
mit ehrJbghU kW ml
ClrJ bghU. Fiwj cz
rij
bfhl
ehbghUf
ehrJ cz mlF. ml
ClrJ cz, gU bfhil,
viz Jf, zhF kW
jha tiffS mlF.
fheil ey guhkj
fheil
ghJfh
vgJ
yFfis
nehjhFjUJ
jLJ, nehthgl yFf
nehia fLgL FzkhFtJ,
Mnuhakhf thH brtJ
vd gntW gFfshf fyh.
bgUghyhd nehf itu, ghOah,
ir
nghwtwh
VgLwJ.
bjhWneh
jhFjUJ
ghJfhf fheilfSF jL
nghLtJ mta.
2. ciwl (bjhGt)
bjhGt
Rjkhdjhf
yFfis btg, F, kiH,
nehthgLj, w Ccf
nghwt
jhFjfUJ,
gh ClrJ k
t.v
mls bghUf
bra
1.
fha
vY fLkhd kW guhk
2.
itl D
fha tsijkhwij Lj
3.
uj
4..
bghlha
uj mGjij guhkj
5.
itl B2
brf tsijkhw
6.
itl B4
behf braghLf
7.
itl B12
uj tgQf K
btik u
btik u vgJ a nkgLjgl fheilfis
gagL mf gh cgia bgUFtjhF. nja ghts
nkghL fHf jiytuhf Uj lhl. V.Fa vgtiu
btik u jij vW TWthf. Vbd, tjh
KjKj nja ghts ts fHfij Jtdh. fHf
cyfnyna fbga ghcg l xiw cUthaJ.
mjF bts eltoif (operation flood) vW bga.
lhl. V.Fa
14
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
1.7. gwit giz
bt u
jFj Kiw nfh ts
_y rgfhyf Kil cg
mffgLsJ. jF bt
u vW bga.
kj
gaghoF
gagL
mogil
WF
nkgl
nfhdfis, iw cg
fhdit,
Kil
cgfhdit,
iw kW Kil cgfhdit
vd _W fshf fyh.
maehL df
isbks uh,
byAh, nuh
ukh kW
myhL, sh
yhh Mait dhfh Mait
Ma d
maehL d
nfhfshF.
nfhfshF.
Ma
df
nkY mJ bfhnth
btis byAh tif cynyna f mf Kilf bfhLF d.
nfh cg ah cyfms IjhtJ l twJ.
fydf eikf
nkY mJ bfhnth
1. f
yd
nfhf
Kilfis Lwd.
irt Kil
nfhgizf cgahF
fUw
Kilf
v
mGL.
Mdh
fUwh
Kilf v bfLnghfhJ.
vdnt fUwh Kil cgia
kf
mf
Uwd.
bgil nfhfSF nrt
Jiz Kilfis cg
bra aY. Mdh Kilf
fUUfhJ. j tifahd
Kilf irt Kilf vd
TWwd.
mf
2. Kilf ms bgait.
3. mf iwia jUwd.
y Ka fyd tiffshf
HH- 260, IBL 80, B-77, IIS-82 nghw
dfis TwKo.
nfh tsgf
15
myF-1
ca
ClrJ k
gwitf ciwl
ah gwitf tsfhd
TLf mikgjF uL ntWgl
Kiwf nkbfhsgLwd. mit
m) muyhj ts Kiw
M) u tsKiw
gwit cz
gwitfSF
njitahd
czid Kakhf fyzthfnt
jahJ
tUwd.
z
jhaf, nrhahbkhir, , vY,
cz, nfhJik jL, fliy
zhF, gh, X, nrhs, yF
gFbghUf Mad fyUF.
jDl, Jjehf, U, br,
mnaho, bka, bra nghw
jhJfS fyfgLwd.
gwitfis jhF
mt fLghL
bra 1.6
mUYs gwitgizia
ghitL
mF
gwitf
vthW
tsfgLwd,
cztfgLwd
kW
dbgUf
bragLwd
vgij mJbfh.
1.8. ts
nehfS
neh fLghL
rhjhuz bfil
MWf, Vf, Fs, Filf,
ghrdfhthf nghw lf
FRfis L tsJ mtiw
dbgUf br Kiw ts
vW bga.
ts,
o
bjhY
a bghUshjhu Ka gF
twJ. flnyhu gFfYs
yrfzfhd dt kfSF
kLkyhJ, cehL gFfYs
kfSF
ngha
msF
ntiy thig, tUkhdij
mwd.
16
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
tsfhd fhuf
Fsfnyna tsfgLwd.
3. ehwfh Fs
2. a kW Mjhuf.
3. k ClrJ jik.
4. btg.
4. tsF Fsf
ts tiff
s
FRfis
gagLwd.
m) Fsf tsj
aif
tsj.
cztJ
Fsf
1. it rW bgajhf
MHKilajhf UF.
M) u ts
braif
cztJ
cgia bgUFj.
tsf
mf
2. ehwfh
FsfUJ
bfhLtugL
FRf
tsJ
it Rkh 125 .
s
2 khj fhyF F
tsfgLwd.
) X d ts
xU Fs xU d fis
kLnk tsj.
<) gy d f ts
4. U Fsf
ehwhfh
kW
tsF
Fsfisl it ms bgait.
itfSF
FRfnshL braif
cztfgLwJ.
ts
ntfij mfgjF fk kW
fk cuf gagLjgLwd.
bjhW
gutiy
jLF
bghUL
Mogaho
kUJf
gagLjgLwd.
ngha
c) xUizj ts
trha
yf
fis tsj.
gfSl
Fsf tiff
f gntW ts iyF
VwthW btntW khahd Fsf
njitgLwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
Fsf tiff :
1. dbgUfFsf
a Jiw jftf
dbgUf
cWf
Kailj M, bg fis
dbgUf brtjfhf gF
tsJ tUwd.
1. bkhj cg - cyf
7tJ l.
2. fl cg - cyf
10tJ l.
2. FRbghF Fs
3. c ts - bjHF
Mah 2 tJ l.
myF-1
ca
ts K milj f
mWtil bragLwd.
cz bghUf ClrJ
cz
yF
uj,
itl kW jhJf mf
fhzgLwJ. cz
cs
itl A fghit FiwghLfis
f wj fghitF bgJ
cjwJ. aho, ah, itl
B6, itl B12, itl D kW
ghgu, bghlha, U nghw
jhJfis bfhLsJ. kj
cl aifahd tsF bgJ
JizwJ. kj gaghoF
njitgglhj tiffS, f
ffS fheil kW nfhf
td cgF gagLjgL
tUwd.
ntiyfhu
nj
uh
nj
M nj
2.M njf
it
jFahdit.
dbgUfF
uh
njl
dbgUf
brtJ
itf ntiy.
izJ
kLnk
3.ntiyfhu njf
it kyL njf
uh
njia
ftJbfhSj, njnrfj,
Til fLj kW ghJfh nghw
gfis brwd.
1.9. nj ts
ma mogil nj, nj
bghU nghw bghUfis cg
br KiwF nj ts vW
bga. njf r_f mikl thG
cdfshF. njf FGfshf
J
jkilna
ntiyfis
gL bfhS wD cilait.
f cs kfujJffis,
utij jf czth
bfhwd.
njf
gntW
fUJ
utij
nrfwd. thW nrffgL
ut
njfsh
GfgL
tWigia
brwilwJ.
mF J njdhf khwgL d
njdilf nrJitfgLwJ.
nj df
m) cehL nj df
i) V ofh
bghJthd
a nj
M) maehL nj df
i) V bk~uh - jha nj
ii) V Mlnrh - bjMf
nj
njf
KaJt
xU njTo _W tifahd
njf fhzgLwd.
bghUshjhu
bghUshjhu njfsh
cg bragL njD, nj
bkGF KaJt thjit.
1. uhnj
xU nj To xnu xU uh
nj kLnk UF. j ntiy
KilLj.
1. njdhdJ ClrJ Fj X
czthF. xU nyh nj 3200
fnyh ria jU wDilaJ.
18
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
nkY mJ bfhnth
tl eld
mir eld
nj bkGF
2.
rfiu,
jhJcf,
itlf, kfujf kW
behf csd.
3. nj xU wj UehahF.
gh my bfhljh wj
xU gjgLJ bghUshf
gagLwJ.
1.10. cts
(Aqua culture)
bghUshjhu KaJt
thj jhtu kW yF tiffis
fLgLjgl
Niyf
tsF KiwF c ts
vW bga. wh, f wh, f,
KJ, kof, eL nghwt
ts mlF.
5. ujYs nkhFnshid
mfgjF nj KagF
twJ.
6. ngf bghUfshd buho,
f,
nf
Kjat
jahF
nj
bgUks
gagLjgLwJ.
19
myF-1
ca
kL
m
rahd ilia njbjLf.
1. c
aukhf mf isfSlD fhzgLtJ t Ugjf gfshF.
(vbz J tiff, gH kuf, fhff, td gf)
2. j
htufSF
ClbghUfis
( ghiw, bjhY gok, , vkiy).
mgit
fhW,
kW
xU
(bfh,
ir
bfh,
bfh,
M
6. mltizia rahd il bfhL uf.
g bga
neh
neh tif
be
ijf _y guj
ntfliy
7. c
yf kf bjhif e ehL ulhtJ l csjh, gf
kfNiy bgUFtJ mtakhdJ. g kfNiy eh vthW nkgLjyh?
8. i) C
lrJ Fiwdh kjf FiwghL neh VgLwJ. J
jhtufY VgLkh?
ii) c
f njhl cs jhtuf ts Fiwthf fhzgLnkahdh
mt tsia mff vd brf?
9.
fltUJ bgU ClbghUf kW E ClbghUfis
goaLf.
jhu, Fnsh, nghuh, fha, ieu#, ghgu, bghlha, fjf,
Jjehf, U, ka.
20
cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
10. i) u m cstiw u M cstWl bghUJf.
u m
u M
1. kfujjh f
2. braif cu
M. nghlh fyit
3. ir bfh
. fyd nrif
4. FCI
<. ah
- m
1. b
raif l Kiw ciwa itj Jfis gagL bg cfis
fUjf brj eikf ahit?
- M
2. nfh tsF fkf f mta mthW gagL fkf VnjD
ehid FLf.
3. nj xU ey kUJ. nj kUJt gaf VnjD ehid FLf.
4. bghUJf.
1.
cfy
m.
Ugjf juf
2.
btfy
M.
ciwaitfgl J
3.
ntWgl wd fy
xirthd gf
4.
braif l
<.
nfhntW fGij
21
myF-1
ca
gF -
5.
fl mltiz tir m- cs ehF brhfis ftf. t
xthj brhiy vLJ tir M- vGj. J cs _W brhf
bghJthd gid tir - Fl.
kh
1.
2.
cfy, bt dfy,
ntWgl wdfy,
braif l.
3.
X d ts, gy d ts,
xUizj ts, u
ts
4.
V ofh, V lhnrlh,
V ~nshna, V
bkbguh
byAh
a gwit
nkY ma
jff
1. Economic Botany - Plants in our world 2000 - Beryl simpson
and Molly ogorzaly, Mc Graw Hill Publications
2. Economic Botany of Crop plants 2000 - A.V.S.S. Sambamurthy
and N.S.Subrahmanyam, Asiatech Publisher.
3. Economic Zoology - Shukula, G.S. and Upadhyay V.B. (1997)
Rastogi Publication, Meerut.
izajsf
http://www.biology-online.org
http://www.tnau.ac.in
22
myF
moikahjY eyth
myF-2
ca
2.1. moikahj
xU Fl braiy L, L
bra L fF moikahj
vW bga. j moikahj g
xUtid Mbfhlh mtDila
RfthF,
cl
eyF,
kdeyF kW rKjha thF,
nfL isF.
Ra
mogil
ghjh
MfAh xU kdij l
br nta bghUshf UJ
ujUJ _isF brW,
_is
jfhfkhf
nt
bghUfis khw mila brwJ.
Mdh, kUJt mDkyhk
mfms MfAhiy Fogt
fSila ka eu klyK,
fuY, kuY, W ufK
kW jaK ghfgLwJ. J
jhf mj kj kUJF,
kJghdF moikahwh. mJ
mtid ghgnjhL kLkyhk
rKjhaij ghwJ.
moikahjYfhd j eg
fhuzf
moikahj RH
gffd
btf
gLnghj
J _is
njhWwJ
gHfkhj
eilKiw
gLJj
2. b
jhrhiyf
VgL
Ugjfhj
NHyh
y
kJgHf F Mshwhf.
3. f
od
ciHF
dh
jfis js bfhtjfhf
kJ gHfF cshwhf.
4. t
hif eif mw jik
nghij gHf bfhLngh
nrwJ.
1. k
J mUj ntL vw Mir
gugiuahf
mj
kjl
fhzgLj.
2.
y gagLjgl t thuf
mtfis moikahLwd.
3. c
zf mGjK, VkhwK
kW rKjha mGjK moikah
jYF xU Kakhd fhuzkhF.
4.
y kd m, ftdFiw
nfhshW nghw csa rhj
fhuzfsh kJ gHfF
moikahwd.
, x kW kJghdf
fhzgL eRjik thj v
MfAh (C2H5OH vdh) fyj
bghUis kJthf mUJj cy
vyh gFY fhzgL X gHf
tHfkhF. < vw E (xU
br fhsh) dh rfiu kW
lhR bghUf behfgLtdh
MfAh jahfgLwJ. j
kJ iuigdhY, WFlyhY
crgL
uj
XlnjhL
fyJ Xo ka eu klyij
nrhtila brwJ.
kJ mUJtij g mtJ ekF
Mtij bfhLF mnj neu
mit Mwhikia bfhLF.
moikahjY eyth
rhjhuz fu
kJ mUJtf fil iy
fu mH : ey lfhukhd
fu jh Hj brfis L
cg br w bgwJ. Mdh
W
fu
mHdh
ghfgl fuf jhf Hj
brfis
Jf
Kotiy.
cyf KGtY tUl xWF
fu mHdh 27,000 rhf
fwd. gy tUlfshf mfkhf
kJ mUjtJ fuiy fLikahf
ghF. kw fhuzfsh clhF
nkY mJ bfhnth
bjmbkfh
thfd
fS,
ngUJfS
v
MfAhiy vbghUshf bfhL
afgLwd. v MfAh
RWwij nfL mila itfhj
xU mUikahd vbghU.
fu mHdh
ghfgl fu
fu mHial kJ mUJtjh
VgL fu mH mf wig
VgLJwd.
kJ mUJjiy jLj
k
J mUJjiy bjhlf iynyna
jLf vLf ntoa eltoiff
k
Jdh VgL kaf, fu
gh kW kuz VgLj nghw
aisfis kfSF vLJ
TWj.
myF-2
ca
n
rhgdhY, ntiyah VgL
mGjdhY
kJgHf
clhdh, nrhgiy, ntiy
jikia kh bfhs ntL.
k
J gHfdh ghfglt
fSF csa miuf Twgl
ntL.
b
gnwhfSF, MafSF
nehahf kJ gHfUJ
LgLjYFa
miuf
tHfgl ntL.
fbu ifj
k
UJ
_ykhf
nehahfSF
ir bfhLfyh. bgnrhil
nahig, itl B, kW
kdnrh
F
kUjhd
ndhjnah
Mait
kJ
gHfUJ Lgl gagL
kUJfsh.
k
Jdh ghfgl rKjha
kW kfis jdht bjhL
Wtdf bghWbgLJ khw
Kafyh.
ifgdh VgL a
isf
ifdh khuil, ca uj
mGjK, ja - ujFHh
rgjgl ahF mjid
bjhlJ kuzK rgwJ.
Eiupu
ja
vyh ja nehfSF ifjny
fhuzkhwJ.
26
moikahjY eyth
ifjdh VgL
nkhrkhd isf
fhWFHh W
thF W
czFH W
Eiupu W
uhj kh r
jajir
ew
vgkh
Mnuh
nuh
iuig
Wig
W
j ahf fh _ykhf
EiupuYF tU neh Uf,
f, iff kW clYF
nfL isF ntbghUf
cbrtij
jLJ
mj_y
nehUf
bjhWj,
Uk
kW Eiupu Wnehf Ma
ghfUJ cliy ghJfhF.
Eiupu cs fhW wiwf
(alveoli) ifjdh uju ghF
csh _R Lj Tl fodkh
Lwd.
brj kly
ifj
ja
vriy
clhFwJ.
iuig
Fzkhtij
jhkjgLJwJ.
Fnuh
neh
isfis
mfgLJwJ.
jig
j
ffis
clhFwJ.
fuiy ghJ iuig Wneh
clhtjF fhuzkhwJ.
fhf
ifj fhYF brY uj
FHhfis ghJ fh ujukhf
fhj tia VgLJwJ.
fiza
W
ff
ffSF brY f Ea
jJ
FHhf
ifjdh
ghfgLwJ.
ff uj
ciwj uj fof njh mjdh
f eikriy VgLJwJ.
mf ifojyh f nfL,
f ghit H VgL.
njh
ifgtf
njh
ntoa
ms M#id bgwhjdh j
ts jikia HJ Lwd.
xnu taJila iffhjtfis l
ifgtf IJ tUl mf KJik
njhwnjhL fhzgLwhf. njh
jdJ xU jikia HJ kr
fyj rhg w njhwkF.
r bfhl njh btFiu
RUffis njhWF.
vYf
ifgtf
vYf
bkikahwd.
(Osteoporosis).
vdnt v cil jikia
bgWLwd.
27
ca
myF-2
Wneh
ifgdh
EiupuY,
Fu tisY,
th FY,
bjhilY, cz FHY kW
W igY Wneh njhWwJ.
WnehfSF fhuzkhd 60F
nkgl ntbghUf ifiy
fhzgLwJ. Eiupu Wneh
VgL wF 90% nk ifjh
fhuzkhwJ.
dbgUf kly
if Mf kW bgf
ts jikia FiwJ LwJ.
bgfSF
if
bgf
dbgUf
Ahnkhdhd vnuhid iyFiya
itwJ. vdnt, dbgUf cWF
brY uj ms FiwwJ.
bgnyha FHf neh bjhW
VgL ml cg ghfgLwJ.
ifj fUijF fhuzkhwJ.
KJikF fhuzkhd j if FWa
fhy khjlh ujukhf F
iyF bfhL brwJ. fUw
jh ifFnghJ FHij ts
jilgLwJ.
jdh FHij
_is ts jilgL mtf
mw FiwwJ. jh iffhk
ifgtfSF mU UjhTl
nkTa ff fwd. nkY
fUij KGikaw w, Vgl
th clhwJ.
kW
ey
nfodh
f
s, fg kW bfhiyf
rgjgl.
i
fL bgWj, nghijbghU
flJjYF cshj.
Mf
cl t, th cz kW nrh
ifj M dbgUf cW
klyij gy tf ghwJ.
ntiy kW go ehlik
fl rl nuhjkhd kUJf
bjhlghd braf fLof
glh jlid cW
jsntD
itUj.
nghij
bghUis
moikahjY eyth
m
fhu
yhk
nghij
brofis tsj.
nghij bghUfis e lf
gJ itj, w kW
cgnahj.
nghij bghUfis kiwKfkhf
cg brj kW flJj.
flj xU Lf Koahj
Fw. mjF 20 MLf iw
jlid, %gh 2 yr tiu
mguhjK fglyh.
L, L nkTa Fw
_wh iy
ehfh iy
Ijh iy
ir gy ehfSF bjhlUj.
Mwh iy
2.4. eyth
eyth vgJ clYF eik juToa czit cgJ, clYWfis
uhf aFtJ, kJghdkw, ifaw, kd mGj yhj th thtJkhF.
cynyna ekJ ah, kW ja neh mf cs ehlhf khW vW
TwgLwJ.
cl gUk
cl gUk vgJ mfkhf bfhG cl j cl gUJ fhzgL xU
29
myF-2
ca
iy. J cl eyij ghfToaJ.
cl gUkdhf Toatf mtf
jf sikgUtUnj jf
taJ xjtfisl cauF Vw
vilia l mf vil bfhltuhf
fhzgLwd.
nrhngjdK,
mwhl thif ffisTl
wgl brayhw Koahk nghtJ
clgUk
U
nkhrkhd
isfshF. rkuw czKiw,
clYiH
yhth,
kua
rgjgl fhuzfS, ehsyh
Ruf uw Rujik kW
clYF xthj kUJfis cgJ
cl gUkDfhd fhuzf.
cl gUkid, ja nehfis
jF tKiwf
1. cz gHfK, thKiw khwK.
e
hrJ mf mla ffis,
fhfis, iufis cz
nrJbfhSj.
uh
ntfitj bfhGfsw ,
oahg kW L nghw
czfis czntL.
b
fhil
tiff,
Kisj
jhaf kW mjj gUt
fhyf ilfToa ffis
cz ntL.
, cl uj ciwjiy
jilbr
xnkfh-3-bfhG
my Ugdh thu U Kiw
id cz nrJ bfhs
ntL.
uj bfhyuh msit
mffToa
khoiw,
Moiw
kW
bghj
bghUfis cz FiwJ
bfhs ntL.
f
ha iwj gh kW gh
bghUf (be, btiz, ghnyL)
mf ms vLJ bfhtJ cl
gUkid VgLJ.
30
cl gUk
m
f fnyhfis csla Jj
cz cgij jf ntL.
m
f mla rhnyil,
mf c mla CWfh kW
mgsfis cz nrgij
FiwJ bfhs ntL.
ifjiy, kJ mUJjiy
KY jfntL.
2. clg
b
jhiyfh
ghgij,
f cgnahgij, f
isahLfSF
bryL
neuij FiwJbfhs ntL.
e
ilg brj, isahLj,
XLj, to j, Jj
nghw clgfis brJ
cl mfgoahd fnyhia
FiwJ uhd uj Xlij cl
iyW bfhsntL.
3. kdmGj
czfis FLgjhfSlndh
myJ
egfSlndh
gJ
bfhSj, ngha ms f,
aifnahL irj bghGJnghF,
iria
uj,
njhlLj,
tzLj,
Lts
yFfnshL
isaho
kj,
FLgdnuhL g cyh brW
tUj Mait kdmGjUJ
LgLtjfhd tKiwf MF.
moikahjY eyth
kL
m
1.
nH tiuaglJ nghy Rtbuho e eho gy lf fhzgLwJ J
khahd glf vij czJwd?
- M
2. nghij bghU jL d #&khj 26 eh cybfF bfhlhlgLwJ.
mj eh kf k xU zit VgLj khfgLwJ.
mjfhf kfSF 5 brf tHl lL mjfhd sffS
tHfgl ntL.
3. nH
murh
bfhLfgLs
sgugLjglJ.
tiugl
ifjiy
jilbra
31
myF-2
ca
(3)
ia (4)
izF. jh
msF mfkhf kJ mUJtdh j urid VgLwJ.
-
5. ifjdh VgL a isfis, mtwh ghfgL cWfnshL
rahf bghUJf.
t.
v.
cWf
ifjdh VgL a
isf
1.
ja
2.
Eiupu
jDila tsjikia
Hj
3.
brj bjhF
4.
5.
njh
Mnuhnuh
6.
vYf
Monahnghnuh
7.
bg dbgUf
kly
Fl MWt jhkjgLj
32
myF 3
kj cl cW
klyf mik
braghLfS
myF-3
ca
3.1. njh
cnuhk
nknjh
vbz
Ru
eLnjh
z FHh
eu
monjh
R
cnuhkF
bfhG R
iu
jk
ait Ru
njh mik
njh,
_W
cslaJ.
Ka
gFfis
i) wnjh
ii) eLnjh
iii) mfnjh
i) wnjh
wnjh
njh
btgF.
it t cs Fthk va
brfsh MdJ. bt mLF
jilahd, bkj br nghw
wj wnjh brfsh MdJ.
mojs r
njh wnjhiy
eLnjhUJ wJ. wnjh
cs bkyndh irL vw w brf
njh wF fhuzkhwd.
mojs rF nH eu KoRf
fhzgLwd.
34
ii) eLnjh
J eL mLF.
it joj
kW r bfhljhf UwJ.
F eufS, uj FHhfS,
cnuhk FfS, ait RufS
kW g vw vbz RufS
fhzgLwd.
cnuhkij
mirgjF mulh igiy vw
UJthd jir F fhzgLwJ.
Ruf ujUJ aitia
J ait ehs tahf
btnaWwJ.
vbz Ru
g vw vbzia RuJ njhiy
UJthf, gsgsghf itJ
bfhwJ.
iii) mfnjh
njh mLF. it KGikahf
mongh
Rfsh
uggL
fhzgLwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
bgf
njh
w
mojs
r
fhzgL
bkyndhir
vw
w
mLFfsh
khfgLwJ.
bkyndhiro cg gugiuah
fLgLjgLwJ.
MdhY
btg, Na x, fhW kW
mHF rhjd bghUfdh njh
wij rW khw Ko
n
eh
Uf
clYF
bryhjthW ghJfhwJ.
cl Hig jLwJ.
c
l
btgiyia
gLJwJ.
xGF
N
a x cjdh itl
ia jahwJ.
b
jhLj, t, btg Matiw
czU cz cWghf ntiy
brwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
n
jh, aitia ujUJ
J vLJ btna mD f
cWghf ntiy brwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
eh,
e
ifdh
njh
xU
gFia
oJ
GJ
Lnthnkahdh, mJ L giHa
totij milwJ. eLnjh
mogF fhzgL xU tifahd
ujjh mj rF fhuz.
kjf
KJikailnghJ,
mtf njh j ria
HJLwJ. vdntjh njh
RUff VgLwd.
bra 3.1
gntW yFf njh
khWghLfshd cnuhk, wF, ef,
kW brfis dfhz
myF-3
ca
yFfS mt mirF gagL cWfS
t.v
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
yFf
mgh
guha
dh
kG
eru
f
gwitf
btsth
ngh fhf
FWiH (ah)
iH (shb#yh)
cly lh
FHh fhf
JLf
wFf
bglha
yFf cl jirf
mik, bra kW miklij
bghWJ jirf _W tifgL.
mit : 1. vY jirf
2.
ccW jirf 3. ja jirf
( tjirf ) ( taw jirf )
1. vY jirf
it jir ehfsh vYfSl
bghUsd.
jirf af
iria vYfSF flj jir
ehf cjwd. jirf jir
gly (facia) vD izRth
_lgLsd.
jir ehf
it jikila iz R
cWghF. it tYthd gilfis
nghW
vYfSl
bjhl
bfhLsd.
t Gw
VwFiwa O f w
ghas cilaJ. 10 l cs
jir eh 600 1000 nyh vilia
jhfyh.
jirr
iz Rth Md r
vYjir J X gly nghW
nghitahf
csJ.
gly
nkwkhfnth myJ MHkhfnth
mikUfyh. nkw cs r,
fL jsila mikghf njhYF,
jirF il UF. MHkhd
r bfhyh# iHfsh MfgL
raw
ciwahf
jirfis
RUF.
it jirfSF
ilahf
brW
vYfSl
izUF.
jir Ulf
kj cl IJ jir bjhFf
fhzgLwd.
1. jiyw jirf
2. fGJ gF jirf
3. cl gF jirf
4. nkif jirf
5. fh jirf
kh kW if jirf
36
{
fhth
(1737-98)
vw jh ehil nrj
csika nguha, U
rlf jid Cdh
bghUjgl
wJnghd
jtis fhf RUFtij
jbrayhf flh. jtis
jir
mirdh
clhF
rhu jir RUfF
fhuz vW fhth idjh.
rhu
jir
mirit
L vd fhth mW
rahf idUjh. Mdh
mj U ntWgl cnyhf
f Ljdh rhu
lgL, mj isahf eu,
jirfis RUf brjd.
_R Lj
_R LjYbfd ehF Ka
jirf csd.
cRthrkhdJ
nf, bt yh vY il
jirfsh fG. c yh vY
il jirfS, kh jirfS
bt Rthr jirfshF. cjujhd
_R LjYF cjwJ. W
jireh rdh MdJ. cjujhd
khgiwia
twiwia
wJ.
Ujiy
jir
jir gf
Kjiy
jir
1. jirf
bghWghdit.
cl
afF
nkY mJ bfhnth
mUUF
kUJt
f kUJtkidF brW
gjgLjgL,
ghJfhfgl
gntW kj jirfis kW
cWfis ft.
jirf
aFnghJ
x
clhtiy. Mdh auf
aFnghJ x clhF. jirf
aFnghJ x clhFnkahdh,
idlUJ v vgo jf
Ko?
37
myF-3
ca
Ka jirf - mikJs lK, afK
v
bga
oua
KJF, fGJ jir
bllhLf
( njh jir )
mikJs l
KJ nkwK,
fG U wfS
njhgilf
3.
bgnlhuf
( kh jir )
kh
4.
yhok lhir
( KJF jir )
KJ w mfw
jir
5.
igbr
Ujiy jir
nkif KgF
iffis klFj,
tisj
6.
iu br
Kjiy jir
nkif gF
iffis Lj,
iffsh mGJj
7.
fh~ jir
fh jir
1.
2.
fQfhYF,
KHfhYF il
fh w
af
nkUJ Gj
ifia caJj
jiy ifia
mGJj, iff
cl FWfhf
Gj, glF XLj
nghw af
ghj K gFia
caj, jhj
3.2.2 vY kly
ekJ
cl
mfrlf
vYf,
FWbjYf
kW
fbkLf
mikJsd.
mfrl c midJ cWfS
mikJsd.
vYf nlh,
ajhfnth, jilahfnth myJ
xGfw totnyh Ufyh.
fghy
khTL
nkif
vY
L
tisa
bjhil
vY
kj vY TL
kj vY
kly
1. mR rlf
2. izW
rlf vd U
bgUthf
fgLwJ.
mRrlf
cliy
neuhf
itJ Uf mR
rlf
cj.
mRrlf
kilnahL,
AahL
vY,
38
f F
_F vY
nkjhil
jhil
kilnahL
KJbfY bjhlU, kh TL
mlF.
kilnahL
8 jiy vYfS, 14
Kf vYfS mlF. vdnt,
kj kilnahL 22 vYfsh
MdJ. kilnahL ghit, nfl,
Efj
kW
Rit
mjYF
fhuzkhd czWfSF Mju
mikfshsd. j kilnahL
jiy vYf, KfbtYf vw
Ufis
bfhlJ.
jiy
vYf vL vYfsh MdJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
Kw Kj 10 iz yh
vYf khbgYl (Sternum)
izUF.
khbgYl
neuoahf izJs Kj 7 iz
yh
vYfS
cik
yh
vYf vdgL. 8,9,10 Ma yh
vYf izJ 7tJ yh vYl
bghUsJ. it bgh yh
vYf vdgL. 11,12tJ iz yh
vYf khbgYl izaiy.
fGJ KbsY
kilnaho
mow
kilnahL bgUJis csJ.
j tahf _is KFsUJ
jLtl njhsJ.
kh KbsY
kh vY
yh vY
L KbsY
UbtY
KJbfY
thKbsY
kj KJbfY bjhl
kj kh TL
kh TL myJ khgiw
kh To _W tifahd
vYf csd. mit KgF
khbgY, gF KJbfY
bjhlU, it uil gftho
izF yh vYfS MF.
kh TL 12 iz yh vYfsh
Mdit. it xbthW khK
vYl
izfgLsJ.
tF jF yh vYf vW
bga.
KJbfY bjhl
KbsYf
izJ
rW
tisJ S totKila KJbfY
bjhliu mikJsd.
cik
it
33
KJF
KbsYfis
bfhlit.
5
gFfshf csd.
39
myF-3
ca
mit 1 ) fGJ KbsY - 7,
2) kh KbsY - 12, 3) L
KbsY - 5, 4) UbtY - 5,
5) th KbsY - 4.
Mdh UbtYf 5 izJ
xU vYghf, th vYf 4
izJ xU vYghf kh csjh
KJbfY 26 vYfshyhdJ vd
fUjgLwJ.
izW vY kly
bgY
bjhil
vY
KHfh
K
fhbyY
fhbyY
kj fh vYf
xiw vY csJ. j gF
Kif
vYfSl
_likJ
izJsJ.
K
if
KifbaY (ulna) MubaY (radius)
vd U vYfSsd. kfL
vL a vYfisilaJ. it
ehF, ehfhf uL tirf
csd.
if rlf, csif
vYfshyhdJ.
if
IJ
ufSL. m X fil uY,
4 ufS mlF. xbthU uY
l u vYfsh MdJ. fil
u uL u vYfS, w
uf _W u vYfS
csd.
izW vY kly
njhgil, ifbaYfS kW
L tisaK, fh vYfS
mlF.
njh gilaik
ifbaYf
njhgilnahL
bghUs
gF
njhgil
vdgL.
njhgilaik
njhgilbaY (Scapula)
xU
njhgil
vY
nkif vY
LbgY, fhfS
L tisa
if vY
MubaY
ifbwYf
kj nkif vYf
fhiubaY
(Clavicle)
csd.
fhiubaY nk Xu dhL
F (ifbaY bghUJ F ) csJ.
jh nkifbaY (humerus)
bghU csJ.
ifbaYf
if nkif vY vw l
40
L
tisa
rhu
vD
UbtYghY,
Xiz
fhnr
vD
LbgYfshY
MdJ.
LbgYghdJ
a
myJ
ftL vY, a myJ L
izbgY,
myJ
bgY vw _W vYfshyhdJ.
tisa cs zF
mlhy
(acetabulum)
fhf
iza cj.
fh vYf
nk fh gF, bjhil vdgL.
cs fdj, l vY
bjhil vY myJ k vdgL.
btY
nk
Kid
LbgY
zF
3. it
c
cWfSF
ghJfhig jUwJ.
4. rlf
lbgaF
cjwJ.
5. bfhG
kW
fhaij
nrF lkhf sFwJ.
6. vY
kiP
uj
tgQfis cg br
lkhf sFwJ.
kj vYf vif
kj cl 206 vYf csd.
mit mR rlf 80 vYf,
izW rlf 126 vY
fSkhf csd. mR rlf jiy
vYf 28, KJbfY bjhl 26
vYfS, khgiw 25 vYfS,
1 AahL vY vd vYf csd.
nkY mJ bfhnth
vYfsw
cf
bkYlf (mollusca)
igy
cz bga _y TW
1. fhnghiAonu
2. uj
3. bfhG
cz va gF bghU
FSnfh
mndh myf
bfhG my kW ruh
2. br bt brj
bghJthf
yFf
uL
tifahd brj fhzgLwJ.
czghij
gntW
Ruf RuF
behf czit
czghij itJ brf
brwd.
thW brYF
btna,
Mdh
cz
ghijFns eilbgW brj
br
bt
brj
vdgL.
(v.fh) kj.
1. br c brj
2. br bt brj
1. br c brj
mgh nghw xU br yFf
jf czit cz EFf
itJ brf brJ, brfhj
ffis btjSwd. j
tifahd brj br c brj
vdgL. v.fh mgh.
kj cz ghij
kj
41
cz
ghij
thia,
myF-3
ca
th
gf
c Ru
bjhil
ehF
czFH
Fu tis_o
fu
nkY mJ bfhnth
iuig
jig
fiza
bgUFl
WFl
Flth
kyth
kyFl
brj cWf
32
gf
42
kj cl f fodkhd gF
gf vdhk
ehF
J Ritia ma cj gF. J
th mogF izfgL
csJ. eh E gF FWfyhf,
gUk Fiwjjhf fhzgLwJ.
nkgu gy Ea Rit mUf
fhzgLwd.
c Ruf
th 3 iz c Ruf
fhzgLwd. mit
nkyz
Ru
ehto
Ru
jhik Ru
c Ruf
1. nkyz Ruf
2. jhil Ruf
3. ehto Ruf
1. nkyz Ruf :- fhJF
mU mikJsd. itf bga
Ruf.
2. jhil Ruf :xGfw
tot bfhl Ruf jhilf
iz
l
wkhf
mikJsd.
3. ehto Ruf :fa
Ruf,
eh
mow
mikJsd.
nkY mJ bfhnth
iuig
1. bghDF vw itu
nehdh ghfgLtJ nkyz
Ruf.
2. _W iz c RufS
izJ eh xWF 1.5 l
ciu Ruwd.
c
Ruf
Ruwd. fhgit
mlsd.
ciu
c
fiza
onahod
2. igfhgnd vw c,
fu kW fiza
3. nfhiH,
4.
iynrhir
fhzgLwd.
vw
beh
nkY mJ bfhnth
1. bg
2. bu
bjhil
bjhil, _F kW th
wkhf mikJsJ.
11 br..
s bfhl gF 7 Jthuf
csd. mit 2 c eh Jthuf,
2 nla FHf, th, Futis
kW cz FH.
czFH
J 22 br.. sKila jirgly
FHyhF.
gF bjhilia
iuigl izwJ.
j
cw Rt nfhiHgly bfhl
bka mLfhyhd va R
fhzgLwJ.
iuig
gF cz brkhd Ka
gFahF. czghij mfw
X ig nghw cWghF. iuig 3
gFfis bfhlJ. mit fhoah
iuig. ~[ iuig kW
3. iAonuh Fnsh my
iuig
Rt
cs
W
Ff fhzglToa w tif
brfsha M[o brdh
iAnuhFnsh
my
cg
bragLwJ.
WFl
iuigahdJ
vw Jis tna
wwJ. WFl _W
fgLwJ.
mit
d kW a MF.
ignyhu
WFl
gFfshf
onahod,
onahod
j s 22 br.. MF.
gFjh fu kW fiza
nghw Ruf cz ghij
izwd.
fu
kj
43
cl
bga
Ru
myF-3
ca
fuyhF. j vil VwFiwa 1500
uh. it uL rkkw fJfsh
MdJ.
j tyJ fJ bgaJ.
fu j iu Ruwd. j
gir fyj kr w ut. j
jfhfkhf j ig nrfukhwJ.
j ehs fiza FHhl izJ
onahod wwd.
j
bfhG brjYF cjwJ.
Mdh j j cfis, j
wfis ju brjYF cj
behf ilahJ.
j
nrhoa
isnfhny
j cfS
nrhoa lhU
isnfhny
%
j wfS
o
d
WFl I uL gF
sKilaJ
d. onahod
Jt a KoWwJ. WFl
RuF RubghU WFl uhF.
WFl fl behf
fhzgLwd.
1. Rnu, 2. khnl,
3. yhnl, 4. iyng
a
J RUl totKila FHyhF.
J W Fl I _W gF
sKilaJ.
j cw Rt
fhzgL u nghw f
Fl cRf vdgL.
it
xbthW 1 .. s bfhlit.
WFl VwFiwa ehF a
FlYf fhzgLwd. j
cgF bka uj FHhfS
z bfhl Flgh FHfS
fhzgLwd.
ilFl
nkY mJ bfhnth
mfgoahd bfhG fyj
czit cgjdh j ig
j ff clhF.
VWFl
wF Fl
fiza
fiza skhd, iy nghw x
CLUt Toa Ru. 15 br.. Kj
20 br.. sKilaJ. fiza, fiza
iu RuwJ. fiza ehs cs
Ruahf, ehsyh Ruahf
ntiy brwJ.
j nkw
yhffh Lf fhzgLwd.
cs Mgh brf FSnfhfh
vw Ahnkhid, lh brf
R
vw
Ahnkhid
Ruwd.
ehsyh
Ruahf
fiza
RufToa behf
1. o, 2. ifnkho,
3. fhgh bgonl, 4. mikny,
5. iyng
44
khL Fl
bgUFl
bgUFl
a bjhl, kyiH tiu
Ls gF 1.5 l sKilaJ.
bgUFl
_W
gFfis
bfhlJ. mit Kiwna f, nfhy
kW ky FlyhF (bul).
f
f fil xU KLig
fhzgLwJ. J 5 br.. sKilaJ.
j KLigjh Flth vW
miHfgL. J xU vr cWghF.
cz ghij gf
1. czit cbfhSj, 2. czit
brj, 3. cz cuj, 4. cz
jkakhj, 5. f btnaWj.
khbrnyh kh (1628-1694)
khbrnyh kh 1628M ML
kh khj jh eho wjh.
mlho jJt gw mt
kUJtuhdh. ma M jid
<LgL bfhl mt fj
mf ehl cilatuhf fhzglh.
xL csaYF mojsltuhf
fUjgLwh.
cl braa vw ca
Jiwia Kj cUthat uh
ehil nrj s bgdh(1813-78).
kj clYF ria bfhLgJ
FSnfh vW, mJ fu
isnfh#dhf
khwgL
nrfgL
vW,
clYF
njitgLnghJ L Rnwhl
fyF vgij flUjh.
kUJf
clbraiy,
eu
klyij
vthW
khW
vgij mUjh.
gL jh brj Mfis
1669M ML btlh. tif
RfSF RthgjF
Eiupu
ilahJ vW, itf cl
gfthL Jisf _ykhf thkly
fhiw cGJ, EFHYf tahf
Rthwd
vW
sdh.
j EFHYF _RFH vd
bgalh.
nkY mJ bfhnth
eh j cl
btg iyia
Fiwf
ehit
b t n a
bjhfbrJ,
ait nghw
iu btna
r brwd.
3.4 f f kly
f f
Vuskhd
cl
cSUf
mtUila bgaiu jh wd.
Rnwhl, z XlnjhL bjhlila
kha
Jff,
wnjh
RfhzgL kh mLF,
f fhzgL kha FHf
Mait
jF
cjhuzfshF.
f
kh
FHf
ieu# mla f bghUfshd
my kW iu kyUJ
btnaWwd
vgij
kh
flUjh.
myF-3
ca
kW th f ieu# mla
f bghUfis mnkhahthf
bt jSwd.
md
Ru
f
bkLyh
bg
w
2. nahbl[
tsij
khw
ffis
ahthf
btjStJ.
(v.fh)
ghof, Kj - y thf,
flf kW e Mikf
jk
3. nfhbl[
Wwt
iu
f f cWf
1. mgh
2. kG
3. ehlhG
4. f
5. ghof
RUF EFf
be~oahf
Rl brf
kha FHf
Wuff
W ig
f f bjhF
ignahL izwd. Wufig
jfhfkhf
Wiu
nrJ
itwd. Wuf wt tahf
W btjsgLwJ.
beuh
Wuf VwFiwa xU a
Ea be~uhf mikJsd.
j
be~uhf
Wuf
mogil, bra myF MF.
kj f f bjhF Xiz
WufK, Xiz Wuf FHY, xU
W ig, W wt mlF.
Wuff
Wuf xU Kakhd f f
cWghF. it izahf mikj
mlj t w bfhl, mtiu
ij tot cW. it KJbfY
U gfY mikJ csd.
tsjt Wuf 12 br sK, 6
br mfyK 3 br gUkD bfhlJ.
Wuf
btgF
FJ,
cgF FJ fhzgLwJ. Fj
cgF KJbfY bjhliu neh
UF. brj Ruahd fu
tyJ Wuf nkny fhzgLtjh,
tyJ Wuf rW jhJ fhzgL.
Wuf nf vw iHfsh Md
rdh _lgLsJ.
Wuf
FHf
Wuffis
Wuf
46
kj cl fhzgL wff
cWfS, m btahF f
bghUfS
1. Eiupu
ujUJ fakyth ( CO2 )
kW iu btnaWwJ.
2. njh
aitia
btnaWwJ.
ait ah, my kW
yho my csJ.
3. fu
nkhFnsh ijfgLnghJ
clhF j wfis fu
btnaWwd. fu M
RH _ykhf ahit cg
brwd.
Wuf g
1. uj tsij khw nghJ
clhfToa ieu# mla
2. jajh
btnawgL
uj 1/5 gF xbthU
lK Wufij milwJ.
mjhtJ 1.250 l ujij
Wuf bgWwJ.
2. cl kW vynuhiyL
fis rkiygLj cjwJ.
3. my
fhu
xGFgLJwJ.
rkiyia
4. ujY,
RfY
clhF CL fy mGjij
rkiygLj cjwJ.
5. shkh ut Ka gF
bghUshd FSnfh, kW
mndh
myfis
L
shkh W bfhs
cjwJ.
3. 5 Rnwhl bjhF
Rnwhl bjhF vgJ ja,
ujFHhf kW uj Mait
mla xU w tif bjhF.
ja RU tdh, uj cl
KGtJ R tUwJ. Rnwhl
bjhF U tifgL.
Rnwhl bjhF
wjtif Rnwhl
_oatif Rnwhl
1) wjtif Rnwhl bjhF
bg
bkLyh
nkY mJ bfhnth
uj mGjij mogilahf
bfhL
Wuf
ntiy
brwJ.
1. xbthU
WufY
VwFiwa
xU
a
be~uhf fhzgLwd.
mt 4,50,000 be~uhf
g iy Ujh
kLnk c thH Ko.
myF-3
ca
yFfS mt jafS
t.v
yFfS
ja miwf viff
1.
kG
8 iz gfthL jaf
2.
fugh
13 miwfis bfhl ja
3.
2 miwfis bfhl ja
4.
, y thtd
3 miwfis bfhl ja
5.
Ctd
3 miwfis bfhl ja
( bto miuFiwahf fgL
UF)
6.
gwgd
4 miwf bfhl ja
7.
ghof
4 miwf bfhl ja
nkY mJ bfhnth
Kjiyf
Ctd
tFig
rhjitfshf
UjhY,
mitfSF kL 4 miwfis
bfhl ja fhzgLwJ.
kfhjk
Eiupu
jk
nkbgUiu
ja
kj ja, clw, ehF
miwfnshL Toa jirah Md
cW.
J T totkhdJ.
jaij R uil Rtdh
Md ciw csJ. mjF bgfhoa
vW bga.
bgfhoa rF
ilgl gF bgfhoa utjh
uggL UwJ. J jaij
mUJ ghJfhwJ. Uja
kh miwF, uL EiupuYF
ilYs oahod vw gF
itfgL UwJ.
ja btL njhw
ja
Va
vW
miHfgL bka Rtiu cila
uL nk miwfS, bto
vW miHfgL joj Rtiu cila
48
bgU
iu
LA
RA
Eiupu
iu
<j
th
LV
RV
_j th
uL miwfS csd. ja
vnah btoFyh ilRt vw
thl Rtdh tyJ gF, lJ
gF vd fgLwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
y y Uja Rt
y 12 l ujij
RHy itF gy thjJ.
iuf
M) bgUiu
) bfhnuhd iu
2. tyJ bto :m) Eiupu jk
uj)
(ct mw
bghJthf iuf ct mw
ujij vLJbrY.
Mdh
Eiupu iu kL ct iwj
ujij vLJ brwJ.
jJ FHhf
3. lJ va :- 4 Eiupu iuf
(ct cs uj)
4. lJ bto :- kfh jk.
ja fhzgL thf
1. _
j th :- tyJ VaF,
tyJ btoSF il
fhzgLwJ.
brfSF
ilna
gu
fhzgL f Ea FHhf
jJf. Rnwhl bjhF fj
Toa vyh ntiyfS jJf
kLnk eilbgWtjh kw uj
FHhfshd jk, iuia l it
f KaJt bgWwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
2. <j th :- lJ VaF,
lJ btoSF (u
th)
il fhzgL.
72 x 60 x 24 x 365 x 80 vgJ
80 ML fhy thH Toa
kj ja Jo vif.
3. miuru th :- Eiupu
jk wgL lY, kfhjk
wgL lY fhzgLwJ.
kj uj
jkf
kjuj
jaUJ wgL uj
FHhfSF jkf vW bga.
bghJthf jkf ct iwj
m. shkh vw utgF
M. uj brf vw lgF
fhzgLwJ.
iu
jk
jJ gLif
49
myF-3
ca
jkF, iuF cs ntWghLf
t.v
jkf
iuf
1.
jaUJ ujij cl
cWfSF bfhL brwJ.
cl cWUJ ujij
jaF bfhL tUwJ.
2.
Eiupu jkia ju
vyh jkfY ct
iwj uj fhzgLwJ.
Eiupu iuia ju
vyh iufY ct
mw uj fhzgLwJ.
jDila Rt fodkhdjhf
r bfhljhf
fhzgLwJ.
jDila Rt bkajhf,
rawjhf
fhzgLwJ.
cl MH fhzgLwJ
cl nkgF
fhzgLwJ.
thf fhzgLtiy
thf fhzgLwd.
3.
4.
5.
shkh
m. vnuhirLf
(tgQf) RBC
M. YnfhirLf
( btisaQf ) WBC
. uhnghirLf
( uj jLf )
m. vnuhirLf:- ( tgQf )
itf t wKila UwK
Fahd jLfshF. kj tgQ
50
uj tgQf
(RBC)
uhngh irLf
uj jLf
uj gf
1. brj czit cl vyh
gFfSF bfhL brwJ.
2. tsij
khwnghJ
clhF
f
bghUfis
f f cWfSF bfhL
brwJ.
3. ehsyh
Ruf
Ru
bghUfis
cl
vyh
gFfSF bfhL brwJ.
4. cl
btgiyia
itJ bfhwJ.
uj btisaQf (WBC)
uhf
. uhnghirLf ( uj jLf )
uhnghirLf
uj
jJ fhzgL. a cfU mw
brfshF. it 1 fd l
uj 2,00,000 Kj 4,00,000 tiu
vif
fhzgLwd.
cl fha VgLnghJ uh
nghirLf
ijtilJ
uh
nghsho vw behia RuJ
uj ciwjYF cjwJ.
3. 6 Rthr kly
Rthj
gy mff bghUf cl
ijtilJ
r
btlgL
fF Rthj vW bghU.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O +
r 2900 .#&.
FSnfh + ct
bra 3.4
fakyth +
cgnahfgL
ct
msit bghWJ Rthj uL
tifgL.
xU J ujij Enzh
itJ ghf.
m
cs
tgQit,
btisaQit TJ ghJ
fLof
myF-3
ca
t Rthr
mf ms ria bfhLfToa
j Rthr KGikahd ct
iwj Niy fwJ. J
catif nkghL milj yFf
fwJ.
taw Rthr
j
Rthr
ct
mw
Niy fwJ. vdnt f
Fiwj ms rna btlgLwJ.
v.fh.ghOah.
_RLj
_RLj vgJ RthjUJ
ntWgl f. J Rthj Kj
gFahF. th kly ctia
c GJ fakythit btL
fF _R Lj vW bga.
bra 3.5
_R Lj................
xU lF f vjid
jlit _R Lf vgij
fzLf.
m. XUF nghJ vjid
Kiw ?
M. xU gofo
vjid Kiw ?
Va
wF
. cfSila
Kofis
eg KonthL xL
ghUf.
gfnghJ _RLj
vif foghf mfF.
Vbd gnghJ mfkhd
r njitgLwJ.
mjdh
ct njit mfgLwJ
yFf
Rthr Kiwf
1.
mgh
va gut Kiw
2.
fugh
ounahf _ykhf
3.
fl btbs
4.
br _ykhf
jtis
m) njh Rthr
M) thF Rthr
) Eiupu Rthr
5.
eh F
bkikahd mz
fhW
ehF
Futis_o
iAahL vY
ijuhL
FUbjY
fhL
FUbjY
nkY mJ bfhnth
bjhil
gF
fhzgL FWbjY tisaF
fdh vW bga. RthjnghJ
ntW
VjhtJ
btbghUf
fdhit bjhLnkahdh gykhd
Uk tU.
Rthr gu
Eiupu fhzgL bkhj fhW
wiw btgu (Rthrgu)
80 Kj 100 rJu l.
mjhtJ
VwFiwa xU bl isahL
ikjhdF izahF.
Eiupu
kj Kakhd Rthr cW
Xiz EiupufshF. it T
_R FH
_R is
FH
fhW
wiw
Eiupu mik
totkhdit.
khgf ToD
itfgL csJ.
Eiupu
mogF cjujhdnjhL xo
fhzgLwJ. tyJ Eiupu _W
koid, lJ Eiupu uL
koid bfhL csJ.
Eiupuf uil Rtuh Md
ciwah NHgLsJ. mj ciwF
Suh vW bga. uL ciwF
il cs gF Su miw
vdgL. mj miw Su utjh
uggL csJ.
_RFH EiupuYF brw
uL _R isFHyhf wJ.
mit gy jlit sgL _R
is W FHyhf wJ. _R is
W FHf sgL fhWwiw
ehs Kotil.
j fhW
wiw
ehs
Ko
fhW
wiwf (alveoli) fhzgLwd.
Fjh th gkhw fwJ.
th gkhw va gut Kiw
fwJ. kj Eiupu VwjhH
300 aDF nk fhW wiwf
fhzgLwd.
Eiupuf xU
lF 12 Kj 15 jlit RU
wd.
53
myF-3
ca
Eiupu
jk
_R is
W FH
jir
bkikjir
Eiupu iu
jJf
fhW wiu
nkY mJ bfhnth
ifdh ghfgL kjfis cW ftf. if mf
ms fhg nkhdhi[L csJ. mJ xU eRjik bfhl th. J
nkhFnshndhL cldoahf iztdh _R zw VgL w
VgLwJ.
54
bgfhoa,
Eiupu, __________ .
M) th,
c,
fu, __________ .
btRthr
3. j cf
(1) __________
(2) __________
j wf
(3) __________
(4) __________
yFf
mgh
ghua
kG
kG
eru
m)
M)
)
<)
c)
af cWf
shb#yh
nghfff
FHhfhf
ah
clylhf
A r fhuz B jtW
b) tha
A jtW fhuz B r
c) fhuz
A-ia sFwJ
d) fhuz
A-ia sfiy
55
myF-3
ca
behfS
1. c Ru
ilad
2. iuig
bg
3. fiza
Rnuh
4. d
khnl
9. J kj ja btL njhw.
nkY ma
jf
Manual of Zoology Vol.II - C
hordata - M.Ekambaranatha Ayyar and
T.N.Ananthakrishnan,
S.Viswanathan
Printers and Publishers.
izajs
http://www.enchantedlearning.com
56
myF
jhtuf mik
braghLfS
myF-4
ca
4.1. jhtu brf
jhtu br mik
brRt
brr
nfhif cW
iunghnrh
tHtHghd
vnlhshr tiy
gRff
nahy
thFnth
a (cfU)
brhubrhughd
vnlhshr tiy
iknlhfhah
miknyhsh
irnlhshr
jhtubr E mik (nfnaho br)
58
4.2. jhtuRf
jhtuf kW yFf cl
gy tifahd brfsh MdJ. j
brf, L L gFgilJ,
Rf
RbjhFf
cWf
cdf
jhtuR
MFR
iyj R
(Kailahj, gFgila
Toa brf )
E
MFR
(K milj, gFgila
ayhj brf)
gf
MFR
vaR
TL R
(flJj)
(ghJfh kW
jhFj)
il
MF R
ghuifkh
iry
nfhyifkh
59
uifkh
~nsha
myF-4
ca
4.3. jhtu braf (jhtuf
braghLf)
jhtuf ijfUJ KisJ,
tsJ, K milJ, dbgUf
brJ d kowd. jhtu braa
vgJ jhtuf vthW tha
braf eilbgWwd vgij
tF xU MF.
jhtuf vyh tha bra
fSF f
aikahj
xwhF. xU midJ fiu
ghdhF. xnrif, Rthj,
uhnghF, ntUJ iyfSF
flJj Kjat Ka gF
twJ. k cs jhtu
f eilbgW aghd gfSF
aikahjJ
MF.
k
fk cfis fiuj iy
bfhLsJ.
jhtuf kUJ iu
fk
cfis
ntf
_y cRwd. j fF
cRj vW bga.
jhtuf
crgLj
_W irf _y eilbgWwJ.
mitahtd.
(i) cj (ii) guj kW
(iii) rL gut
K gF
nt gF
bra 4.2
bfhSjgl xU CJgia
miw xU _iy itf.
CJg eWkz miw KKtJ
guwJ. F eWkz
br
mfkhd
lUJ
br
Fiwthd
lF,
rrkkhf
mil tiu guwJ.
cghf vW miHfgL.
v.fh. kufil, ijf Kjad.
jhtu
brf,
brRt
cghdhf csJ. J iu
cJ bfhL, guj kW
rLgut thyhf iu brYF
bfhL bry, xU brY tahf
bragLwJ.
ij
Kisj
cj
Ka gFtwJ. KisF
ijf
ijiwf
iu
cJbfhL
cwd.
jdh ijiw sW, KisntU
KisFUJ bttUwd.
(ii) guj
fiuj iy cs _yTWf
br mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF, rkiy VgL
tiu ilF lf vyh gu.
M#,
fayth
nghw
thf kW
fk cf
nghw ClbghUf, guj _y
brYF cns myJ brfSF
ilna guwd.
(iii) rLgut
fiugh
_yTWf
(
_yTWf) mj br mfkhd
lUJ br Fiwj lF
xU miuflJ r ( nj flJ
r) _y fljgLtJ rLgut
vdgL.
gF
MFRgF
nt gFf
(i ) cj
fiuahj y bghUf iu
myJ w fiughfis cbsLJ
bfhL cw f cj
vdgL.
jifa
bghUf
60
rLgutiy sF nrhjid
xU
cUisHif
vLJ
bfhL, mj njhiy f ntL.
j mogFia bto jilahf
rfiu
fiur
cFt uL
cslsd.
aFKiwf
(2) c cRj
cgw cRj
tsij khw Mw cj
yhk guj _y fk maf
crgL
f
cgw
cRj vdgL.
c cRj
tsijkhw Mw cjnahL
eilbgW fk maf cRj
f c cRj vdgL.
rhnww
kW
fk
cf
ntf cs ntf _y
crgLwJ. ntf _y
crgl uhdJ iryFHhfis
milJ
mUJ
iyfis
milwJ. j tifahd kW
fk cf fljgL f
rhnww vdgL.
rhnwwid
sFj.
nrhjid
_y
bra 4.3
1. y uhir gHfis vLJ,
mtiw
br
mfkhd
rfiu fiur bfhl jo
itf.
jhtu
jif
rh
nah
fiur
c cRj kW cgw
cRj.
ntfSF
rhnww nrhjid
k
61
myF-4
ca
vLJ bfhs ntL. ntf
cs
kJffis
Ftjfhf
ntfis fGtntL. nah
fiur myJ tik bfhl
rhD
bro
ntgFia
brUf ntL. j mikid
vjj ilW mgona J
neu itfntL.
J neuF, jL kW
iyf euf
t w
nfhLf fhzgLwd.
jo
FWF btL njhwid vLJ,
Enzh itJ ghjh
iry FHhf kL wnkUgJ
bjwJ. J, rhnww iryFHhf
tahfjh eilbgWwJ vgij
fhLwJ.
jo xU jilahd gfthL
ts iy MF. iyf
gf
m) x nrif - x Mw, CO2
kW tiw gagL
fhnghiAnu jahj.
M) Rthj
M#id
cbsLJ bfhL fay
thit (CO2) btLj.
cUthj
bghUshF.
vgJ
gRjhtuf
jahwd?
neilahd
vthW
cz
xnrif f jhtu
gRikahd iyf eilbgWwJ.
gR iyf gira kW Na x
t Kiy
fayth
kW Matiw izJ cz
jahwd.
tklyUJ
fayth
iy cs
WJisf _y
iyfSF EiHwd. Jisf
iyJisf vW miHfgL.
kUJ vLJbfhsgLwJ.
j ntf kW jL _y
iyfSF
fljgLwJ.
iyf
cs
gira
(Fnshnuh~) vW miHfgL
gR w xMwiy <wJ.
cz jahgjfhd ntidfis
fj njitahd Mwiy Nax
bfhLwJ.
gRjhtuf
NaxMw
cjl fayth kW iu
cz nkny brYj
) uhnghF mfgoahd
iu uhahf btnaWj.
<) cz nrj - y jhtuf
iyf nr cWfshf
bragLwd.
c) cly d bgUf - bkhLf
a jhtukhf cUthj.
4.3.1. xnrif
gRjhtuf midJ jrh
Cl cilait. it jfSF
ntoa czit xnrif _y
jhfns
jahJbfhwd.
xnrif
(Photosynthesis
jL
Na
fay th
kW
ct
FSnfh
(cz)
jur
(nrfgl cz)
cz nH
brYj
jiH iy
nt
xnrif ffhd kh gl
xU jhtuUJ
iy
xiw gf. mjid 5 l
bfh _f bra. d
90% MfAh _f brJ
mjid
wHf
bra.
d ij fG y Jf
mnahoid
nrf.
VnjD
khw fwjh vd ghf. V
wkhwkilwJ?
Na x
6CO2 + 6H2O
bra 4.4
gira
xnrifF
bghUf
njitgL
xnrif eilbgW l
iyf
fhzgL
gRfff, Ka xnrif
EQWf MF. gRfff
cz jahf njitahd gira
wfis bfhLsd.
xnrifnghJ
M#
btlgLwJ vgij %F
nrhjid. (M FH kW d
M)
M#
thFf
nrhjid
FHh
xnrif
f
uL
iyf eilbgWwJ. mitahtd
f
iAyh
isf
xid
wf,
Na
x
Mw,
Matiw
<LgL
ATP
(mondh oiu ghng)
kW
NADPH2 ( nfhodikL moid
ilnahilL ghng xLf
Matiw cUthF
miljJ )
id xid vdgL.
U id
xid clhd ATP kW
NADPH2 Mat cjah fay
ththdJ (CO2) fhnghiAnulhf
xLf mil id Uid
vdgL. j id eilbgWtjF
x
njitiy.
vdnt,
J
Uid vW miHfgLwJ.
MFH kW d M
xU
f
cs
iAyh
jhtu
y
isfis
vLJbfhL
mj
J fzhodh Md diy
btlgl
iAyh
gF
d jL gF UFkhW
jiyHh fJ itf ntL.
d jLgF klF
Uf ntL. d joJ
uggl xU MFHhia
jiyHhf fJ itfntL.
fay th njitfhf xU
oif
nrhoa-ig-fhgndil
nrf ntL.
63
myF-4
ca
tikig Na x 4-UJ
6 k neu tiu itf ntL.
nghJ d cs iAyh
jhtu btlgl KidfUJ
th Ff bt tUtij
fhzyh. th Ff M
FHh cs iu Kf lbga
brJ nrfukhwJ. th M#
jhdh vd nrhfgl ntL. v
Fia M FHh thgF
mUnf bfhL brYnghJ, mJ
nkY ufhrkhf vwJ. j
_y j th M# jh
vgJ %fgLwJ. j M
xnrifnghJ
M#
btlgLtij %wJ.
xnrifia ghF
fhuf
xnrifahdJ gy fhufsh
ghfgLwJ. mitahtd Nax,
btgiy, fay th, gira
gus j, , fk cf kW
iy taJ.
4.3.2. uh nghF
fh brf
iyJis
gRff
(m)
jhtuf yUJ mf ms
iu ntf _y cRwd.
js iu kLnk jfsJ
njitfhf gagLbfhwd.
va bgUgF uhdJ uhahf
jhtufsh HfgLwJ. thW
uhdJ jiuF nk fhzgL jhtu
gFfshd iyf kW gRikahd
jL _y HfgL f uh
nghF vdgL.
uh ngh tiff
uh nghF _W tifgL.
mitahtd
i) iyJis uhnghF
ii) o uhnghF
iii) gilJis uhnghF
64
(M)
bra 4.5
xU
bjho
jhtu
iyf
mogF
efir (s t w)
jlt. y l fJ, jltgl
efir bkJthf cbjLf.
thW cj xU efR
njhiy fzho eGt x
xUJ itf. njhiy
_Liyah _o, Enzh
cW nehf.
Enzh _y iyf
w cs brf kW
iyJisf
jlafis
fhzyh.
bra 4.6
js bfhJk
iyfis
vLJ,
mtiw
xU
gh
ig
L, y k neu
itUf. vd
fwJ
vgij
ftf.
o
_y
eilbgWwJ.
jifa uhnghF o
uhnghF vdgL.
gilJis uhnghF
gilJisf vgit bga
kutif
jhtuf
gilf
fhzgL a Jisf MF.
fFiwj ms uh nghF
kLnk
gilJisf
tahf
eilbgWwJ. jifa uh nghF
gilJis uhnghF vdgL.
o uhnghF
iyf _y uh nghF
eilbgWwJ vgij sF
nrhjid(k #ho nrhjid)
iy wnjh J fhzgL
bkGFR o MF. f
Fiwj ms uhnghF kLnk
xnu
ms
cauKila
kW
mfw
iyfisila
uL
bjho jhtufis vLJbfhs
k#ho
Jf
bjho
k#ho nrhjid
65
myF-4
ca
ntL.
bjho
cs
k
btna bjahjthW bjhofis
ug
jfodh
_lntL.
xU bjho jhtu iyfis
KGtJkhf L, fgl
gFf thriy jlt ntL.
uL bjho jhtufis eF
cyj k #hofdh _l ntL.
tikid y k neu mgona
itfntL.
vd
fwJ
vgij ftfntL.
iyf cs bjho jhtuij
_os
k#ho
Jf
Ugij, kbwhU k#ho
Jf
yhUgij
fhzyh. k#hoD Jf
UgJ, iyf _y uhnghF
eilbgWwJ vgij fhLwJ.
uh nghid ghF
fhuf
x,
btgiy,
fhW,
k fhzgL ms,
iyJisf vif kW
iygu Kjad uh nghid
ghF fhuf MF.
4.3.3. Rthj
vyh cdfS gy jkhd
ntiyfis nkbfhwd. jF
Mw njitgLwJ.
Rthj
fahdJ
czUJ Mw btlgL
fl
beUa
bjhl
bfhLsJ. c braghLfSF
Rthj tiff
M# cs kW M#
yhj NH cz M#ndw
milwJ.
j
mogil
Rthj U tifgL.
(i) fhW Rthr
(ii) fhyh Rthr
fhW Rthr
jifa Rthr bghJthf vyh jhtufY eilbgWwJ.
M# Kiy FSnfh KGikahf M#ndw milJ CO2,
kW Mwiy btLwJ.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
fhyh Rthr
ghOah kW < nghw cdf M# yhj NH Rthjiy
nkbfhwd. J fhyh Rthr vdgL. j tifahd Rthj
cz KGikahf M#ndw miltiy.
<
C6H12O6 (FSnfh)
irnk (beh)
kW fk cf MF.
iyf
jahfgl
cz,
nt, jL Kjyhd jhtu kw
gFfSF fljgLtJ flJ
bjhF kbwhU ntiyahF.
4.3.4. flJj
nkY mJ bfhnth
jhtuf flJj
jhtu
isj
tot
fhuzkhf,
jhtu
midJ
ghffS
RthjYfhd
M#id,
xnriffhd
fay thit guj Kiw _y
t klyUJ neuoahf bgW
bfhwd.
vdnt
jhtufSF
flJ
bjhF _y mfgL bghUf
jhtuf
uL
flJ
bjhFfis bfhLsd.
1. iry
2. ~nsha
jhtu bghUf fljgLj
uL gFfshf fgLwJ.
i) jhtu kW fk cf
fljgLj.
ii)
jhtu
cz
Ahnkhf fljgLj.
kW
kW fkf fljgLj
kUJ kW fkf
jhtu ntfdh crgL,
67
myF-4
ca
nt
iunrhbl
w
bgir
~nsha
iry
mfnjh
nt brY ghij
jL,
iyf
kW
kyf
nghw jhtu kw gFfSF
fljgLwd. kW m
fiuJs fkf ntUJ kw
gFfSF Utif iry brfshd
iryFHhf kW ouLf _y
fljgLwd.
blnlh~igLfY
ndh
bgfY
ouLf
jh
iu
flJ
Rf
MF.
Mnahbgf iryFHhf
kL myJ iryFHhf kW
ouLf iu flJwd.
cz kW
fljgLj
ju
bghUf
iyfUJ jhtu kw
gFfSF cz fljgL f
lbga
vdgL.
~nsha
_y czbghUf lbga
miltJ vgJ ryil FHhf
vd miHfgL. cUs brf
braghil rhJsJ.
iyf
iyilR
68
brf cz jahfgLwJ.
iy iyilR brfdh
jahfgl cz ~nsha
ryil FHhfSF brwd.
iyf
ryilFHhfSF
cz brwJ, J jhtu
ntf kW jL nghw kw
gFfSF ryil FHhf _y
fljgLwd.
kW fiuJs fk
cf
iry
vbghGJ
nkneh
kLnk
efwd.
nkY J iyf uhnghid
nkbfhSnghJ VgL Fiwj
mGjjhY, cau cr
gLtjhY fwJ.
~nsha cz nknehnah,
nehnah myJ gfthonyh
jhtu njitfis bghWJ
fljgLwd.
rfiu fljgLj
Jiz
br
ryilFHh
br
ryil
jL
cz fljgLj
jrh cf
midJ cdfSF, ts
kW cl cWf flikF,
fhg mla TL bghUf
bjhlJ njitgLwd. mt
mwhl braghLfis iyUf
bra Mw njitgLwJ.
fk myJ fk TLbghUf
Mfuz miltj _y j
Mw
bgwgLwJ.
cdf
Cl bghUfis jf clYF
VW bfhtJ czl vdgL.
cdfSF
njitgL
ClbghUf midJ mit
vLJbfhl
cz
_ynk
ilwd.
cz
vLJ
bfhS
Kiwf cdf ntWgLwd.
Utifahd Cl Kiwf bghJthf
csd.
1) jrh Cl Kiw
2) wrh Cl Kiw
jrh Cl Kiw
jrh Cl Kiw, cd
jdF njitahd czit jhnd
jahwJ.
jkF
njitahd
czit jhnk jahJbfhS
cdf
jrhcf
vd
miHfgLwd. it fay th
kW iu Mw cjah gy fk
bghUfshf khWwd. fay
thit fk TL bghUfshf
khWtjF
jhtuf
vthW
Mwiy
bgWwd
vgij
bghWJ it,
1) xjrh cf
2) ntjrh
cf
tifgLjgLwd.
69
vd
myF-4
ca
xjrh cf
cz
jahgjF
Na
xUJ
ilF
Mwiy
gagLJ
cf
xjrh
cf vdgL. v.fh. gR fjf
ghOah, Cjh fjf ghOah kW
midJ gRjhtuf.
ntjrh cf
kF tif Cl Kiw
fk
TLbghUfis
jahgjfhf
ntMwiy
gagLJ
cf
ntjrh
cf vdgL. va fk TL
bghUfshd
iAu#,
fjf
mla TLbghUf, iAu#
r~igL, mnkhah nghwtiw
Mfuz mila brJ Mwiy
bgWwd. v.fh. ienuhnrhnkhdh.
wj myJ cuw fk TL
bghUfUJ
czit
bgW
jhtuf
kF
jhtuf
vdgL. v.fh. f, ehFil
nghwit
(irf), ngy
ro (ghOah) kW khndhnuhgh
(Mnahbg).
xL tif Cl Kiw
bra 4.7
wrh Cl Kiw
y cdfsh jfSF
njitahd
czbghUfis
jhfns jahf Kotiy. it
jf czfhf kw cdfis
neuoahfnth
kiwKfkhfnt
rhJsd.
jkF
njitahd
70
ehFil (fhsh)
xL czl Kiw xU
cd jdF njitahd czit
kw c (X) clUJ
bgW bfhwJ.
fFlh
(mikah Tj)
TL czl Kiw
tif ClKiw uL
ntWgl
cdf
nrJ
thwd. it xwhf nrJ
thGnghJ it Cl bghUfis
gkhbfhwd. nkY uLnk
gugukhf gadilwd. jifa
czl
Kiw
TL
Cl
Kiw vW miHfgLwJ. j
cdfSF TLf vW
bga. v.fh. iyf, iknfhiurh
kW iunrha.
fFlh (Mnahbg)
iunrha
nkY mJ bfhnth
Fnyah
ouuh (vW )
myF-4
ca
4.5. jhtuf mirf
xrhgir
jhtuf xnu l mt
ntf
_y
y
C
fhzgLwd.
vdnt
twh
xU lUJ kbwhU lF
efJ bry Kotiy. efU
w tWF iy. x, ,
ntbghUf kW bjhL cz
nghw
y
wlfdh
jhtuf Fl ghff myJ
cWf mirf VgL.
wlf
VgL mirf
fgLwd.
isth
Utiffshf
1. ir rhgir
2. bjhF mir
(l mir)
ir rhgirf
wlYF Vg, xU jhtu
VgL ts myJ mir ir
rhgir vdgL. tif mir
eilbgW ir, l iria
bghWJ mik.
jhtughf
ts
myJ
mir l iria neh
Ujh mJ nerhgir vdgL.
jhtughf
ts
myJ
mir l irUJ y
Ujh mJ vrhgir vdgL.
l
rhgir tif
xrhgir
<
rhgir
nt bghU
ntrhgir
rhgir
bjhL cz
bjhL cz
rhgir
x rhgir
bra 4.8
1. x CLUtToa fzho
#ho aghd iy tsU
xU
bjho
broia
vLJ
bfhs.
mj
ntf
neh jL nk neh
Ugij fhzKowJ.
2. bjho cs jhtuij
rhJ, bjhoia ilklkhf
itf. ntf iy vd?
jo iy vd? it uL
F
izahf
csdth?
iyah?
3. nj iy broia y
ehf itUf. y ehf
fJ bro vd khw fwJ
vgij ftf.
72
kfujFH
N
v
rhgir
ne
rhgir
rhgir
jhtu cW tsjh mJ ne
rhgir
vW
miHfgL.
jhtu cW < irF vuhf
tsjh
mJ
v rhgir
vW miHfgL. ntf vnghJ
< irF neuhf, neh
tswd. jL vnghJ <
irF vuhf tswJ.
bra 4.9
1. x CLUt Toa fzho
#ho
tsU
xU
bjho
broia vLJ bfhs. mij
wj bt itf. mij
ftjh vd bjwJ?
2. jL kW ntf neuhd
iy cs kbwhU bjho
broia vLJ #d tahf
kLnk x fToa Uliw
#dYF mUnf itf. mij
ftjh vd bjwJ?
ntrhgir
ntbghUf
LjYF
nt rhgir
Vwhngh jhtu cW tisj
ntrhgir
vdgL.
nt
bghUfis neh jhtu cW
tisjh mJ ne ntrhgir vW
miHfgL. mthW yhk jhtu
cW ntbghUSF vuhf tisJ
fhzglh mJ v ntrhgir
vdgL.
xU
rfiu
bghUdh
lgL, kfujFH N gFia
neh
tsj
ntrhgirF
xU ey vLJfhL MF. ky
Niyf cs K milj
NKo xU nt bghUis (rfiu
bghU) Nigia neh NjoF
RuwJ. j rfiu bghU
Niyf NKo nk kfuj
fis Ggo LwJ. j
lYF Vwhngh fUWj
vD
fia
elJtjfhf
kfuj kfuj FHyhf neh
tsJ, Niy NjoF
brW,
ky
Nig
cs
NYF brwJ.
rhgir
LjYF Vg jhtu
cW tisj rhgir vdgL.
jhtu cW iu neh tsjh mJ
ne rhgir vdgL. mthW
yhk
jhtu
cW
iuL
73
myF-4
ca
f xU bghU J gll
bghU J gl gWf gF,
mj
virial
bkJthf
tswJ. J gWfia bghUis
neh tisa brJ, mij neh
tsJ, bghUis R mjDl
xobfhwJ. g VW jhtu
gWf
Rtisj bjhL
cz rhgirF vLJflhF.
rhgir
y tsjh mJ v rhgir
vdgL. jhtu ntf vnghJ
iu neh brwd. ntf ne
rhgir bfhlit.
bjhL cz rhgir
g
VW
jhtuf
ej
jLfis bfhLsd. vdnt
twh J f ayhJ. gW
ff vd miHfgL g VW
cWfis bfhLsd.
gWff
vgit
VW jhtuf jLf
iyfUJ tsuToa,
iHnghw
mikf
gWff
bjhLj
kw bghUf gLtjh
czfis
bgWsd.
g
myJ
bka,
MF.
myJ
VgL
gW
bjhL cz rhgir
bra 4.10
1. A kW B vw uL fzho bjhofis vLJbfhs.
xbthY _ uLghf kiz ug.
2. A bjho xU a broia el.
3. mnjkhahd a broia B bjho el. nkY xU a k
ghlij kF itf.
4. A bjho cs kF dnjhW xnu khahf mf.
5. B bjho cs k mfhk Mdh k ijfgLs
kghl iu Cw.
74
ftdkhf,
ntf
vd bjwJ?
jho A cs bro nt neuhf csjh myJ tisJ
b
fhzgLwjh?
B bjho cs bro nt tisJsjh? V?
bjhLjYF
cjhuz
1. eLfKW tisj
- bjhLj
2. nllah vw kr w
kyf fhiy ufhrkhd x
jfis j kW khiy
_o bfhSj. - x
3. m kyf fhiy ufhr
x
jfis
_obfhtJ
u jY. - x.
bjhlhRU
jhtuij
bjhll iyfis _obfhtJ
ts mir my. Mdh kyf
jf wgJ _LtJ ts
mir MF.
2. xW tisj
x
Jyfyh
VgL
jhtu ir rhuh tisj f
xW tisj vdgL. gf neu
iyf kW kyf jY,
u mit _obfhtJ jF
75
myF-4
ca
nllah
vLJfhLf MF.
nllah
kyf
fhiy
ufhrkhd x wd. Mdh
x
kiwjJ
khiy
it
_obfhwd.
3. btgKW tisj
btgiy Jyfyh VgL
jhtu irrhuh tisj f
btgKW tisj vdgL. Fnuhf
jhtu kyf ca btg iy
kywd. Fiwj btgiy
_obfhwd.
iknkhrh
ofh
iyf
mijsit (gUj iyaogF).
mijf mt brf mf
ms iu bfhLsd. mt
cns cs mGj fhuzkhf
midJ
mijfS
iwghf
csd
kW
iyf
J
wd.
mijf
mt
brfSF
ilna
bga
br
ilbtfis bgWsd.
bjhLcz f jhtuij
bjhll mijf UJ
btnaWtj fhuzkhf iyf
_obfhwd. mijf mt
iw jikia HJ, iyf
bjhtilJ, Ggo brwd.
bjhL
cz
jhtuf
iyfis ufsh bjhll, xU
l VgL rhjhuz brf
_y efwJ. j l
jhtu
AhnkhJ
idwJ.
jhtu
Ahnkhf
mij
xU gh cs brfUJ
mij kbwhU gh cs
br ilbtfSF iu efu
brwJ. j H iyia _o
bfhs brwJ. thnw midJ
mijfS
iwjikia
HJ
RULwd.
Ko
nkny cs midJ iyfS
JtL, bjhLwd. 15 Kj
30 lf H elj mij
brfSF L gu, iyf
iw jikia bgW, giHa
iyia milwd.
- M
6. i) kj xU jrh cah myJ wrh cah?
7. rkghil uf
6 CO2 + ____________
C6H12O6 + ____________
_y
-
9. m) jhtuf jf czit jhnk jahJ bfhwd.
M) tiuglij cW nehf.
m) iyJis
M) gRff
myF-4
ca
M) C6H12O6
<
____________ + 2CO2 + 50 KJ Mw
irnk
1. iyJis
uh nghF
2.
3.
M) u AI u Bl bghUJf.
l (A)
< ir
nt bghU
bjhL cz
nkY ma
jff
1. Plant Anatomy 2008 - B.P Pandey, S.Chand publishers.
2. Plant Anatomy 1990 - A.Fahn, Pergamon publishers.
3. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology 2000 - Jain V.K, S.Chand publishers.
4. Text Book of Microbiology 2009 - A
nantha Narayanan.R & Jayaram
Paniker C.K. Orient Longman
Publishers.
izajsf
http://www.en.wikipedia.org
http://www.sciencecentral.com
78
myF 5
yFyf
myF-5
ca
tifghoa
dflj tj bgaLj kW tifgLJj Matiw
g m ca xU tifghoa vdgL. ca tifghL
cdfis d fltjF Vbfdnt tifgLjgl cdfis
bjJ bfhs cjwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
yFfis
mt xj
jik kW
ntWghL
Mat
mogil
Kj Kj
tifgLat
ya
jijahd
mlho
Mth.
80
nkY mJ bfhnth
fbuh nda
vD oZ
jhtua mP jfhy
tifghoa jij
vd miHfgLwh.
yFyf
tifgho iyf
mik fhzgL xj jik kW ntWgho mogil yFf W
FGkfshf fgLwd. fnuh nda cdfis cyf, bjhF,
tF, Jiw, FLg, ngd, d vdjh.
nguuR
bjhF
jiuth jhtuf
gwitf
tF
f
Ctd
ghof
Jiw
unla
Uthf
mulhf
bkYlf
FLg
fl fisf
f
unahn#h
ngd
uhnahghL
KJbfYsit
Gf
Knjhf
gRf
xU br yF
gzhk ku
MurkUila
UgfUila
yFf vd _W tifahf
fgLsd
(v.fh.)
mgh,
iAuh, kG.
iy:
brf
vifia bghWJ xUbr
c vW gybr c vW
Uthf fgLsJ.
4. clF: clF a mo
2. fUiy
mLFf : gybr
cfis
njh
fhzgL
mLFf mogil <uLF
kW KtLF cf vW
tifgLjgLsd.
3. rk
jik:
mikJsj
yFfis
buhnlhig
buho
tifghoa
myFf
1. mik
Flf
cl cWf
mogil
rkuwuit,
81
myF-5
ca
) cikahd clFilait
- cikahd clF bfhl
yFf v.fh. kG
5. cl
btgiy:
yFf
cl btgiyia xGFgLJ
w mogil mtiw uL
tifahf fyh.
m) F uj yFf t
cl
btgiy
RWw
Niynfg
Tlnth
Fiwanth bra. v.fh. ,
jtis
bjhF - nuhnlhnrhth
njiu
M) btg uj yFf t
cl btgiy Niyf
VgL
khwfis
bghUgLjhk xnu iyahd
cl btgij bfhoUF.
v.fh. gwit, kj
yFis KJbfY mwit,
KJbfYsit vD UbgU
fshf fyh.
5.1. KJbfYgwit
KJbfYgw c tiffis 9
bjhFfshf Jsd. mit
Kiwna
1. nuhnlhnrhth v.fh. mgh
82
ghunka
bghJthf
it
Enzh
_y
fhz
aY
xU
br
yFfshF. tif yFf
lbga, bghfhf, ah,
iH(shb#y)
Mat
_y
eilbgW.
czl,
yF Kiw czl, rhW
yFyf
czl, xL czl
vd tifgLjgLsJ. nuhnlh
nrhthf U rks Kiw, gy
s Kiw ghyh dbgUfK
iz Kiw, gh dbgUfK
brwJ.
bjhF - Flf
bra 5.1
e FsUJ kh
vLJbfhs. mjDl xU
J bkj S nrJ fzho
eGt jah bra. Enzh
_y fzho eGtD cW
neh mghit fhz Ka
bra.
bjhF- Jislf
it VjhtJ xU fodkhd ghiw
myJ eij XLf nghwt
xobfhL
efU
wdW
iyJ thG aila, fl th
yFf MF. t cl gy
brfsh MfgL cl KGtJ
Vuhskhd JisfSl fhzgLwJ.
f
brfshdJ
Rfshf khwhk jsthd iy
fhzgLwJ.
cl
fhzgL
Jisf xUfhth nghw mikghf
kh fl cl KGtJkhf Rtu
t brJ cz kW M#
njitia
iwntWwJ. it
fh myJ Rzhdhyhd
c rl xid bfhLsJ.
dbgUf ghyh dbgUf
(bkhL Lj) myJ ghd bgUf
fl mnkhf
MurkUila th yFfshd
tF FL brhYgoahd
clF myJ iuig clF
vD xUF fhzgLwJ. cl
nkgF thiaR czf
vw RU jikila f
fhzgLwd. cz f
nkY mJ bfhnth
fl gRf
83
myF-5
ca
EgF nlhLf vw
bfhL
brfS
mikJsd.
bfhL brf jhFjYF,
ghJfhF cjwd. dbgU
fkhdJ ghyh dbgUf Kiw
(bkhL cg myJ s gLj)
myJ ghdbgUf
Kiw
(nfnkLf _y) eilbgWwJ.
bjhF - jilGf
it
Ugf
rkUila,
Kglyfis cila, clFaw
yFfshF.
it
shnda
nghw Rjukhd yFfis,
ehlhG nghw xLfis
cslaJ. dij rhj
xLfSF CFf kW
sndah
nkY mJ bfhnth
kGit cHt eg vW
miHfgLtJ V?
kGit cHt eg vW
TWt. Vbd k tsij
kG jdJ thif Kiw fhuzkhf
mff brwJ. kiz JisJ
bfhL kGf brYnghJ k
nkyhf, nkk Hhf fyig
bfhL yij cGtjF rkkhf
khWwJ. j _y kYs
mff bghUf kWRH bragL
k Wf FiwJ jhtuf
vjhf nt%w ttif brwJ.
cUis G
ehlhG
bjhF - cUisGf
kG
t
clyhdJ
cUL,
flfsW, o vD joj
ghJfh
ciw NHgoUF.
it Ugf rkUila, _tLF,
nghclF bfhl yFfshF.
RthrklyK, uj Xl klyK
yFfSF ilahJ. M,
bg vw ntWghoid bfhL
dbgUfkhdJ cfUWj _ykhf
eilbgWwJ.
cUisGfSF
84
kG cu g cfSF
bjkh? kG cu jahj
vj
yF
Ka
gF
twJ? kGf, milf
nghw yFf
cgLjgLdd. l cUis
tot bfhl a cl
flf csd. mjhtJ t
cl flfshf fgLsJ.
lbga cW ghuhnghoa, lh
yFyf
nghwtwh
eilbgW.
t
bjthd jiyghf bttUwJ
(brghnrr). clflf xj
mikilait (bklhbkr).
nkY mJ bfhnth
Uo
e
mil
c RufUJ RufgL
Uo vD beh ghof
uj ciwjiy jilbr
wgiljJ. vdnt yFf
ghof UJ ujij
cRnghJ ujkhdJ ciwahk
bjhlJ tJ bfhnlUF.
wid kUJt Jiw uj
ciwahj FiwghLfis FtjF
gagLJwd.
kL
uj ciwjiy jF kUJ
cgF gagLJwd.
bjhF - fQfhf
bjhFfS fbgaJ vJ vW
cfSF bjkh? f
nj
nkY mJ bfhnth
fQfhf
dij
rhj
bfhf
yF
tiffnyna
f
wghd
tifahF.
Jtiu
aDF nkgl tiff
flagLsd.
bjhF -bkYlf
t
clf
UJthf
flfsW
fsW
fhzgL.
t
clyhdJ
nko vW miHfgL bka
jirah NHgLsJ. nko
Rzhyhd fodkhd Xoid
RuwJ. jirahyhd fhf _y
lbgawd. ooa vdgL
brf _y Rthr eilbgWwJ.
tzJ
wj yFf bjhF vJ vW
cfSF bjkh? cdf
fbga
bjhF
fQfhf
MF.
f fwj yF
FGk MF. tif yFf
fhf gyfQfshf fgL
ifo vw xlh Mfgl
btrlij
bfhLsJ.
t wjbt uj Xl
eilbgWwJ,
TL
ffis
bgWsd.
e kof
bra 5.3
KJbfYgwitf
kh
fis
cW
neh
bjthd
gl tiua. eRjiks
KJbfYgwitfis goal.
myF-5
ca
bjhF-Knjhf
tif
yFf
nk
njhyhdJ Rzhdhyhd Kf
nghw mikig bfhoUF.
tif yFf fl nuhl
kly
fhzgLtJ
t
jgl gghF.
it l
L l bgaUtjF FH fhf
vD mik cjwJ.
it
ghfwid bgWsJ.
eru
5.2. KJbfYsitf
KJbfYila yFf KJF gF KJbfY, mfrlK
fhzgL. tif yFf clF, _tLFgly, KJFeh, kW
eutl Mad fhzgL.
KJbfYgwit
KJbfYsit
1.
KJbfY ilahJ
bjthd KJbfY cL
2.
gybr cf kL fhzgL.
3.
<id
fhf
lbga brwd.
4.
jJ thG.
5.
cW klyfS, cWfS
fyhd mikig, bga ms
tsia bfhLsJ.
6.
dbgUfkhdJ,
gh
dbgUf,
ghyh dbgUf KiwY eilbgW.
_y
nkY mJ bfhnth
bfhoa : ff vdgL f cynyna mf eR
jikilad. clYs eRigf erhdJ nrfgL
rtuf nghW Tikahd KfS mo mikJ UF.
vf jhFj nghJ myJ mahknyh fis bjhl
nejh Tikahd Kfis v cl brY eid
btgLJ. j _y vc wfnth braHfnth neL.
86
yFyf
KJbfYs cfis
1. f, 2. Uthf, 3. Ctd,
4. gwgd kW 5. ghof vd IJ
tFfshf fgLsd.
1. tF - f
it thG yFfshF.
j
cl
nkgFahdJ,
brfsh Md wrlij cilaJ.
mfrlkhdJ vY Rfshnyh (v.fh.
Rwh) myJ vYfshnyh (v.fh. fyh)
MfglJ. j cl glFnghw
mikilaJ. Rthr brf _y
eilbgW. brf U gfY
br_oah _lgoUF. ja
U
miwfis
bfhoUF
tyir nghj
fSF nkUJ Hhfnth,
UJ nkyhfnth ilklkhf fl
FWfhfnth, MWf nuhlF
vuhfnth brY w cL.
flf dK fl FWfhf
brwd. f tyirnghjiy
flUJ
dbgUfF
eUF brYj, eUJ
flUF brYj kW eUJ
flUF dbgUffhf m
thif RH nghJ brY
w mogil _W tiffshf
fgLwJ. jid mduhk,
nfhluhk, Muhk vd TWt.
f
(M,
bto).
ytif
f czFHh nkgF
mikabgUF fhWigf
vjhf jf cjwJ. it F
uj uhfshF. dbgUf
KilLj kW Fofis nghLj
vD tiff eilbgW.
Eiupu _yK (tsailj)
eilbgWwJ.
fUWj
cl
bt eilbgW. KilL
FRbghF (Kil L) wDila
yFf KGikahd cUkhw
eilbgWwJ.
rhykhl
nkY mJ bfhnth
tF U thf:
Uthf
RWw
VgL
khwfis
fl
wgiljit.
njh_y
Rthr
eilbgW
fhuzjh,
faf,
RWwNH khR, thGl VgL
jilf nghwtiw it vjhf
czUwd. RWw VgL Kj
mFfis Uthfsh fhl aY
vW ma mPf ewd.
my kiH, Xnrh gly gh, nta
NiynfL Ma fhuzfsh
Uthf y df flj 20
MLf mJld.
F uj tifia rhj
KJbfYila Y, yY thG
wgilj yFf U thf
vdgL.
tif
yFf
clyhdJ jiy kW cl vD
U gFfis bfhlJ. njhyhdJ
<ujikl tHtHghf fhzgL.
jakhdJ U Mfis, xU
btis
bfhL
_W
miwfis bfhlJ. dbgUf
fhy Rthr brf _yK
(jiyuil iy), njh kW
87
myF-5
ca
nkY mJ bfhnth
njiu
Filahd dfhf
fuL Kulhd (brhubrughd fhj
njh)
fFiwj neunk UF
elgJ nghw mir, a Js
nghw KiwY l bgaU
gf ilahJ
dfhf
uil
r
ilahJ
jtis
l dfhf
<ugjKila,
bkikahd,
tHtHghd njh
mf neu UF
jh FJ brY
nkjhil gf cL
dfhf
uil
r cL.
tF - Ctd
CJ brY wDila jiu
thG tif yFf clyhdJ
wnjh brfsh _lgL cy
jikilajhf fhzgL. brgiwna
brahf
csJ.
jakhdJ
_W
miwfis bfhlJ. gh, g nghw
yFf jfsJ nknjhiy mfW
wDilaJ. KilL FR bghF
tif yFf fUw KilF
FRf neuoahf tsailJ tUwJ.
a ehf gh (ehf)
cajit
f bkJthf Ctd -
f ntfkhf Ctd -
nfhlhfh Fthd
cy ntfkhd gh -
Mfh fU khgh
cy skhd gh -
nfhLfSila kiygh
bga eRgh
uh#ehf
a Ctd
b#nfh
bga Ctd
nfhknlh ouhf
88
yFyf
tF - gwitf
nkY mJ bfhnth
kubfh gwitf kugil
fis bfhJtJ cgjfhf kL
Gf CJ brY
Xirid
mJbfhwJ.
bgF
gwitf
njh
mogF mikJs bfhGghyhd
mLF ciwaitF FUJ
gwitfis
ghJfhwJ.
J
btgfljiy
jLF
X
ciwahf gagLwJ. Mijf
RU wDila fsh
UoY
vts
ukhdhY
mtwh ntilahl Ko. tF
ff f mfykhf wF w
Ugjh mfkhd x fQF
bry VJthwJ.
Mij
wFf fhzgLj,
khWghlilj
Kd
fhf
(wiff),
myF,
kW
fhW
ua vYf(kho
ngh) Ma gfis
gwitf bfhLsd.
it
KilL
FR bghF, btg
uj tifia rhjJ.
gwit
Kilf
mf
ms
kr
ntljhf gwitf
ruzhya
J
gwitf
dbgU
fF a ms fwj
lkhf
fUjgLwJ.
e
jeho fhu khtl
(bridUJ
Rkh
75
u)
mikJs xU
uhkgFna ntljhf vdgL.
F
cehL
gwitfS
btehL gwitfS tUif jU
gwitdf
Kakhdjhf
fhku,
lhl,
bAuh,
vbu, wj myFila bfhF,
fuo _, btis I, o
u, fU wFila N, rhg
bgf nghwit mlF. etg
Kj ut tiuyhd fhynk
gwitf
ruzhyaij
fhz
rahd fhykhF.
fUit
(nrfgl
czit)
bfhljhf, lh Kilf
(Rzhdhyhd)
Xil
bfhoUF. t dfhf
elgjF, JtjF kW g
ogjF
VJthf
khwkilJ
fhzgL.
nkY mJ bfhnth
fhf kW mlfhif
nghw gwitfSF _isahdJ
mf ms eu brfis
bfhL bgjhf mikJsJ.
it kj ngR nghJ VgL
xid
mgona
U
brwd.
89
myF-5
ca
tF - ghof
lhf
btsth
btsthfisnghy w yFfS
vbuh w vW miHfgL
x jikia gagLJwd.
vbuh w vgJ xia vG
mj _y tUw vbuhia
bfhL jdF vnu cs bghUfis
czU
wid
FgjhF.
it bahia cLg mJ
RWw vbuhgij czJ
RWwYs gntW bghUfis
flwJ.
j
_y
mit
lij, uij, vYs
bghUfis mJ bfhSwd.
j_y btsthf jhf U
lF bry, yFfis KG
Uo ntilahl KowJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
1. vFdh, shog nghw ghof KilL
wDilad.
2. fyfS, lhfS gho tifia rhjit.
3. Mf ahidf fbga cUtKila jiuth y
fhF, yyf fbga th ghofshF.
4. Fofis t RkF ffhUf xnujht 30 mo
uij flF wDilaJ.
5. U f bkJthf efU gho dkhF.
6. ghof btsthfSF kLnk gwF w cL.
bra 5.4
mUUF Uf fh rhiyF
gHftHffis bjJbfhf.
90
brW
mFs
yFf
yFyf
5.3. yFf gntW tifahd dbgUf Kiwf
fK Fo
ahid Fo
X c jid nghw s cfis cUthF w dbgUf
vdgL. dbgUf vgJ j dij iyWJ bghUL aifahfnt
mikj xwhF.
ghyh dbgUf
gh dbgUf
01
xnu xU c kL gFbgW.
uL cf gFbgWwd.
(M, bg) uLnk nfLfis
cg brwd.
02
nfLf
eilbgWtiy.
iz M, bg nfLf (J,
mlf)
izJ
fUKil
cUthwJ.
ghyh dbgUf
ghyh
dbgUf
a
cf xnu xU c UJ
cUthwd.
xU c
KG
cl
myJ
clbrf
gFbgWwd. gy s Kiw,
U rks Kiw, mUj, H
l, nghf cUthj b#f
nghw gntW Kiwf mlcsd.
bra 5.5
mgh
U
Kiwia fzho
cW nehF.
rks
eGt
myF-5
ca
cz fis cUthFwJ.
il cUthd l X RUf
VgL RUf nkY ailJ
nriAuh
jh
iAuhUJ
fgL xU j cahf tswJ.
b#f
b#f vgit flgRf
fhzgL
mfbkhLf
MF.
khahd bkhLf vj khWgl
NiyY tsU jikilad.
tifahd
b#f
RUf
cfU s
nr ghunka
ghunka U rk s gLj
b#_
gy s Kiw
bgUghyhd nuhnlhnrhthf
rhjfkw
Niy
nghJ
Kiw dbgUf brwJ.
Kj jh br cfU gy nr
cfUfshf
wJ.
xbthU nr cfUit
RY
irnlhshrK,
shkh
r
mikJ
nr brf cUthwd.
xbthU brY jahf
J j cahf tswJ.
nghfS,
cUthfK
s h n k h o a
(knyah
xL)
mUj myJ bkhL
nghw
nuhnlhnrhth
Lj
xLf
bghJthf
iAuh mUj Kiw
fhzgL xU dbgUf
_y ghyh dbgUfij
KiwahF.
j KiwF
mUj
nkbfhwJ.
Kiw
ngh
cUthf
vW
nghJ iAuh xU Fl
l L L brgF bga. rhjfkw Niyf nghJ
eilbgWtjh clRt xU il nuhlhshr RU mijR xU
(mU) njhWwJ.
j il joj ghJfhghd ciw cUthwJ.
tsJ th gFia mijR jF TL cUthf() vW
92
yFyf
bga. rhjfkhd Niy nghJ
nuhlhshr giHa iyia L
milJ fiuJ s milwJ.
2. Ugjfhj gf vj tif
khwK s cfSF
fljgLwJ.
H l
gh dbgUf
jhnd Jlhj
1. xU gh c :- xU c xU
tif dbgUf cW kL
fhzgL.
(jf myJ
mlf) v.fh. kj
y
cf
vflUJ
jid
ghJfhJ
bfhtjfhf
j cl xU gFia jhdhfnt
JoJ bfhS. v.fh. eru
af tsj, g th
tsUj.
2. Ugh
c
myJ
bAnkhbuhilLf - M,
bg
dbgUf
cUf
uL (jf kW mlf)
xnu c fhzgL. v.fh. ehlhG, iAouh
kj H l
nkghL milj cdf f
Fiwj msnt J fhzgLwJ.
mjF fhuz fyhd clyik,
w jik MF.
kj
H
vLJfhLf
lYF
iz
Kiw
dbgUf - ghunka
ghunkaf nghw
nkghL
milahj
cdf tifahd Kiw
xnwhblhW
izJ
cfU
bghUfis khw brj d wJ.
1. fhaf Fzkhj
2. mJ
myJ
wJnghd
ujbrfSF gyhf a
brf njhWj.
3. njh nk mLF
JfgLj.
brf
bg
jf
mlf
J (n)
ml (n)
1. xnu xU c nghJkhdJ.
2. dbrfnsh,
njitiy.
fUWjnyh
fUKil (2n)
3. s cf bgnwhiu xJ
fhzgLwd.
fU
ikf
1. ntWghLf, wd cUthj,
gzhk ts ilahJ.
s c
93
myF-5
ca
nkghL milj cf M
bg cf gF bgWwd.
M dbgUf cWghd jf
J brfis, bg dbgUf
cWgha mlf mlbrfis
5.4. kj dbgUf
M dbgUf kly
M dbgUf kly Kjiy gh cWghd jfij, Jiz
dbgUf cWghd brd ig, nuhnl Ru, uh, M F Ma
cWfis cslaJ.
Jehs
Wig
JFH
uhnl Ru
nfhg Ru
W wt
vilo
jf
ijig
kj M dbgUf kly
X iz jff ijigD
twiuF btna fhzgLwd.
Vbd J br cUthfF
cl btgiyia l Fiwj
btgiy njitgLwJ. xnthU
jfK gy tisfis bfhl
J EFHfsh MdJ. Jnt
J briy cUthFwJ. thW
M d bryha J br
cUthFj J bryhf vdgL.
jfYs
ilpL
brf
M
dbgUf
Ahnkhdhd
Mnuh#id cg brtnjhL
J bryhfij fLgL
ulh iy gh gfshd jho,
ir tsj, cl Ko tsj,
fdj Fu itf njhw
fhuzkhwd.
jfYs brnlh brf
94
Kj J br mik
J jiy, fGJ, eLghf,
th
vd
ehF
ghffis
bfhlJ.
jiy xiwika
iybfhl cfU, KgF
iAahnlR,
nuhonaho
behfis bfhl mnuhnrhK
fhzgLwJ.
fGJ gF
yFyf
mik,
nrik
brnahf
fhzgLwd. eLgF RU tot
iknlhfhahit bfhLsJ.
thgF Fiwj ms irnlhshr
ij bfhLsJ. J J ut
Clf bry gagLwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
Jf
Jtf
brkdhf nrJ itfgLwj.
f Fiwj btgiy ut
ieu# _ykhf ciwj iy
gy Mlf nrfyh. mitf
cUsitfshfnt
UF.
j Jfis nrhjid FHh
FHijfSF,
braif
lF gagL.
jiy
eLcl
th
nkY mJ bfhnth
KjKj
Jit
flJ tiujt Ml th
tAh (1632 1783).
bg dbgUf kly
fUig ~gl
ml ehs
Msh
lf
go
y
fUig
br
nah
xnth mlYs gh
brf mlij cUthF KiwF
ml cUthf vW bga. fUig
xU clw fdkhd RtUila,
jirahyhd igahF. fUig _W
mLFfis bfhLsJ. Fjh
fUKil
gfgL,
ClgL
tsfgLwJ.
fy fhth
vgJ brif, dbgUf
Jthuij izF xU eh
jirahyhd FHyhF. J fy
nghJ jQfis bgWtnjhL w
FHhahf bragLwJ. <nuh#
Ahnkh mlbr cUthfF
JiztnjhL
ulh
iy
gh gfshd khgf ts, Ko
tsj,
bgdFa
Fu
MatF fhuzkhwJ.
kj ml mik
kj ml vbyj tifia
rhjJ (fU cz mwJ ). fhof
Jffis,
fUjLfis
bfhlJ.
ml gy ml
rfsh NHgLsJ.
95
myF-5
ca
1. i
tl r :- mlij
xo fhzgL bka xF
jikila r.
2. n
rhdh bgYlh :- itl
rF mLjgoahf fhz
gL joj xF r.
3. b
fhnuhdh nuonalh :- bt
gF fhzgL, gh
brfsh cUthd joj ciw.
khjlh RH
xU bg gUtkilj fhyKj
khjlh wjukhk F fhy
tiu (fgfhy fyhf) 28 ehfSF
xUKiw bg dbgUf cW
VgL khwF khjlh RH
vW bga. ml btpLF wF
ml bgnyha FHh bfhL
tugL
fUWj
eilbgWwJ.
fUWj
fHiyba
fUig
vnlhbkOa
Rt
cJ
ujK
fUig
R
btnawgLwJ. jF khjlh
vW bga.
J _W iyf eilbgW.
~ghFsh iy myJ bgUf
iy ( 5 Kj 14 ehf )
oa iy myJ K khjlh
iy (15 Kj 28 ehf)
khjlh iy (1 Kj 5 ehf)
1. ~ghFyh iy:l
ghfis L Ahnkhdh
iy lgLwJ. iy
Kjyh iy ml gh br
tsJ, Kailj uh~a
ghf
btoJ mlij
gnyha FHYF mDwJ.
jF ml LgLj vW bga.
2. oa iy :iy
lUJ
LH
vdgL oid Ahnkhdh
lgLwJ.
ml mQ btnawF wF
uh~a gh cilj gF
fhg oa vD ehsyh
Ruahf khWwJ. J nuhb#onuh
vD fg fhy Ahnkhid RuwJ.
j Ahnkh vnlhbkOaij
jofbrJ, fUig fUw mlij
bgWtjF jahgLJwJ. ml
fUwhlh ml kW fUig
Rt cilJ khjl RH nghJ
btnawgLwJ.
3. khjlh iy
nuhb#onuh,
<nuh#
Ahnkhf
Ru
Fiwj
cl vnlhbkOa fUig
cRtUJ
btnaw
bgW
mf ms ujnghF VgL.
J bkr myJ khjlh MF.
j Ko fh oakhdJ
XU tLthf mik, mtikF
fhg Mf vW bga.
5.5. fUWj
ml mQ J brY xWl xW fyJ fUKil cUthtJ
fUWj vdgL.
fUWj tiff
uL tif fUWj
m) bt fUWj :- dbrf iz clYF btna eilbgWwJ
(v.fh.) jtis, Knjhf.
M) cfUWj :- dbr iz clYF eilbgWwJ. v.fh
Ctd, gwit, ghof
96
yFyf
fUWj eilbgW j.
fUWj
5.6. fU ts
sbgUf
fUWj
fUnfhs
ml
LgLj
fUgj
mlf
s bgUfY fUgjY
fUw Kil fUKil vdgL.
fUWj fj clndna kiwKf
f MugkhwJ. fUts
Kj iy sbgUf vdgL.
s bgUf Ko mj fU
shLyh vdgL. mj bt
wRt Clglykhf kh fUig
gfgLwJ. jF fU gj vW
bga. gj fUit R btfU
rfshd Mah, mylh,
nfhah kW fUig Mait
cUthwd. Mah ut Clfij
cUth
fUFbfhLwJ.
J fU cyuhkY, mUJ
ghJfhwJ. nfhahD mylhR
jh nr iz RnthL izJ
fhzgLwd. J fUF th
gkhwij
fJtnjhL
kL
kyhk ieu# mla ffis
fU ts gntW iyf
fUts fhy
kj fU ts nghJ Kil
fUw ehUJ FHij wF
eh tiu cs fhy 9 khjf MF.
fU, fUigD UF fhy
fUts fhy vdgL.
fUts j xgJ khjf
_W
iyfshf
fgL
xbthW _W khjf bfhl
gFfshf fhzgLwd.
Kj gUtfhy
j iy nghJ xU br fU
97
myF-5
ca
kj fUts
Kil L L sgL fUthf
khWwJ. cW cUthf _y
gntW cWf cUthdwd.
ulh gUtfhy
fU ntfkhf tsailwJ. Rthr,
uj Xl klyf tsailJ
bragl JtFwd. jirfS
vYfS ewhf cUthfgLwJ.
_wh gUtfhy
fU
sthY,
vilY
f
ntfkhf
tsJ
ts
KGikailwJ.
FHij w
FHij wF yehfSF
Kd
Jtiu
fUigD
nknehUj
FHij
jiygF neh U fy
fhth
fGJgFF
nkny
mikwJ. FHij w Jtfkhf
Mnlh Ahnkh brayh
fUig uhf RUf JtFwJ.
nghfnghf j RUf ntfkhf,
mofo elwJ. J urt t
Mug iyahF. jid bjhlJ
fUig
bjhlahf
mfkhf
RUFt _y Mah vw
gFl cilJ g fyfhth
_y btnaWwJ.
FHij w fil iyahf
fgig
tWgF
jirf
iuthd, mGjkhd RUf
isthf FHijahdJ tilj
fyfhth tahf btna
jsgLwJ. iy Jtiu
jhia
nria
izJ
bfhoUj izR (bjh
98
gh Ruj
FHij wF Kj Kiwahf
jh gh RuUJ RuF gh
gh vdgL. J uj, gntW
ClrJf,
Mogaho
(EQ
v
bfhf)
Matiw
bfhLsnjhL
FHijF neh v wid
cUthFwJ. l Ahnkhdhd
nuhyho gh Rujiy LwJ.
jh gh wf
J
RjkhdJ,
fyglkwJ
nehbjhyhjJ (UfswJ),
v ilfToaJ.
jhf wj FHijF
btgiy ilwJ.
Vw
F
Hijia
itu,
ghoah
bjhWfUJ
Mugfhy
ghJfhwJ.
uhkwf jhgh itu
ftF f brhL kUjhf
fnehfSF
KjYj
irF gagLwJ.
j
hgh fnyh k 70/100ml
Mf csjh FHij njitia
KY brwJ.
j
hgh UF nynlhbg
vw uj Fl kW Rthr
bjhUJ
FHijia
ghJfhwJ.
yFyf
nkY mJ bfhnth
nrhjid FHh FHij
fUWjiy fU Kj fhy tsia xU braifahd
Clf f mj mij xU jh fUig F KGikahd
FHijbgW fF nrhjidFHh FHij vW bga. jid
l ehil rhj bl~blh kW vt Mnah KjKiwahf
btfukhf cUthdhf.
5.9. s cf K cahf
khWj
KilUJ bttU, FRf
j jhia xUgiy. s c
clyikY clbraY gntW
khWjfSFgL K cahf
khWtjF cUkhw vdgL.
f cUkhw
f
nknjh
uhd
ilbtf
cJ
Kc
njhWtjF njh cj vW bga.
yhth mLjLj U iyfSF
nloah vW bga. thW f
bjhl tsiyF lh vW
bga.
nkY mJ bfhnth
njhYjYF
Ahnkh
nkY mJ bfhnth
xnth ngu D y yFf
fU jh tWF UF
KilF cUth s cahf
bttUwd.
it
Kil
fUzhY cztfgLnk ju
jh nr izRth my.
v.fh. a ghf
gagL
f mt _is
fhzgL eu Ru brf
vilnrh myJ #]itd
Ahnkhid Ruwd. it
njhYjiy fLgLJwd.
99
myF-5
ca
ts cUkhw tiff
KGikaw cUkhw - btL thif RH
Kil s c K c
v.fh. btL, nk <.
s c
Kil
K c
btL thif RH
Kil
yhth
Kc
TLG
tzJ thif RH
100
yFyf
kL
gF - m
1. cdf cWf mikJ UF
cdfis rk iy tifgLj.
Kiwia
rk
vnwh.
gF - M
7. yrfzfhd cdf cy thwd. mit gyfshf
tifgLjgLsd. jifa tifghL V njitgLwJ?
8.
yFf
efU cW
ghuha
f
jtisf
gwitf
ghof
fhf
uilr cs fhf
wFf
JLf
FWiHf
101
myF-5
ca
btna
ijigD
fhzgLwd.
mjfhd
iy
bfhl
gF -
20. bfhLfgLs mltiz gFfis mjnjhL iz.
gF A
ehlhG
gG
eru
ghua
ko
gF B
gF C
G cu
KGnjh
cl mir
XL
bfhfS cRf
Rzhdh Md Kf
xL
bkikahd cly
fk cu
iH
nkY ma
jff
1. Developmental Biology - Arumugam.N, Saras Publications.
2. A Manual of Zoology, VolumeI& II - E
kambaranatha Iyar, E.K.and
T. N . A n a n t h a k r i s h n a n ,
Viswanathan & Co.
3. Invertebrates - Barnes, R.D.,W.B.Saunders Publications.
izajsf
http://www.worldanimal.net
http://www.animaltrial.com
102
myF
brfS RfS
myF-6
ca
6.1. nuhnfnaho kW nfnaho brf
brRt
iungh
nrhf
nuhnfnaho brf
firiH
ghOaf
kW
randh
ghOaf (ygRghf) brf
bjthd cfUit bgUgiy.
vdnt, it nuhnfnahobrf
vW miHfgLwd.
t
o.v.V(o M ngh my)
cfU rdh NHgoUgiy.
it
rdh
NHgl
br
EcWfis
bgUgiy.
nuhnfnaho brfis bgWs
cdf
nuhnfnaho
cdf myJ nuhnfnahLf
vW
miHfgLwd. it
nkghL milahj
cdfshf
fUjgLwd.
o.v.V.
br
r
fhN
nuhnfnaho br (ghOah)
ku bghUf cfU rdh
NHgLsd.
rdh
NHgl
br
EQWfshd
vnlhshrtiy, nfhifcWf,
iknlhfhaf,
fff
kW thFnthfis bgWsd.
nfnaho
brfis
bgw
cdf nfnaho cdf
myJ
nfnahLf
vW
miHfgLwd.
nfnaho brf
midJ jhtuf (ghOah
kW randh ghOah ju) kW
yFf
brf
bjthd
cfUit
bgUgjh
it
nfnaho
brf
vW
miHfgLwd.
t
nfnaho brf
1. bghJthf J ms aJ
(1-10 iknuhl)
1. x
L ghif J ms
bgaJ (5-100 iknuhl)
2. j cfUbghU cfU
rdh NHgoUgiy.
vdnt bjthd cfUit
bgUgiy.
brfS RfS
4. nahy fhzgLtiy.
4. nahy fhzgLwJ.
5. rdh NHgl br E
cWfis bgUgiy.
5. rdh NHgl br E
cWfis bgUF.
6. iklh kW ah tifahd
br gFf eilbgWwd.
7. iunghnrhf ait.
7. iunghnrhf bgait.
6.2. gy br cdf
cfSF bjkh?
1. xU br cd vwh vd?
2. xUbr
cdF
vLJfhL jUf.
3. gy br cdf vwh
vd?
jfsJ cl gy brfis
bfhLs
cdf
gybr
cdf vW miHfgLwd.
v.fh. bgUghyhd jhtuf kW
yFf.
gybriy mik
cdf
nkghL milj
iyia
FwJ.
gybr
cdf gy tifahd brafis
brtjfhf gy tifahd brfis
bgWsd.
cd xU mogil myF br
vd tiuaWfgLwJ. thW
br c mogil myfhf
fwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
E
nzh
jhtu
briy g mj vgJ
KoahJ. 1665 uhg A]
br vW bgalh.
M
l th t Ah(1674)
jhnd
totikj
va
Enzh _y ghOah,
nuhnlhnrhth Kjyhdtiw
Muhjh.
u hg bus midJ brfS
cfUit bgWsd vgij
fljh.
,
br
cns
fhzgL cUs bghUSF
nuhlnlhshr
vW
bgalh.
nkghL
milj
cdf
cWfis bfhLsd; cWf
Rfshyhdit;
Rf br
fshyhdit kW brf _y
TWfUJ njhWwd. Uj
nghY
vyh
cdfY
br xU braghL myF MF.
midJ
ca
brafS
br braghilna ikakhf
bfhLsd.
yF
brf
shkh
rid
bfhLs,
cd xU mogil myF br
vd jhtubrf brRt kW
shkhrid
bfhLs,
TL
Enzh
thAh
Enzh
105
myF-6
ca
br ms, tot kW vif
br E mik
br cs
cbghU
nuhnlhshr
MF.
J
eF mikj Tk nghw
x
CLUtToa miu ut, gytifahd
ntbghUf
_yTWfsh
Mdit.
t bgUghyhdit
ujf,
fhnghiAnuLf,
bfhGf, my nghw fk
_yTWf MF. nuhnlhshr
bghJthf c aa js vW
miHfgLwJ.
xU
jhtu
br,
br
Rtiu
nuhnlhshil bfhLsJ.
yFbrf br Rt fhzgLtJ
iy. nuhnlhsh vgJ br
cs bkhj nuhnlhshrij
FwJ.
J
shkh
r,
cfU kW irnlhshr
vd
ntWgLsJ.
gntW
br
EQWf
irnlhshr
bghJ
fhzgLwd.
jhtu
brf
yF brfUJ gy tf
ntWgLwd.
iknlhfhah
iynrhnrh
nfhif cW
brhubrhughd
vnlhshr tiy
nahy
tHtHghd
vnlhshr tiy
brnahf
shkh r
iunghnrh
irnlhshr
EFHf
yF br E mik
106
brfS RfS
jhtu brYF yF brYF ilna cs ntWghLf
jhtu br
yF br
1. jhtu br btgF
brYnyhdh Md cWahd
brRtiu cilaJ.
1. yF br brRtiu
bgUgiy.
3. jhtu br br
bgUgFia
MuJbfhLs bga
thFnthfis bgWsJ.
4. midJ yF brfS
brnuhnrhfis bgWsd.
5. midJ yF brfY
iynrhnrhf fhzgLwd.
6. fff fhzgLtiy.
7. bgUghY lh (jur)
nr bghUshF.
7. isnfh# nr bghUshF.
KiwgLJwd. vdnt, J
njflJ r myJ miuflJ
r vW miHfgLwJ.
6.3.1. brr kW br Rt
brr (shkhr
shkh bykh).
myJ
br cs midJ bghU
fis NJ fhzgLw bka
Ea cUs r brr
vW miHfgL. J brYF
xU
viyahf csJ. brr
jik bfhlJ. bjhlahd
uil mLF bfhG _yTWf
kW uj _yTWf brr
UwfY fhzgLwd. nkY
brRt bghJ csd.
gf
shkhr
Fl
y
bghUfis kL njbjLJ
brYF
cnsnah
myJ
brYF btnanth EiHtij
myJ
btnaWtij
J brYF xU viyahf
mikJ fhafUJ briy
ghJfhwJ.
x
nu br gy EQWfSF
ilna
mUfhik
cs
brfSF ilna bghUf
kW brf fljgLtij
mDkwJ.
J
mUfikj
brfSF
ilnaahd y fk izfis
mwJ.
brRt
brRt jhtu brf kLnk
fhzgL.
J shkhrF
btna cs cWahd, ghJfh
mLF MF. jhtu
brf
107
myF-6
ca
brRt fhzgL jikah yF
brUJ ntWgLwJ. bgUghyhd
jhtu
brRtf
brYnyh[h
Mdit.
brRt
_W
mLFfis
bfhLsJ. mitahtd, iljL,
KjikRt kW ulh iy
Rt.
iljL vgJ uL
mUfUnf cs brfSF ilna
cs
bka
bk
nghw
mLfhF. Kjik Rt vgJ
br KjKj njha Rt
MF. J iljoF cwkhf
njhWfgL mLfhF. ulh
iyRt vgJ KjikRtUF
cns fhzgL joj mLfhF.
br Rt gf
1. brRt brYF xU Fl
totij bfhLwJ.
2. brYF cWia bfhLwJ.
3. brYF cns cs nuhnlh
shrij
fhafUJ
ghJfhwJ.
4. brYF iw jikia
jUwJ.
6.3.2. irnlhshr
cfU fyhf brYF mikj,
RRghd, Xus x CLUtToa
xnu jik bfhl bfhHbfhHghd
kW miu ut nuhnlhshr
irnlhshr vd miHfgLwJ.
brrF
fhzgL
irnlhshr
Tk
nghW
csJ. J vnlhshr vdgL.
vnlhshrF, cfU rF
ilna cs gF ut to csJ.
J vnlhshr vdgL.
fhnghiAnuLf, bfhGf,
ujf, mndh myf, fkf
kW
Ma _yTWfis
irnlhshr
bgWsJ.
108
brtsijkhwf eilbgwToa
lkhf J csJ. gytifahd br
EQWf
irnlhshr
bghJsd. xbthU tifahd
br EQW br Fl
ntiyfis brwd.
irnlhshr gf
irnlhshr, brYF cnsna,
behf, Cl bghUf kW w
c_yTWf gut JizwJ.
ujf,
nahilLf,
bfhG
myf
Kjyhd
gy
tifahd c_yTWf cg
irnlhshr eilbgWwJ.
6.3.3. br EQWf
xU
br gyjugl brafis
nkbfhwJ. mitahtd
1. fyhd
_y
TWf
cgahj kW mt ijj.
2. Mwiy cg brj.
3. y Fl bghUfis Ruj
nghwitahF.
br
j
braghLf
gytifahd
brEQWfsh
nkbfhsgLwd.
j
br
EQWf
rdh
NHgLsd. br braghil
g mJ bfhtjF,
br
EQWf
mikigg
RUfkhf bjJ bfhtJ mta.
vnlhshrtiyd
vnlhshr tiyd xU
fyhd kW rdh NHgl,
EFHhf kW iHfis bfhl,
xnwhblhW izfgl bjhF
MF. J irnlhshr KGtJ
gu fhzgL. J shkhr
kW cfUr bjhlahd
mikghF.
vnlhshr tiy
d U tifgL.
brfS RfS
m) b
rhubrhughd
tiyd
vnlhshr
(RER
Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum)
M) t
HtHghd
vnlhshr
tiyd (SER Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum)
bldh
M) tH tHghd
vnlhshr
tiyd (EbghU mw
vnlhshr tiy)
bfhGig cg br brf
fhzgLwd. j
Rtf
UJthdit kW iunghnrhf
j rl izfgoUgiy.
gf
v
nlhshrtiy
br
tsij khw gfSfhd
bga guig mwJ.
b
rhubrhughd vnlhshr tiy
uj cg
Ka gF
twJ.
t
HtHghd
vnlhshrtiy
OuhLf(fyQf),
Ahnkhf
kW bfhGf
(Lf)
cg
gF
bgWwJ.
nfhifcW
clyf
myJ
nfhif
nfhifcW
Kj Kj
fhnyh fh vgtuh tf
glJ. J jL nghw gFfshd
Ff
(btf)
nfhif cW
bldhf,
tiynghW
xnwhblhW
izfgLs
FHf,
btf
(E
Ff)
kW
wgFf
thFnthfis
(fhWigf)
bgW fhzgLwJ. jhtu brf
nfhifcWf
oonahnrhf
vW miHfgLwd.
gf
1. nfhifcW
iynrhnrhf
cUthf gF bgWwJ.
2. brRt
kW
brr
cgF J fhuzkhf csJ.
iynrhnrhf
gytifahd brF behfis
bfhl, rdh NHgl a
EFf iynrhnrhf MF.
it bryf brkhd bjhFghf
(intracellular
digestive
system)
bragLwd.
vdnt,
it
brF igf vW miHf
gLwd. vnlhshrtiy kW
nfhifcW
t
izj
bradh it cgahwd.
iynrhnrh r a nejh
iynrhnrh cns cs behf
KG brmikig brf brJ,
109
myF-6
ca
br mit VwLL. vdnt
iynrhnrhf
jbfhiyigf
vW miHfgLwd.
gf
1. br GFj (vnlhir
lh) vw f _y brD
<fgl Jffis
brkhd
brt gF twd.
2. uj
btisaQf
iynrhnrhf nehfis, ma
Jffis
mJ,
aifahf
cliy ghJfhg gfhWwd.
nkY mJ bfhnth
gf
ngh
kW
Jf
60S
Jiz myF
70S iunghnrh
tif
iunghnrh
aJ.
nkY 30S kW 50S vw uL
Jiz
myFfis
bfhlJ.
J nuhnfnaho
brf
fhzgLwJ.
tif iunghnrh 40S
kW
60S
Jiz
myFfsh
MdJ.
J
nfnaho
brf
fhzgLwJ.
iunghnrhf
50S Jiz
myF
m) 70S iunghnrhf
M) 80S iunghnrhf
_ milj kW uj
br EQWf ij
iynrhnrhf gF bgWwd.
vdnt it mF gil uf
myJ
Juthsf
myJ
br
thf
vbwyh
miHfgLwd.
iunghnrhf
vgit
myf (RNA)
ujfsh
Md
a
80S iunghnrh
nghw
mikf MF.
it
irnlhshr
jJ
brhubrhughd vnlhshrtiy
wgu xo fhzgLwd.
xbthU
iunghnrhK
uL
110
iunghnrhf
uj
cg
Ka gF twd.
vdnt,
it br uj bjhrhiyf
vW miHfgLwd.
thFnthf
xiw rdh NHgl ut
ua igf thFnthf MF.
it jhtu brf fhzgLwd.
nkY it y nuhnlhnrhtf
cz
Ffshf
RUF
Ffshf
fhzgLwd.
jhtu
brf
br
bgUgF
thFnthfdh
MufgLsd. thFnthiy
R fhzgL bjthd ciw
nghw r nlhndhsh vdgL.
jhtuf
thFnthf fk
bghUf,
rfiuf,
mndh
myf
kW
fiuj
f
bghUf nghwtiw bfhl br
rhdh uggLsd.
brfS RfS
gf
btr
i) thFnthf fk cfis
Cl
bghUfis
nrJ
itwd. nkY jhJ bghUf
kW Cl bghUf mlia
mfwd.
cr
ii) br iwjik kW
crgLj tWfhf br
rLgut
mGj
(Mkho
mGj) xnu uhd iy UFgo
brwJ.
o.v.V
iknlhfhah
nl
iknlhfhaf
gf
iknlhfhaf
cUil
myJ
cUis
totkhd
br
EQWf
MF.
xbthU
iknlhfhah
uL
rfdh
NHgLsJ.
btr
bjhlahdJ.
cr nl vdgL gy cw
kofis(f) bfhlJ. j
nl
iknlhfhah
cgFia
KGikaw Kiw
wd.
cgF jsbghU
(kh) vdgL xnu khahd
mlj bghUfsh uggLsJ.
Rthj
f
Ka
gF tF F1Jff myJ
Mnrhf vW miHfgL
F^jiy
tot
clyfis
nl bgWsd.
i) ATP nghw
Mw F
TLbghUfis
iknlhfh
af cg brwd.
iknlhfhaf
jsbghU
Rthj
bghGJ
cz
Mfuz
mila
njitahd
behfis
ATP
_yTWf
to
Mwiy
btgLJtjF
njitahd
behfis
bgWsJ.
vdnt,
iknlhfhaf br Mw
iyaf vW miHfgLwd.
iknlhfhaf
ujf,
bfhGf kW js DNA it
bfhLsd.
ii)
gira,
irnlhFnuhf,
OuhLf kW mndh myf
nghw
cnt
bghUf
cgF njitahd ilpL
bghUfis
iknlhfhaf
mwd.
fff (shoLf)
jhtu brf kL fhzgL
jL tot myJ Kil
tot
EQWf
fff
MF.
fff
_W tifgL.
mit
bt
fff
(nfhshLf),
tz
fff (Fnuhnkh shLf) kW
gRfff (FnshnuhshLf).
1. bt fff
it
jur, bfhGf kW
ujf to czit
nrJ
itF wkw fff MF.
2. tz fff
it
gira
fyhd kw
wfis bgWsjh kr myJ
t w fhzgLwd. gy
kyf kW ffSF it wij
mwd.
111
myF-6
ca
3. gRfff
it x nrif wahd
giraij
bgWs
gRik
w fff MF.
xbthU
gRffK
uil
rdh
Md
ciwia,
jsbghUisa
bfhLsJ. cr fff
KGsF
nykyhfshf
mikJ fhzgLwJ. y gFf
nykyhf joJ, ehzafis
mL itfglJ nghw mik
fhzgLwd. it uhdhf
vW miHfgLwd. xbthU
uhdh
ijyfhLf
vW
miHfgL jLtot rdh Md
igfis bgWsJ. uhdhf
cw gira fhzgLwJ.
jsbghU ijyfhLf mw
gF nuhkh vW miHfgL.
xnrif gFbgW vzw
behfis nuhkh bgWsJ.
btr
uhd
brnahf vW miHfgL
xU n#ho a clw Jffis
bfhLsJ.
gf
br gF bghGJ, o
ehf(RUF ehf) njhWt
Ka gF twJ.
Fnuhnko
nahy
nah
shr
cl
(k)
a
ciw
cfU (a)
cfU uil
rdh Md
ciwia bgWsJ. J cfU
ciw myJ a ciw vW
miHfgL.
nahshr
myJ arhW (nfnah)
vdgL jsbghUis a
cr
NJsJ.
a
nuhkh
ijyfhLf ciw
ciw
gy
Jisfis
bgW
gRff
fhzgLwJ. Jisf ah
Jisf vW miHfgLwd.
brnuhnrh
nahshr uL jkhd
yF
brfY
y
ah mikf fhzgLwd.
nkghL
milahj
jhtufY
i) nahy kW ii) Fnuhnko.
brnuhnrh
fhzgLwJ.
nahy vgJ uj kW
nuhnfnaho brfY nkghL
milj
jhtu
brfY
J RNA brJ fhzglToa xU
fhzgLtiy.
cfU
xU nfhstot gF MF. iunghnrh
lkhf
J
csJ.
JUt
J fhzgLwJ. J cUthF
112
brfS RfS
nahshr xW myJ
mjF
nkgl
nahyf
fhzglyh.
Fnuhnko vgJ ku bghUshd
DNA (o M ngh my)
kW uj bfhl
bka
iHfsh Md xU tiynghw
mikghF. brgF bghGJ it
joj fWnghw Fnuhnkhnrhfshf
RUFwd.
Fnuhnkhnrhf
fis bfhLsd. xbthU
D xU cd xU ghuga
gF fhuzkhdJ.
f, bgnwhflUJ mLj
jiyKiwF
ghuga
gf
fljgLtjfhd brfis DNA
_YTW to bgWsd.
gf
i) cfU
br
midJ
tsijkhw
brafis
fLgLJwJ.
ii) b g n w h f l U J
nrfSF ghuga gf
fljgLtij fLgLJwJ.
iii) br gFig fLgLJwJ.
6.4.1. Fnuhnkhnrhf
ghuga
gis
bfhl
nghW
RUa
Fnuhnko
iHf Fnuhnkhnrhf MF. it
brgF nghJ kLnk bjthf
bjwd.
XbthU
FnuhnkhnrhK
FnuhnkoLf vW miHfgL
uL xj mikfis bgWsJ.
uL
FnuhnkoLfS
xU
Fl
izwd.
jF
brnuha
vW
bga.
brnuha
mikJs
Fnuhnkhnrh gF Kjik RUf
MF. Fnuhnkhnrh KidgF
Onyha MF.
Fnuhnkhnrhf tiff
brnuha
mikUF
Kiwia bghWJ, Fnuhnkhnrhf
ehF tiffshf csd.
1. bklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika mikJ, uL fufS
bgUghY rkkhd s fhzgL.
J My vGJ
v
tot
Fnuhnkhnrh MF.
2. rbklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika
UJ
rW
y
fhzgLtjh,
j
xU
fu
kbwhU fuij l Filahf
fhzgLwJ. J My vGJ J
tot Fnuhnkhnrh MF.
3. mnuh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
Kid gFF mUnf fhzgLtjh,
xU fu f Filahf kbwhU
fu f skhf fhzgLwJ.
J xU nfh
tot Fnuhnkhnrh
MF.
brnuha
FnuhnkoL
fuf
brnuh
a
brnuha
ifdnlhnfh
fuf
FnuhnkoL
Fnuhnknrh mik
Onyha
bklhbr
rbklhbr mnuhbr
Fnuhnknrhf tiff
113
Onyhbr
myF-6
ca
4. Onyh br Fnuhnkhnrh
moid
bgUghyhd
cdfY nkghL milj
cdfY DNA kubghU MF. DNA gy a
ij
nahilLfsh MdJ. xbthU nahilL
xU IJ fhg rfiu, xU ghng bjhF kW xU
ieu# fhujh MdJ. ieu# fhuf U tifgL
- f kW of. moid kW Fthid Fthid
fshF. ij kW irnlh ofshF.
DNA mik thr kW vgtfsh irnlh
btlglJ. o.v.V. xU <iH mikghF. uL o.v.V
iHfS xiwbahW R, uil RUshf csd. KJbfY
RU KJbfYghf rfiu kW ghng _yTWf
csd. ieu# fhuf rfiu _yTWfSl
o.v.V mik
izfgLsd.
uL
gh
nahilL
iHfS Fl izfshd f kW
ofSF ilna cs iAu# izfsh izfgLsd.
uL iHfS v izahf vbu irf brwd. (mjhtJ 5'
Kj 3' kW 3' Kj 5' Kid vd vv irf brwd) uL iHfS
tyR ir xWbfhW fhzgLwd. DNA _yT l
20 A MF.
6.5. br gF tiffS
xU ijia vLJ, mij cilJ
J ghngh. ijF cns
bro iy. thnw xU Kilia
vLJ cilJ ghjh mj
cns nfhFR iy. Mdh
xU ij k ijfgL,
CwgL bghGJ, xU bro njh
kukhf tswJ. njnghW Kil
milfhfgL bghGJ, nfhFR
njhWwJ. J vthW rha
vgJ
g
eh
viwfhtJ
Unwhkh?
jhtuf
myJ
yFf
xiw
bryhd
irnfhoUnj
114
njhWwd. j irnfh gy
Kiw gFgilJ xU jhtu myJ
yif
njhWwJ.
j
fF ts vW bga. J
brgF _y eilbgWwJ.
cUst Ka gfS
xW dbgUf mil w
MF. dbgUf f, brgF
_y
brf
vifia
mfgij cslaJ. Vfdnt
cs brf UJ brgF vw
f _ykhfjh a brf
njhWwd.
ts,
bgUf
kW cl uhfF brbgUf
mta.
brfS RfS
J
UtgF
UJ
ika
neh o ehf (RUF
ehf) njhWwd. a
ciw kW nahy kiwa
Muwd.
ikaiy(bklhiy)
brnuha
neKfbrgF (Viklh)
xWbfhW izahd uL
FnuhnkoLfis bfhLsJ.
uL
FnuhnkoLf
izJs brnuha
MF.
br Rt
a
ciw
nahy
Fnuhnkhnrh
iliy
nuhiy
FnuhnkoL
RUF
ehf
iliy
bklhiy
mdh iy
Mug Onyhiy
Ko Onyhiy
nr brf
xU br iklho brgFF
cgLtjF K gFgiltjF
jid jah gL bfhwJ.
j
iy
iliy
vW
miHfgLwJ. myf
uogiltj _y Fnuhnko
bghUf uogilwd.
Kjiy (nuhiy)
F
nuhnko
tiy
RUL
l iHnghw mikfshd
Fnuhnkhnrhfshf njhWwd.
xbthU
iklh (kiwKf br j)
FnuhnkhnrhK
115
myF-6
ca
a
ciw
kiwJLwJ.
KY
F
nuhnkhnrhf
Filahf
jokdhf khWwd.
F
nuhnkoLf
brnuha
fSl
br
ikaF
efwd.
ah (Fw gF)
cdf
dbgUf
brf eilbgW xU tifahd
brgF ah MF. nfLf
cUthf
nghJ
f
fhzgLwJ.
x
bthU Fnuhnkhnrh br
nuhaU ulhfwJ.
6.6. brf
kW
mt
NHYilna
eilbgW
bghUf ut / gkhw.
b
rnuhaf
ehfSl izwd.
WKiy (mdhiy)
x
bthU
FnuhnkoL
brnuhaiu
bgW,
Fnuhnkhnrhkhf khWwJ.
xU
xU
o
ehf
RUFtjh
j Fnuhnkhnrhf xW xU
JUtij neh kbwhW v
JUtij neh efwd.
Wiy (Onyhiy)
n
r Fnuhnkhnrhf JUt fis
brwilwd.
nahy kW a
ciw L njhWwJ. vdnt,
br U JUtfY uL
nr af njhWwd.
o ehf kiwwd.
c
fU j gF cfU
gF
(nfnahifd)
vW
miHfgLwJ.
irnlhifd
gF)
(irnlhshr
irnlhshr
gFgiltJ
irnlhifd vdgL. jhtu
brf, uL nr cfUfSF
116
irnlhshrF
mjF
btna cs RWwF ilna
shkh r _y gntW tf
bghUf gkhw bragLwd.
r tahf fljgLtJ Mw
njitaw fljyhfnth myJ Mw
njitahd fljyhfnth Ufyh.
Mw njitaw flj
xU
ma
myJ
_yTW
br mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF xU r _y
gu xU va guj KiwahF.
j flj vj j MwY
gagLjgLtiy.
Mw njitaw flj _W
Kiwf eilbgWwJ. i) rL
gut ii) va gut iii) vjhfgl
gut.
i) rL gut
U gffY cs fiubghU
br ntWghlh shkh r
_y _yTWf c, bt
lbga eilbgWwJ. br
mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF xU r _y
_yTWf fljgL f
rL gut vdgL.
brfS RfS
brYF cns _yTWf
brY
f
vlhkh
(crLgut) vdgL. br
UJ _yTWf btna brY
f v[hkh (btrL
gut) vdgL. jhtu brf
msffkhd
v[hkh
eilbgWtjh, irnlhshr mj
shkh rl nrJ RU,
brRtiu L y fhzgL.
j f shnkhiy (ck
RUf) vW miHfgLwJ.
ii) va gut
ct, fayth nghw
th _yTWf brr _y
bgna vw fl ujf
cj yhknyna brYF cns
EiHwd.
Mw njitahd flj
Mw njitahd flj vgJ
Mw cjah xU bghU r
tahf lbga miltjhF. J
vbghGJ br rF vuhdJ.
( mjhtJ br Fiwthd lUJ
br mfkhd lF) j
Kiw
fiubghU
_yTWf
mt nt br myJ nt
rF vuhfnt efwd. j
KiwF Mw njitgLwJ. y
rujf fl _yTWfshf
bragL
fiubghUis
r
kWgfF flJwd.
bjhlJ
vn[hirlh
fl
_yTWf
_ykhf
bghUf
btna
fljgLj
vn[hirlh
vdgL. J
bghJthf RuF brf myJ f
f brf fhzgLwJ.
vnlhirlh
shkhr
cwkhf
koJ
myJ J brW xU EF
myJ thFnthiy njhWgj
_y vnlhirlh eilbgWwJ.
J uL tifgL.
1.~ngnfhirlh
(br
GFj)
2. ndhirlh (br mUJj )
ndhirlh(br mUJj)
bghUf
ut
to
vLJbfhsgLwd
(v.fh.
mghL. nuhnlhnrhtf kW
Wuf brf.) ndhirlh
jhtufY eilbgWwJ.
6.7. Rf
jhtu Rf tiff, mik
kW gf
bjhlahd gzhk tsah
shkh
117
myF-6
ca
jhtuf
mik
ff
mfJsJ. catif jhtuf
ntf, jL, iyf kW kyf
gntW
brafis
brwd.
btntW ntiyfis brtjfhf
jhtuf
brf
gytifahd
Rfshf ntWgLsd. (4.2 cs
mltizia ghf).
MF Rf
bra 6.1
(bgUghY xU iy jhtuf)
fhzgLwd. fQilgF
milt it Jiz wd.
iii) gf MF Rf
jL kW ntf gfthL
gF fhzgL MF Rf
mlF. it jhtu ghf
FWfsit mff brwd.
(v.fh. fh nfa kW thFyh
nfa.)
MF R brf gf
xU a bro tsia
cW nehf. J neuhf tswJ.
bghGJ jo EgFia
bto, nkY mj tsia
ftf.
M
F Rf brf nfhs,
Kil, gynfhz myJ brtf
to fhzgL.
t brRt bkaJ, S
w bfhlJ kW brYnyh[h
MdJ.
it
br
ilbtf
beUfkhf mikJsd.
m
lahd irnlhsh rij
bga cfUit bfhLsd.
E MFR
il MFR
i) E MF RR
E
MF
R
jhtu
jLf kW ntf Ef
fhzgLwJ. J jhtu ghf
sij mfwJ.
gf MFR
ii) il MF Rf
it iyf
f
nghw
fQilgF
mogFY
jhtuf
mogFY
118
brfS RfS
iyj Rf
bra 6.2
x
U jhtu jLgFia
vLJ, bka FWFbtoid
vLfntL.
b
ka FWF btLguf
J rh~u rha nrf.
xU FWF btLguid kL
fzho eGt x itJ,
xU J r nrf.
wnjh
o
w
njh
_
Liy
bfhL
_o
Enzh cWnehf.
gytifahd brfis mit
mikUF Kiwfis cW
nehf.
w
njhyo
njh
bu
FHh
m) midJ
brfS
xnu
khahd mik csdth?
M) vjid tifahd
fhzgLwd?
brf
~nsha
nfa
MF Rfdh cUthfgl
brfSF vd newJ?
iry
MF Rfdh cUthfgl
y brf gFgil jikia HJ
iyj Rfis cUthFwd.
(bkLyh)
tWF Fl tot kW
g cL. it gy tifahd
gfis brtjfhf gy tiffshf
ntWghL milJsd.
Nafh jo
FWF btL njhw
m. ghuifkh
M. nfhyifkh
iyj Rf uL tifgL.
. uifkh
1. va Rf
2. TL Rf
va Rf
mik kW bra xJ
fhzgLw,
xnu
khahd
brfsh Md R va R vdgL.
J _W tifgL.
ghuifkh
ghuifkh
brf
bghJthf
brilbtfSl Toa bka
Rt bfhlit. it cUs
brfshF. it bghJthf jhtu
midJ cWfY fhzgL.
119
myF-6
ca
fhzgL. it bghJthf U
iy jhtu jo wnjhYF
nH
uL
myJ
mjF
nkgl mLFfshf fhzgL.
ntf J fhzgLtiy. J
iyfh kW ky fhY
fhzgLwJ. ghuifkhit nghW,
nfhyifkh xU cUs R
MF. nfhyifkh Ka g
cWia bfhLgJ kW s jL
nghw tsU cWfSF tis
jikia bfhLgjhF.
br
ilbt
ghuifkh
it Kil tot, nfhs tot,
brtf tot myJ cUis to
fhzgL. brRt brYnyh kW
bgo bghUfsh MdJ.
bghJthf
ghuifkh
brf
czit nrgY czbghUf
kW fk cfis flJtY
gfhWwd.
nfhyifkh
nfhyifkh brf FWFbtL
njhw gynfhzto fhzgL.
uifkh
J xU cuw R MF. brf
Rtfis bfhL joJ
fhzgL.
it
cWfSF
tikia bfhLwJ. J uL
tifahd brfis bgWsJ. mit
1) iuLf 2) ehf.
1) iuLf
iuLf vgit fbrf
MF. it bghJthf bfhilf
ciwfY, ngfh kW rnghlh
nghw
ff
rijgFY
fhzgLwd.
2) ehf
it l iHf MF. iHf
KGtJ va Ffis bgW
fhzgL.
fod ciw
a
thFnth
nfhyifkh
nkY t Rtf uw joig
bfhLsd.
mf
brYnyh,
bA-brYnyh
kW
bgo
bghUf go fhuzkhf j
jof VgLwd.
jof
brf
nfhzf
120
TL iyj Rf
iry
iry ClbghUf, kW
fk cf jhtu nkneh
flJt cj wd. J
nt, jL, iyf, kyf, ff
tna l brf izJ xnu
bjhlahd FHh nghw mik
fhzgLwJ. iry ehF tifahd
brfsh MdJ.
m) ouLf, M) iry FHhf,
. iry ehf, <) iry ghuifkh
brfS RfS
t
u
i
la
tuila F
irnlhshr
a
ouL
iry
FHh
iry ghuifkh
iry eh
m) ouLf
iry
Rl
izJ
fhzgL ghuifkhbrf iry
ghuifkh
vdgL.
iry
brf J kLnk cUsJ.
it czbghUfis lh kW
bfhG to nrwd. it
iu flJtY Jizwd.
M) iry FHhf
iryFHhf
Kidf
Jisfis bgW fhzgLwd.
xw J xwhf mikJ l
FHh nghw mik csd. it
Mnahbgf
iry
fhzgLwd. it , fk
cfis flJwd kW jhtu
clYF tikia bfhLwd.
~nsha
~nsha
cz
bghUfis
iyfUJ
jhtu
kw
gFfSF flJwJ. J ehF
tifahd brfsh MdJ.
m) ryil FHh TWf
M) Jiz brf
) iry ehf
) ~nsha ehf
myF-6
ca
~nsha
ghuifkh
Jiz br
ryil FHh
ryil jL
~nsha R
it ryil FHhf, ryil brf vd Utiffshf csd.
ryil brf blnlh~igL fY ndhbgfY csd. Mdh
ryil FHhf Mnahbgf csd.
M) Jiz brf
Jiz brf vgit bka Rt bfhl, l w tifahd ghuifkh
brf MF. it ryilFHh TWfSl izJ fhzgLwd.
it
irnlhshrij bjthd cfUit bfhLsd.
it
Mnahbgf cz bghUfis flJt ryil FHhfSF
cj wd.
) ~nsha ehf
~nsha
Rl izJ fhzgL uifkh ehf ~nsha
ehf vdgL. it gh ehf vW miHfgLwd. it jhtuF
TLj cWia jUwd. ~nsha ehF tif brf ~nsha
ehf kL cuwit.
brfS RfS
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLf
1. b
r Mw iya (gRff, a, iknlhfhah,
iynrhnrh).
2. thFnth ciw
nlhndhsh).
(brr,
r,
shkh
bykh,
- M
6. bfhLfgLs
ilaf.
glij
cW
neh,
fl
dhfSF
(M)
(m)
ii) _______________
iv) ______________
8. glij cW nehf.
(m)
(M)
myF-6
ca
9. mltizia uf.
Fnuhnkhnrh bga
Fnuhnkhnrh tot
bklh br
__________________
J tot Fnuhnkhnrh
mnuhbr
Onyh br
10. fl TWfis goJ mtiw U mikf.
-
11. m. flt ma fiybrhfis vGJf.
(M)
i) g
lij ghJ tiuJ m Kj tiu FfgLs
ghffis FLf.
ii) jo nghF tsF fhuzkhd gF vJ?
iii) ulh iy tsF fhuzkhd gF ahJ?
()
nkY ma
jff
1. Plant Physiology 2004 - Salisbury F.B and Ross C.W, Wadsworth
publishers.
2. Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution & Ecology - 2008
- Agarwal V.K and Verma P.S., S.Chand Publishers.
3. Life Science 1990 - Silver Burdett K Ginn Publications.
izajsf
http://www.sciencecentral.com
http://www.botany.org
124
myF
c -
nta RH
myF - 7
ca
7. c - nta RH
xU Mw Fj
iyahd
bjhFig
cUthFtjfhf,
c
nfhs
cUs
kW
cuw
gFbghUf
xnwhblhW iyahd ilbra
wd. cnfhs gntW
gFbghUfSilna eilbgW
bghUf kW Mw lkhw
jifa ilbra mlF.
cdfSF
mj
RWNHYF
ilna
cs
bjhlfisga ca
Niya vdgL.
midJ
cdfSF
fhg, t(iAu#), ct
(M#), ieu#, fjf, ghgu,
bghlha kW fha mf
ms njitgLwd. jifa
ClbghUfis
it
fhW
(thbt),
(nfhs) kW
k (ynfhs) MatUJ
bgWwd.
Niy
aikahj
cslaJ.
ts
kW
bgUffhf
cdfsh UJ bgwgL
Cl
_yTWf
c-
ntbghUf vdgL. j c ntbghUf cdfsh
gagLjgL,
mt
wj
clyf
kW
fbghUf
ijfgLbghGJ
RWw
lgLwd.
it
L
kWgaghL kW kWRH gF
bgWwd.
cuw NHYF (k, ghiw, fhW,
) cdfSF ilna eilbgW
_yTWf myJ gFbghUf
RH Xl c- nta RH
vdgL.
1. cuw gFbghUf ( aa
myJ cuw)
2. cUs
(cUsit)
gFbghUf
cuw gFbghUf
fhW, , k, x kW btgiy
Mait
RWNH
cuw
gFbghUf MF. vdnt, ekJ
RWNH cuw gFbghUf
eik midJ cdfis
gyjf
ghf
Kawd.
cdf ts, bgUf kW
iyUj Mat Ka
gF
twd.
gRjhtuf
xnrif tjF x, kW
fayth Kjad njitgLwd.
yFf cthH cz, kW
ct nghwit njitgLwd.
cUs gFbghUf
kj
cl
midJ
cdfS
RWNH
cUs
gFbghUf
ml
F. jhtufS yFfS xiw
bahW rhJsd.
xiwbahW rhUj vgJ
cdf cthH, ts kW
dbgUfF
xiw
xW
rhUF Kiw MF. cjhuzkhf
njf
mt
czfhf
kyf cs kfujfis
c - nta RH
ctid
thbt
btLwd. thW jhtufS
yFfS xiwbahW rhJsd.
7.2. RH
jhtuf kW yFfSF
ilnaahd ilbra
Ka e
kj
kW
yFfsh
Rthj
bghGJ
ct
vLJbfhsgL
fayth
btlgLwJ.
jhtuf
x nrif bghGJ j
faythit
vLJbfhL
RWNH
xU
Ka
gFbghU MF. J midJ
cdfSF f aikahj
xwhF. fbga njlfshf
(iyf)
sf
Toa
bgUflf UJ Mah
nkffis njhWwJ. kw
iyfshd MWf, Vf kW
Fsf UJ Mah
nkffis
njhWwd.
nkff cs uh F
milJ kiHahf bghwJ. kiH
MWf _ykhf brW W
fliy milwJ.
RH jhtuf kW yFf
_ykhf
eilbgW.
jhtuf
k myJ njff UJ
iu
c
mfgoahd
iu
uhngh
_y
uhahf
fh (tkly) nrwd.
kufsh btnawgL Rs
fhiw FubrJ mtiw RY
xU Fiwj btgiyia zg
gFbgWwJ.
yFf
njlfUJ
czl
nrJ iu vLJbfhwd.
it j iu Rthj _y uh
to tklynfh myJ f
f _y ut to knfh
U
mDwd.
ghof
mt clUJ iu ait
to btnaWwd.
cdf
w
kW
ijdhY
RWNHYl
nrfgLwJ.
uhnghF
kW Rthj clhd uh,
nkffis
njhWwd.
jhtuf kW yFf gagLJ
tif kiHahdJ iu k
nrwJ.
127
myF - 7
ca
Na
jh
tu
ti
ff
(Xi
U
lf
J
U
J)
k
U J
bgU
fl
U
J
uh
ngh
F
kiH nkff
nkf njhWj
Mahj
gothj
ji
un
CLUj
gu
t
go l
f
j gh
M
Jg
iw g j
uj
uj
y
jo
RH
bgUfl
nkY mJ bfhnth
e cl _ uL gF mlsJ.
nahf 97% bgUflf, 2% gKfLf(ice caps) kW 1%
yjo twh MdJ.
2
0 l od a 125,000,000 fhyf iu nH mD ( 1 fhy
vgJ 4.5 lUF rk).
7.3. ieu# RH
cdf uj kW
myfis jahf
njitahd
Ka fk ieu# MF.
tkly
78%
ieu#id
bfhoUjhY, mnkhah, mndh
myf myJ ienuLfshf
khwglhj tiu j ieu#id
cdf neuoahf gagL
bfhs
ayhJ.
kUJ
bgwgL j TLbghUf
Niy bjhF _y RH kW
kWRH milwd.
aa kW ca braf
_ykhf j mikf xUJ
kbwhwhf ilkhw milJ xU
Fl iyahd ms ieu#id
tkly iyUfbr
bra ieu# RH vdgL.
128
ieu# RH fl iyfis
cslaJ.
i) ieu# iyWjgLj
ii) ieu# jkakhj
iii) mnkhahthj
iv) ienulhj
v) ieu# btnaw
ieu# iyWjgLj
ieu#
iyWjgL
bghGJ, d fhuzkhf ieu#,
Mi[Lfshf
Mfuz
bragLwJ.
j
Mi[Lf
kiH fiuJ
gotfshwd.
ca
ieu#
iyWjgL
bghGJ mn[hnlhghl, iunrha
nghw
ieu#id
iyWJ
ghOaf kW ehlh nghw
ygRghf thiy ieu#id
c - nta RH
jhtu
cz
f f
w kW
yF
mGFj
w kW mGFj
mnkhah
ijgitf
j
th
h
a
h
k
n
m
ieu#
btnaw
ca iyghL
v
b
v ghU
j
tkly ieu#
ienulhj
k cs
ieu# Fs
aif ieu# RH
mnkhahthf ienuLfshf
khWwd.
ieu# jkakhj
jhtufsh vLJbfhsgl
ienuLf, uj kW
myf nghw fkbghUfis
jahf gagLwd. yFfsh
gagLjgL
jhtuujf
kW w ieu# TLbghUf
yd ujfshf khwgLwd.
mnkhahthj
yd ujf ah,
my
myJ
mnkhahthf
btnawgLwJ.
jhtuf
kW
yFf
wFbghGJ,
mt
ujf
ghOaf
kW irf braghodh
ijfgL mnkhahthf bt
nawgLwd. mnkhah cUthF
j f mnkhahthj vd
gL.
ienulhj
braKiwbghGJ ienuh
ghl
kW
ienuhnrhnkhdh
nghw kth ghOafdh
mnkhahthdJ ieiuLfshf
ienuLfshf khwgL, d
it jhtuf ntf _y
crgLwd.
ieu# btnaw
Nnlhnkhdh nghw kth
ghOaf k cs ienu
mafis
thieu#dhf
FiwJ tklyF U
mDwd.
ieu# RH gFbgW cf
braghL
cd bga
ieu#
iyWjgLj
mnkhahthj
ienulhj
ienuhnrhnkhdh kW ienuhghl
ieu# btnaw
Nnlhnkhdh
129
myF - 7
ca
7.4. fhg RH
RWNH f Kakhd
fk fhg MF. midJ
fk TLbghUfS fhgid
bfhLsd. fhg _W Ka
Mjhuf i) fhYs fay th
(CO2 ) kW flf fiuJs
fay th ii) nkgu
cs fhgnd ghiw kW iii) gok
vbghUfshd
yf
kW
bgnuha. x nrif vw f
_y
Mw
iyWjgLj
Ka fkkhf gFbgWtjh, J
Mw XlJl beUfkhf bjhl
bfhLsJ. fhg tkly
njhWthUJ
cgahsf,
Efnthf kW ijgitfSF
lbga milwJ.
tkly cs fayth
cd
cyfF
mjhtJ
gRjhtfSF
xnrif
_y
fhnghiAnuLf
(cz)
jahgjfhf
EiHwJ.
jhtu cfsh jhtu cz
vLJbfhsgL
d
a
kW
bga
CcfSF
mDggLwd.
xbthU
czliyY
Rthr braghLf faythit
iuthf tklyF U
mDwd. wj fkbghUf
ij, gok vbghUf vj kW
vkiy
braghLf
_ykhf
fayth
tklyF
UwJ.
xnrif
mGFj
tkly
fay th
Rthj
gRjhtuf
xnrif _y CO2 I
fkTLbghUfshf
fLwd.
fh
b
hj
tk
go
m
h
Rt
v
yFf jhtu
bghUfis
yF
Rfshf
khWj
f gila jhtuf
gotfshd yf,
bgnuha kW
aif th
fhg RH
nkY mJ bfhnth
fhg RH yho, fhg kWRH mila Koahk, cf cthH
Koahj is VgL.
130
c - nta RH
tkly
ct O2
fk _yTWf
C6 H12 O6
xnrif
Rthj
CO2
H 2O
ct RH
7.5 ct (M#) RH
midJ
cdfSF,
Rthf ct njitgLwJ.
ct xU gFbghU MF.
J tkly cs fh 20%
csJ.
Rthj _y ct cd
cyif
milwJ.
J
cz
bghUfis
Mfuzkila
brJ Mw kW fay thit
cg brwJ. bghUf vjY
ct gagLjgL fay th
cUthwJ.
xnrif bghGJ cz
jahf jhtuf faythit
gagL ctia btLwJ.
ct,
ieu#Dl
nrJ
ieu#
Mi[Lfis
njhWwJ.
j
ieu#
Mi[Lf mndhmy kW
uj cgfhf jhtufsh
vLJbfhsgLwd.
j
TLbghUf d va _y
TWfshf sfgL tkly
ctia btna, RWNH
xU rkiyia jf itwd.
131
myF - 7
ca
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLf.
- M
3. nH bfhLfgLs cdfis bfhL FiwjJ uL cz
rfis mikf.
(f, , , kh, e, Ka).
4. Kj iz cs bjhlid mJ, Lgl izfis uf.
i) ieu#id F ghOah
Nnlhnkdhdh
-
5. m. jhtufS yFfS xiw xW rhJsd.
i) j Tiw f VWbfhfsh?
ii) sf TWf.
M. c kW cuw bghUfis goaLf.
fhW, kh, , eh, kj, k, x, jhtu.
nkY ma
jf
Plant Ecology 2008 - Shukla R.S and Chandel P, S.Chand Publishers.
izajs
http://www.wisegeek.com
132
myF 8
khRghL
Xnrh ijtiljY
myF-8
ca
8. khRghL Xnrh
ijtiljY
nkY mJ bfhnth
fU Eiupu neh yf
Ruff
ntiybrgtf,
mFs
fhg
Jffis
Rthgjdh Eiupu Wneh
clhwJ.
tsJ tU iwa NH eh
Rjkhd
fhiwjh
Rth
nwhkh?
Rjkhd iu Fo
nwhkh? nfhil fhy VgL
fLikahd btgij eh jhf
Kokh vw nffSF g
vd? jfhd fhuzf vd?
jfhd fhuz khRgLjny MF.
khRgLj vgJ vd? J
kjdh
cUthdjh
myJ
aifah cUthdjh? jfhd
fhuzfS, isfS vd?
ghl jfhd ilfisfhd
Kanghkh?
tiuaiw
EJff vgJ fh jJ
bfhoUF W Jf todhyhd
f, R, bfhf, jhtuf
kfuj f, nghf, kW
EQf
MadthF.
EJffsh VgL khR kjDF
Rthr kly nfhshWfshd MJkh,
Eiupu nehf, uhj r nghw
nehfis cL gQwJ.
2. fhg nkhdhi[L
ijgot
vbghUf
rahf
vfglhjdh
fhg
nkhdhi[L
clhwJ.
J
uj M#id vLJbrY
wid FiwJ yFfSF F
iswJ.
gG w fhW
134
yf
kW
bgnuha
bghUfis
vFnghJ
it
cUthwd. iwj tabtf,
rJ yf nghw lfYs
k fhzgL EQf
btLwd.
nj
nghw
iAnuhfhgf fhW khRgLtjF
fhuzkhwd.
4. fjf ilMi[L
vbz
Rf
iyafUJ, fjf fyj
jhJfis tWF nghJ, fjf
ilMi[L tkly fywJ.
jhtuf
giraij
Hf
brwJ.
jhtuf Rf
mF fhuzkhwJ.
kj
MJkh nghw Eiupu nehfis
clhFwJ.
5. ieu# Mi[Lf
nghFtuJ ber Fj efu
fhW brgG wkhf khw fhudkhf
J sFwJ. J ja kW
Eiupu ghig VgLJwJ.
my kiH
rg ilMirL ieu# MirL
nghw ntbghUf mf ms
gagLJnghJ mit Mah nkny
brW kiH bgnghJ kiH nuhL
fyJ my kiHia njhWwJ.
my kiH fllf jikia,
jhtufis,
ydfis
bgUks ghwJ.
kiz
myjikilajhf khWwJ.
Rzhdh
flgl
ghugaf folf
ijj
k cs cdf
bfhygLtJ, Niy
kly ghfgLtJ
k my jik
milj
mykhj
H2SO3
H2SO4
my kiH
HNO3
H2CO3
HNO2
mykhj
folf mJ
nghj
mkhd
kj ey
bfLj
MWfS, FsfS
my jikailj
yjo
zhFj
ydf XLf
gyd milj
my jik fhuzkhf
th jhtuf, yFf
wj
135
myF-8
ca
btgLJ if oF
gHfij
bghJ
lf
fol jilbrayh.
5. Vuhskhd kufis bjhrhiy
tshffY, rhiy XufY
tsg _y fhW khRgLjiy
bgUksF Fiwfyh.
8.1.2. khRghL
Ugjfhj
bghUf
nrifah VgL aa,
nta
khwfdh
kj
th iu gagLj Koahj iy
VgLkh mjid khRgLj
vnwh.
my kiHah ghfgl iy
nkY mJ bfhnth
1984 org 2, 3 Ma ehf
nghgh Uj a fhigL
fbg cubjhrhiyUJ
btahd eRjik Fj MIC,
nj Inrh randL vw th
gyhufzfhd cfis g
thaJ.
D Vuhskhndh
Rthr,
eu
nfhshWfshY,
ja nfhshWfshY w Fiw
ghLfshY ghfgLsd.
khRgLjYF
Ka
fhuzfshf bjhrhiyfUJ
btnaW Rffglhj ff,
LfUJ btnaW ff,
vbz ff, trha kW
bjhrhiy
gFf
UJ
btnawgL
eR
bghUf
nghwit fhuzkhwd.
khRWjYfhd fhuzfS
mt isfS
fhW khRgLjiy
fLgLJtjfhd eltoiff
1. bjhrhiy ff
vbz nr
iya
bgnuh iya
uhnghF
Mahj
ji
ua
uh
jh
a
ik
KG
d
ah
ik
KG
gF
gF
2. nk k m
trha yfUJ btnaw
gL bfhf, urhad
cuf fyj kW uhkwf
fhzgL a bjhrhiyf
UJ btgL mff, mdff
TLbghUfS khRgLjYF
fhuzkhwd.
4. rhfil ff
LfUJ
btnawgL
rhfil
ff
mf
msF
mff
bghUfis,
olb#Lfis bfhoUwJ.
mff bghUf fhuzkhf
ClrJ
ms
mfwJ.
ClrJ mf fhuzkhf
jhtuf brJ tsJ
nkgu
KGtij
_LwJ.
j isthf ct ms
FiwwJ. J th yFf
wF fhuzkhwJ.
jid
nuhnf vg.
nkY mJ bfhnth
#gh dhlh gF 1952
dhlh neh vw xUj neh
fLofglJ.
jF Ka
fhuz mj gF mikJs xU
bjhrhiyUJ btnawgl
ghjur
ghOahfsh
ij
bkF vw erhf khWtnjahF. ij
cl fis kj cQnghJ
if, fhf, cjL kW kh Ma
gFf
czaW
nghd,
brLjik, ghitFiwghL,
kdiygh VglJ.
jF
dhlh neh vW bga.
3. vbz ff
vghuhj jkhf VgL gJf
fhuzkhf fj vbz fgf
kW vbz zWf VgL
ffdhY vbzahdJ fl
bfhlgL
fl
nkguig
mRjgLJwJ. j fhuzkhf
nkY mJ bfhnth
D.D.T.fhuzkhfiyfVgL
nt bgUf bkJthf xnth
iyY mfwJ. j D.D.T.
gwitf mlehsf Kil
cUthFnghJ cgahF fha
fhgndil jilbrJ njhKil
vdgL v cil jikila
bka
XLila
Kilf
cUthwd.
it
milfhF
fhyf cilJ dbgUf
jilbragLwJ.
Jehw
fyF
jik
tl goj
khRgLj is
mf
S
ahf
guj
137
ca
ct
jLghL
myF-8
ca
khRWjiy jLF Kiwf
1. bjhrhiy ffis iy
f LtjF K mtiw
Rf iyaf _ykhf
Rff ntL.
2. msF
mfkhf
ga
gLjgL bfhf,
fis
bfhf
kW
urhad cuf gaghil
fLgLj ntL.
3. Ff
bgUfij
fLgLj ca fLghil
gagLjyh.
4. rlgoahd eltoiffis nk
bfhL khRWjiy jLfyh.
5. kf k khRgLj g,
ikahd mta g
z VgLj ntL.
y
khRWjYF
Ka
fhuzfshf
kj
braghLf
mikwd.
f bghUf
nrif, isriy bgUFtjF
trhf
gagLJ
urhad
bghUf,
Ruf
bjh,
efu
kakhFj Mad jF fhuzkhF.
y khRWjYfhd fhuzfS
isfS
bjhrhiy ff kW fd
cnyhf ff, eRjik thj
mff,
mdff
TLbghUf
kW mQ ciyfUJ btnaW
fR jik bfhl ff,
yid khRgLJwJ. md
iyafUJ
btnawgL
EJff bfhl fly ash (gwF
rhg Jff)
kW mQFL
bto MatwhY y khRgLwJ.
Lff mf ms mff
bghUfis bfhoUgjh mit
mG knzhL nrwd.
vagL kUJtkid ff
fhzgL nehUf kjUF
fbga
msshd
if
iswJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
jiy rL gut
Rjkhd Foiu bgWtjF
Jnt rahd tahF. ml
mfkhd ut J mGjij
gagL
ml
mfkhd
gFYs iu J vLgjhF.
F Mw gagLjgLwJ.
j mik gagLjgL
rthdJ iu kL jDns
bry mDkF. lbghU
bry mDkgiy. vdnt J
fl UJ cig J e
bgWtjF jFj KiwahF.
bfhf,
fis
bfhf, fk cuf nghw
ntsh
ntbghUf
Foiu
khRgLJtJl
k
ntgig kh cfSF gh
VgLJwd.
y khRWjiy fLgLJj
8.1.3.y khRghL
kj braghLf fhuzkhf
k cg w FiwJ,
yjo jik khWtjh VgL
Ugjfhj
khwfis
y
khRgLj vnwh.
138
eltoif
VgLj
y
bghUfis
M#
Kiy vfntL. ntW
y bghUfis M# mw
Niy vfntL.
a kufWfis eL, k
mkhdij jLJ k tsij
nkgLjyh.
mQ FL btoj
nkY mJ bfhnth
uZah
brndh
mQ
ciy gJ cyf ms Vgl
mQ ciy gJf f
nkhrkhdJ. kuzij clhf
Toa
mQff
bttJ
tklyij ghjJ. brndh
gF thj kf #gh
nuhkh gF kfis l mf
ms ghfgld.
jhf
wj FHijf Fiwl wjd.
D gy ijuhL Wnehah
ghfgld.
mQfU ciy
faf bghUfshd nuoa,
njha,
nua
nghwt
gaghlh fhW, , y Mait
khRgLwd.
tif faf
bghUf nuhlhf, vyuhf
Matiw btgLJwJ.
isf
f
af
cdf
khwij JLwJ.
2. faf ff ghJfhghd
Kiwf mwgLj ntL.
luha 90 vYf goJ
vY Wnehia njhWwJ.
m
naho - 131 vY ki#,
ku,
z
KoR
Maitfis
jh
uj
WnehF fhuzkhwJ.
4. fLghLl
mQFL
nrhjidfis fj ntL.
139
myF-8
ca
8.1.5. x khRghL
kjDF
w
cfSF
CW isF Ugjfhj mf
xia x khRWj (x iur)
vg. x msit blg vD
ms mslyh. 120 dbF nkgL
xdh kjDF F iswJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
gGJghg
_y
x
msit fLgLjyh.
x
bgUf gaghL, glhR
btoj
nghwtiw
fLgLJt _y x khir
bgUksF Fiwfyh. mf
Xirdh
VgL
id
kfSF vLJiuF jkhf
z
urhufis
nkbfhsyh.
b# Mfha khd
- 145 db
efu nghFtuJ
- 90 db
nkY mJ bfhnth
Jilgh
- 85 db
rhjhuzkhf ngRj
- 60 db
x_yf
bjhrhiy aF vuf,
nkhlh thfdf, u kW
khdfsh clhF x, xbgUF
rhjdf, fLkhd auf, L
cgnahf bghUf, glhR btoj
nghwit x khRgLj Ka
fhufshF.
t 1974 ML ghJfh
rl, 1980 ML tdrl, 1981
tUl fhW ghJfh rl, 1986
ML RWw NH ghJfh
rl, 1988 tUl nkhlh thfd
rl Mad Fl jFjit
MF.
ghf
8.2. btgkakhj
mf ms VgL xahdJ
uj ehsfis RUf brJ
jaJoig, _R Ljiy
(Rthrij)
ghF.
jiyt,
fik,
vr
nghwit
VgL kj Mf brafis
FiwF. 130 dbF nk clhF
xdh
brgiu,
cbr
kiHf ghfgL jfhf,
uju fhJnfshjik VgL. x
khRWjdh
g
khztf
ftdij VgL.
x khRWjiy fLgLJ tf
1. rhiy
Xuf
kufis
tsg _y x msit
Fiwf aY.
2. aufis,
thfdfis
nkhlh
Kiwahf
140
gkiy cUFj
btgij, U mD
mft
ffis,
c
d mtiw ugwJ. j
fhuzkhf thf xU fzho
o fzhof vgo btgij
btna
lhk
jf
itJ
bfhwdnth mthnw btgij
jf
itJ
btgij
mfwJ.
8.2.1. gRik y is
fhW
kly
cs
y
thf Na btgij c
mgona jfitJ bfhtjh,
btgiy cawJ. jF
gRik y is vW bga. jF
fhuzkhd thfis gRik y
thf vd TWwh. fhgil
Mi[L, nj, ieu Mi[L,
FnshnuhSnuhfhg nghw thf
gRik y
gRik y
gRik
y
vgJ
mf
btgiy tsU wDila gRik
jhtuf tsfhf fzhoah
cUthfgLs xU L nghw
mik.
btgkilj
g cUFj
fl kl caj
jhtuf
VgL khWghL
ghiytd
cUthj
fiunahu bts
JUtij neh
fhLf tyir nghj
kiHbgh VgL
khWghL
fl Xj
iy fhLf
twL nghj
141
nkhrkhd fhy
iy
gtifff
VgL khWghL
myF-8
ca
gRik y thf
fhg il Mi[L
thf
Kakhf
CO2
jh mf ms ljl 31%
msF fhzgLwJ.
ijgot
bghUfis vj, tdf mj,
yFf Rthj, vkiy btoj
fkbghUf
k
mGFj
nghw fhuzfsh CO2 btgL
thklyij milwJ.
nj
Figf
fhzgL
fk
ff mGF nghJ fheilf
czbghUf brF nghJ, CH4
th cgahwJ.
ieu# Mi[L
ij gok vj, bjhrhiyf
bragLj, cGj nghw ntsh
braghLf Matwh ieu
Mi[L btahwJ.
Fnshnuhnshnuh fhg
Frhjd bgof, Ffyf,
fiughf
Mat
Fghdhf gagLjgLwJ.
btgkakhj isf
f
l btgkiltjh kl
caU, ciw gfof cU
fl klij nkY caJ.
a
fhuzkhf
cy
gyehLf gy gFf uh
_fofgL.
btgkilj fhuzkhf fhy
iy
fbga
vghuhj
142
nkY mJ bfhnth
v ndh is:- btgkhj
fhuzkhf HF kW ka
g flgFf fhyiy
VglToa X xGfw fhyiy
khwij v ndhis vnwh.
tifahd
v ndhisf
Kfhy vnghjhtJ is
X ma isthf UjJ. Mdh
jnghJ
J
f
mfkhf,
ukhf VgL xU iyahd
khwkhf khlJ.
Mw nr sFf
rhjhuz sFfisl Mw
nr sFf Fiwjms
btrij
jjhY
iy
mfUjhY btgij Fiwthf
btna dhFtiy.
Xnrh
cUthfgL
ms,
ijfgL ms rkkhf Ugjh
thdbt
Xnrh
bkhj
ms iyahf UF. jtWjyhf
kj jfhy braghLf midJ
aif rkghil khlJ.
braghL
Xnrh
glyij
bkajh csJ (Xnrh bghj).
uhnlha
Xnrh
ms
Fiwtij Xnrh gly ij vd
TWnwh.
fhuzf
th
kly
cUthF
Fnsh
kW
nuh
TL
bghUfshjh j Xnrh bghj
VgL bfhoUwJ. bghJthd
Xnrh
Fiw
bghUfshd
FnshnuhSnuhfhgf,
ij
nuhikL,
ieu#
MirLf
nghw
bghUf
Frhjd
bgof,
F%of,
Eiu
bghUf, bjhrhiy fiughf
MatUJ
Vuhskh
btnawgLwd. Jnt Xnrh
bghjYF fhuzkhF.
isf
1. kjDF njh w Wnehf,
fiu neh, nehjilfis
gh nghwit VgLwJ.
2. jhtuf isriy ghJ
cgia FiwF.
3. w Cjh ff jhf :
jhtu jit cf m,
FRf, W yhthf
Matiw ghF.
myF-8
ca
jLj
Xnrh gly HF fhuzkh
UF, bghUf cg, gaghL
kW thkly btnaw
Mait Fiwfgl ntL.
nt
bghUfis
kW
RH <LgLj ntL. Na
ffUJ
jfhJ
bfhs
ntL.
aa, nta kW ca
khwf VgL cf bgUksF
ghfgLwd.
vbz
f fhuzkhf fl nkgu
Fljf msF X fUgly
VgLwJ.
thW VgLw
vbz gly fl ghFiy
(Viscosity) ghfgL yFf
lbgaU jik ghfgLwJ.
vbz ff nkny
jgjh Na x CLU
jik FiwJ flth jhtufS,
jhtu
jitfS
xnrif
bra Koahk ghFshwJ.
flth
jhtu
cgahsf
ghfgLtdh
flth
cdf midJ ghfgLwJ.
th
gwitf
wFf
vbz fdh ghfgLtjh,
mitfsh wgl gwf Kotiy.
jdh mitfis bfhW Q
yFfl
khobfhwd.
gwitf
mitf
wFfis
mydh njFnghJ vbz
cbrwJ. J Wuf gh,
fu gh, tsij khw
FiwghL MatF tnfhYwJ.
vD yJ vbz
gly gotjh mj cl btgiy
FiwwJ.
frh
vbzUJ
bttU bg, blhY nghw
iAnuh fhg Mf WnehF
fhuzkhwd.
nkY jdh jiyRw, jiyt,
th, jaJo mfkhj kW
gwhFiw nghwit VgL.
tiff
csd.
xU
ghJfhgw
iy
vbz
fit
mfw
gagLJ ca Kiw
Mnlhnkhdh ghOahf gF
msgajhF.
Dr. Mdj nkhf
rug
vgt
Nnlhnkhdh
ghOahit ku bgha _y
kh vbz fit mfWtjF
gagLj Ko vd fljh.
bknfh tisFlh
fj viz f
Nnlhnkhdh ghoah
rg fj vbz f
bknfh tisFlh gF fj
vbz f cyfs Vgl
bga vbz fthF. J fl
mokl cs vbz zWf
btoj VglJ.
vbz
f Rkh 2500 rJu ik msF
guJ flgF fbga mit
VgLaJ.
vbz f
fhuzkhf flth cfS, o
Jiw, RWyh Jiw f bga
ms ghfgLsJ. M#
Fiw kW bgnuha bghUf
eRjik
fhuzkhf
bknfh
gF cs 400F nkgl d
RWNH ghJfh
jdht bjhL Wtdf
C.P.R. RWNH f ika,
brid.
J
bghJkfl
RWw
nfofhd
zit
f
bgUks VgLJwJ. Wtdkhd
RWNH rkjgl rlfis
cUthFtjF RWNH thf
fF,
RWwNH
ga
z
cL
gQtjF
bgUks cj tUwJ. Jf
ty Mw cgfSF, mj
KndwF bgJ ghLgLw J.
145
myF-8
ca
brid aif Mtyf fHf
kL
- m
1. glhRfis btogJ, xbgUfis u neuf gagLj jil
bragL UwJ. x khRgLtdh VgL U a isffs FL.
2. ehis idL tif 10.10.10 mW u 10 kas sFf
KGikahf mizfgld. j bghU Tw.
- M
A
gof vbghU, fhg
nkhdhi[L, uj
B
fjf oiu Mi[L,
my kiH,
id df
mfgLj
C
gh Na x
clhF fU_l
ghit w
3.
m) nkny Twgl flf bghJthf fhzgLtJ vJ?
M) gh - Na x clhF fU_l ijnghW U izfis
cUthF.
) fl A, B cs fUJfis izJ xU a F vGJ.
4. iyf rhfil fygdh mfUK nuhnfrD VgLwJ.
J vthW iyf Niy klyij ghwJ.
5. x khRgLjdh VgL a isfsh sF Rtbuhof ghfgl
U nfh thafis (Slogan) jahf.
6. btgkiltjh gUtiy Vuhskhd khwf ftij cznwh.
mt UkhWghLfis FLf.
146
-
8. Na Mw, uhw kW fl miy Mw Mait kurhuh Mw _
yfshF. khRgLjiy Fiwg t gF g F tiuf.
9. vbz fgf gJfshY, vbz tsfis M brtjhY
fl vbz f mofo VgLwd. jdh flth cdfSF
VgL isfisg F tiuf.
nkY ma
jff
1. Elements of Ecology - Clarke G.L., John wiley & sons, Newyork.
2. Fundamentals of Ecology - O
dum E.P., W.B.Saunders Company,
Philadelphia.
izajsf
http://www.ecology.com
http://www.nationalgeographic.com
147
myF-8
ca
y jhtuf kW yFf ma bga,
bghJthd bga kW j bga
t.
v
ma bga
bghJthd
bga
j bga
1.
uhfh Xynuah
Cabbage
KilnfhR
2.
irakh
blunfhndhnyhgh
Cluster bean
bfhjtiu
3.
muh iAnghah
Ground nut
yfliy
4.
xiurh rilth
Rice (Paddy)
be
5.
thbryh %uh
Spinach
griyiu
6.
Fnuhlnyah #ah
Sunn-hemp
rzig
7.
Ifhah uhbg
Water hyacinth
Mfhajhkiu
8.
oof tnf
Wheat
nfhJik
9.
ng ghrhdh
Balsam
fhJig
10.
cFnyah ghtyhl
Bladderwort
cFnyah
11.
bfhahu rilt
Coriander
bfhJk
12.
luh[hf m~nd
Dandelion
nllah
13.
fFlh ~bs[h
Dodder plant
mikah Tj (myJ)
rljh
14.
khndhnuhgh ~nshuh
Indian pipe
ifiy fhsh
15.
mfhf nfg
Mushroom
ehFil
16.
ma gh
Onion
btfha
17.
begj fhahdh
Pitcher plant
r jhtu
18.
brhyhd ognuhr
Potato
cUisHF
19.
Fnuhf rilt
Saffron
FFk
20.
ouhuh gkhia
Sundew plant
vW
(NagJ jhtu)
21.
iknkhrh ofh
Touch-me-not plant
(Sensitive plant)
bjhlhRU
(bjhlhQ)
22.
mgh nuhoa
Amoeba
mgh
23.
ghua fhnll
Paramoecium
ghua
24.
iAouh tnf
Hydra
iAouh
25.
xah b#Fnylh
Jelly fish
behF
26.
bgsndlh mbkfhdh
Cockroach
fugh
27.
crndah ghuh~o
28.
igyh Fnshnghrh
snail
e eij
29.
ybkl ybkl
Freshwater mussel
e ko
30.
Moa %bg
Star fish
eru
31.
eh#h eh#h
Cobra
ey gh
32.
ghnth iulhl
Peacock
33.
ilnlh Mgh
Own
Mij
ahidfh nehU
148
tlhu
bga
vd?
myF 9
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
myF-9
nta
1. aa iy mogil
k, k, kW th vd
k
kf tiuaWfgl totij
bgUgiy. mit itfgLs
fy totijna bgWsd. it
Fljf fdms cilait.
jkhd mGjjh RUf ayh
jik cilait. btggLJ nghJ
kfis l mf ms tilJ
th
iyF
khwkilwd.
t ml kfis l
Fiw.
gUbghUf aa iyf
k
midJ kfS tiuaWf
gl
totij,
fdmsit
bgWsd; btgiyia bghWJ xU
k tot khwkiltiy.
mf mGj iyY RUf ayh
jikia bgWsd. bghJthf mf
mlia, btgjh jsnt
th
thfS
k
150
t i u a W fgl
th
eik Rs gUbghUf
midJ ikahditah?
gUbghUfis
tifgLjyh
tUkhW
x
nu tif gF bghUf mla
a bghU.
uL myJ mjF nkgl Jha
bghUf fyit.
a bghU x aig, mj
gf kW ia Mat
_y zfyh.
w, kz, ml, cUFiy,
bfhiy
Ma
gf
xU
bghU
aa
gfshf
fUjgLwd. xU bghU ia
khwhj iy, mj aa
gf msjagLwd.
ntid fGnghJ xU bghU
ia khwkilwJ. rhwhf, th
iy cs jkfshd iAu#,
M#Dl izJ vw
nrkij cUthFwJ.
iAu# + M#
thgho
iAu#D
M#D
l
bgUjhY,
iAu#, M# Mat
gfUJ gf KY
ntWgLwd. eh mwhl th
vbfhS bghUfshd RthF
fhW, fhfSF gagLjgL
vbghUf Mait mayh
fUJgo ikahf iy.
xU bghU ikaw iy
fygl iy xwy. ikaw
iy vgJ fygl iyUJ
ntWgLwJ. mayhf fUJgo,
ik vgJ xnu xU gF bghUis
kL
bfhLs
bghUis
FgjhF.
ikahd
bghU
vgJ
jjik bfhl gUbghUis
cslajhF.
aiy cs xU bghU,
midJ iyfY xnu jkhd
gfis bgUF.
9.1. fyitf
a
midtUF
bjj
xU a bghUSF rhwhF.
a midJ khfS xnu
bfhiyia bgUF. Mdh
fl xU a bghU my. Vbd
fl c kW gy bghUf
fiuJsd.
thW xnu tifahd Jffis
bfhLs
bghUf ikahd
iyYs bghUfshF. Mdh
xWF nkgl tifahd Jffis
(m)
(M)
()
(<)
m) jkYs mQf M) jk _yTWf ) nrk_yTWf
<) mQ, jk, kW nrk - fyit
151
myF-9
nta
bfhLs fl , jhJf, k
nghw bghUf fyitahF.
jkf
VnjD
xU
j
mogil
aghf
fyJsitna
fyitahF.
abghUf VJ cUthtiy.
bra 9.1
tU bghUfis jk,
fyit, nrk vd tifgLJf.
(i) ik
(ii) bg
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU
bghU
ajik
mj
aa
gfUJ
magLwJ. rhwhf tkly
mGj,
bfhiy
1000C,
ciwiy 0oC, ml 1.0 /br.3
bfhl wkw, kzkw, Ritaw
k vgJ a MF,
xU ikahd bghU jk
iynyh,
nrk
iynyh
Ufyh.
9.2. fyitf gf
fyitF
nrkF
cs
ntWghil
bjJ
bfhs,
U kW rg mla
fyitia
rhwhf
fUJnth.
F US rgU nrJ
fyitia cUthFwJ.
fyit
gf,
m
mls gF bghUf g
fisna bgWsd. vLJfhlhf,
U,
rg
nrj
fyit
gf
U
kW
rg
gfis bgWsd. fyit
mU fhjij itF nghJ,
U fhjjh ftugLwJ.
fyitia vL nghJ rg
vJ
rgilMirL
ththf
khWwJ. U kW rg
tilnaahd
ntidia
fUJf.
152
lJ - rg kW U
tyJ - bgurigL
bra 9.2
xU fh z fhg
rngL, kbwhU
z
nrhoa FnshiuL kW fhg
rng cfS itfgLsd.
Jhikahd
bghU
kW
fyitia flf.
KbghU fyitf
- t
_W gF bghUf csd.
lj (myJ) khwh j
U bghU fyitf - it uL
gF bghUfis cslaJ.
xU
a nrk, vKiw
jahfglhY,
m
cs
jkf xU Fl khwh iw
jjh ToUF.
fyit tiff
vLJfhLf
k k
ehzaf,
cnyhffyitf
k k
fl
th k
if (fhYs
fhg Jff)
k k
urfyit
k k
Ul MfAh
fyj fyit
k th
thth gu
ftugl f
k th
nrhlh ghdf
th th
fhW
bra 9.4
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU fzho Ftis
gfofSl
Toa
gHrhW itfgLsJ.
vjid gUbghU
iyikf csd?
f gagLJ bg
cs vGJ gFahd uhig
fhgD, fkQ fyj fyit
MF.
nH FlgLs fhuzf
mogil xU nrkkhF.
xUgojhd ailaJ.
bfhiy, ciwiy kW
ml
nghw
agf
xU Fl khwh kfis
bgWsJ.
153
myF-9
nta
gf m mls
gF bghUfshd iAu#
kW M# gfUJ
ntWgLwd.
xU Fl khwh iw
jij bgWsJ. cs
jkfshd H kW O iw j
1 : 8 MF.
fhW xU fyitah?
nrkkh?
myJ
nH FlgLs fhuzfsh
fhW xU fyitahF
fhW
khwh
iaid
bgUgiy. lF l mj
ia khwkilwJ.
xU Fl l cs fh
iaig ngh, m mls
TWfis mnj j fyJ
braifahf
fhiw
cUthf
aY. mthW
cUthF nghJ
Mw khw vJ ftiy.
k fhiw d thiy toj
nghw aa KiwF cgL
fh cs TWfis jjna
f aY.
kfhW
xU
Fl
bfhiyia bgUgiy, k
fhW -196 O C Kj -183O C btgiy
viyF bfhwJ.
fhW xU nrkkhf UFkhdh,
UJ
btnawgL
fhW, eik
NJs fhW
ia ntWglTlhJ.
Mdh
RthjnghJ, bttU fh,
rhjhuz
fh
Ugij
l
M# ms Fiwthf csJ.
bra 9.5
tUtdtiw fyit kW nrk vd tifgLJf.
i) cnyhf fyitf ii) if iii) gHrhW iv) gh (v) fh (vi) rhjhuz c
(vii) fhgil Mi[L (viii) g T (Ice Cream)
cGfgL RthrfhW
btlgL RthrfhW
78 % ieu#
78 % ieu#
20 % M#
16 % M#
0.03% fhgilMi[L
4 % fhgilMi[L
f js <ugj
Fljf ms <ugj
fhia
th
ieu#
M#
Mfh
fhgil Mi[L
ah
a
bra 9.6
M vgJ jiytia
Fzkhf
cj
kUjhF.
vKiw jahfglhY
60% fhgD,
4.5%iAu#D,
35.5%M#D iw rjj
mlUF.
iw rjj
75.50 %
23.20 %
1.0 %
0.046 %
fFiw
f Fiw
M xU fyitah? nrkkh?
154
nrk
jkf
VnjD
xU
j
mogil aghf fyJsd.
a bghU vJ cUthtiy.
jkf Fl j mogil
nta Kiw izJ a
nrkij cUthFwd,
fyit,
iyahd
cUFiy,
bfhiy kW ml Ma
gfis bgUgiy.
nrkf,
bfhiy
bgWsd.
fyit
gf
m
mls gF bghUf
gfis xJsd.
nrk gf m mls
gF bghUfsha jkf
gfUJ ntWgLwd.
tofLj,
fhjjh
j
nghw aa Kiwf _y xU
fyit cs gF bghUfis
jjna f aY.
aa Kiw _y xU nrk
cs jkfis jjna f
ayhJ.
iyahd
kW
cUFiy,
mlia
bra 9.7
FLst aa kW nta khwf vit? vgij
FLf.
i) U JUoj ii) gfo cUFj iii) ij KisJ broahf tsj
iv) cnyhf mYaij jflhf khWj v) bkGFt vj
miHfgLwd. _W tifahd
xUgojhd fyitf csd.
k iyikyhd xUgojhd
fyit - cnyhf fyitf
k iyikyhd xUgojhd
fyit - fyj MfAh
th iyikyhd
fyit - fhW
xnu xU
aa iyikia
(phase) bfhLs fyit xUgojhd
fyit MF. xU Fl xUgojhd
fyit, xnu tifahd gid
bgUF. btntW xUgojhd
fyitf, gf ntWgLwd.
xUgojhd fyitf fiurf vW
c
fiur
155
ml
Fj
nj
xUgojhd
ml
Fiwj
nj
myF-9
nta
bra 9.8
bra 9.9
Ul xU J ik
fyfgLwJ. J
xUgojhd fyitahf
khWkh?
myJ gygojhd
fyitahf khWkh?
fhg
rng
c
fiufgl fiur xU f
vLJ
bfhsgLsJ.
fyit xUgojhd fyitah?
gygojhd fyitah? fhuz TWf.
bra 9.10
xUgojhd kW gygojhd
fyit vd tifgLJf.
i) nj ii) ik iii) gHf
fyit ( Fruit Salad ) iv) rfiu
fiur
- if fyj fhW
gUbghU tifgLJj -
sf tiugl
gUbghU
a bghUf
fyitf
khWgL ia.
aa Kiwf v
bjLf aY.
aa iy khf iy.
xUgojhd fyit
khwhj ia.
aa Kiwf v f
ayhJ.
Fl aa khf csd.
gygojhd fyit
xU fyit
f
yit KGtJ
ntWgL
khwhj iaf.
iaf.
gF
bghUfis
gF bghUfis
ja ayhJ.
jayh.
156
jkf
x
nu tifahd
mQfis
bgwit.
nrkf
uL myJ
nkgl
jkf
Fl iw
j csd.
5. d : xWl xW fythj
U utf mla fyit
UJ mtiw
jjahf
bjLj.
6. gjfkhj : uL kf
mla fyitUJ gjfkhF
aila
kij
kL
bjLj
7. wgF Kiw : gu ftugL
jik ntWgL bghUfis
bjLj.
bra 9.11
x
U f rkms rhjhuz
cig ikjh khit vLJ
bfhf.
jhJf UJ cnyhffis,
mnyhffis
bjLg
Rufbjh KagF twJ.
m
Jl iu nrJ
eF fyFf. kh
c Ul VgL
fiuwfis
ftf.
J neu kh,
f moghf gotij
ftf. U bghUfis
j
jna
gjF
bghUjkhd Kiw xid
FLf.
myF-9
nta
isthf k bghU th iyF
khw milwJ.
rhjhuz
c
mnkha
FnshiuL c fyj fyitia
fUJnth. uL kiy
cf MF. rhjhuzc btgjh
v
MahF
agwJ.
mjhtJ
gjfkhF
jikawJ.
mnkhaFnshiuL c gjfkhF
ailaJ.
vdnt
gjfkhj
Kiw
mnkhaFnshiuil,
rhjhuz cUJ bjLfyh.
2
1. k _yTWf
Mahj
2. mnaho goff
Mahj
bra 9.12
x
U fh z rhjhuz
c kW fu fyj fyitia
vLJ bfhf.
fh zij jh
WJf.
3. cy gfo gjfkhj
(fhg il MirL gfo
tot)
fh z J xU
diy jiyHhf fJ
itf.
gR
d jL ghf wid
gdh milf.
jiy Hhf
fJ
itfgl
d
mnkha
FnshiuL goff
F VgL aa khwij
flf.
mnkha
FnshiuL M
nkY mJ bfhnth
gjfkhF
kfshtd
rhjhuz c
mnkha FnshiuL
fyit
a i la
fu
ehj
bgrh my
mnaho
mnkha FnshiuL.
158
d
kbziz
milgh
9.4.3 xWl
xW
fyF
aila kf mla
fyitia bjLj
xWl xW fyF aila
kf
mla
fyit
UJ mkfis jjna
bjLf
bghUjkhd
Kiw
d
thiytoj
MF.
Kiw mogil jJt, U
kf bfhiyf FiwjJ
25oC btgiyyhtJ ntWgoUf
ntL'' vgjhF.
4
1
kbziz, U
fyj
fyitia fUJnth. it uL
xWl kbwhW fythj kf.
vdnt d cjah kfis
f aY. ml Fiwj k
nk mLY, ml mfkhd k
mLYkhf wJ.
bra 9.13
k
bziz U fyj
fyitia vLJ bfhf.
fyitia d CWf.
d
thgFia
milghdh _oLf.
10 lf fyitia eF
FYLf.
15 lf jh diy
WLf.
kfilna
VgL
khwij flf.
nk mLF kW mLF
kfis ftf.
U mLFf njhWtj
fhd jJtij FLf.
6
7
3
5
1. TFLit
2. bg, blhY fyit
3. r vFHh
4. Fgh
5. Fgh cns Fj brYj
6. FghUJ Fj btnaWj
7.thiy to k
8.btgiykh
b
g kW blhY Ma
U kf mla fyitia
fUJnth.
U kfS xWl xW
fyF ailait.
d
thiytoj
Kiw
U kfis jjna
fyh.
bg k bfhiy 353 K
blhY k bfhiy 384 K
U
kf
bfhiy
ntWghL 31 K MF.
159
myF-9
nta
bra 9.14
t
hiy toF FLit, MfAh kW Ma kfis vLJ
bfhf.
th gF xU btgiykhia bghUJf.
gf FHhl xU Fghid izf.
fyitia eF btggLJf.
M
fAh Kj Mah btnaWwJ. Fghdh MfAh
Mia FJ kkhf nrff.
FLit kLnk vUgij fhf.
iy
v
M
v
xU iy csjh?
gygojhd fyit
xUgojhd fyit
iy
v
M
v
khWgl iaig
bgWsjh?
iy
v
abghU
M
v
va bghUshf f aYkh?
jk
nrk
160
xUgojhd
fyit (fiur)
th th
M) fl
k k.
) Fghd
k th
<) ur fyit
k k
5) g
UbghUfYs gFbghUfis gntW tifahd Kiwf
ikgLjgLwd. k fhiw __________ vw aa KiwF
cgL f Ko. (d thiy toj, thiy toj, gjfkhj)
6)
U JUoj vgJ nta khw. J nghW gfo cUFj
vgJ __________ vdyh (aa khw, nta khw).
- M
7)
a bghU xnu khahd Jffis bgUF. fl vgJ a bghUsh?
iyah? - fhuz TWf.
8) n
rk vgJ uL myJ mjF nkgl jkf, khwhj iw j
fyJs bghU MF. nrk gf uoid TWf.
9) x
nu xU iyikia bgw fyit xU gojhd fyitahF. xWF nkgl
iyikia bgWsJ gygojhd fyit MF. nkfl TWfis eF
J tifF X cjhuz vGJf.
10)
l iy cs fuij fhWgLgo itjh mJ th iyF
khLwJ. J xU aa khw. khw bgaiu TWf. cfSF
bjj cjhuz xW TWf.
11) m) k
bziz U fyj fyitia f __________ Kiw cjwJ.
(thiy toj, d)
M) r
hjhuz c mnkha FnshiuL fyj fyitia f __________
cjwJ (gjfkhj, wgF Kiw).
161
myF-9
nta
12) A
vw k bfhiy 353K. B vw k bfhiy 384K. it
uL xWl xW fyF jik cilait. it uil d
thiy toj'' Kiw fyh. kfis f Kiwia ifahs
fhuz TWf.
-
13. fyit jkf VnjD xU j mogil fyJsd.
m) fyit, nrkUJ vthW ntWgLwJ?
M) fyit tiff ahit?
) xbthU tifF X vLJfhL jUf.
14. m
l cs midJ bghUfS _W iyf csd. mit k,
k, th MF.
m) k bghU tiuaWfgl totij bgUf fhuz TWf.
M) k bghU gf uoid TWf.
) xU kbghUis Nnldh til. V?
nkY ma
jf
General Chemistry (Second Edition) - Jean B.Umland & Jon M.Bellama
izajs
http://www.tutorvista.com
162
myF 10
mQ mik
myF-10
nta
nkY mJ bfhnth
UjnghL braghL
xU bka cnyhf jfo J
Mgh ffis Hbr nghJ VgL
khwfis UjnghL M brjh.
vd UjnghL
(1871-1937)
vd UjnghL
vD
oZ
aayh
Mgh
Jffis gagL
faf M _y
mQfis ga M <Lglh.
UjnghL ``mQfU aa
jij
vd
miHfglh.
mQmik Muhfhf 1908M
ML nehg gid bgwh.
M
gh Jff vgit A&a
maf He2+.
xU Mgh Jf iw, X
vyuh iwiangh 8000
klF mf.
Mgh Jff irntf
VwFiwa 2 x 10 7 /beho.
brYjglJ. bgUghyhd Mgh
Jff jfoD nenfhL ghij
CLU brwd. y Mgh Jff
ruhrahf 900
nfhz yf
miljd. f mjhf 20000 Jff
xW kL cnyhf mQfU J gL
1800 nfhz yf miljJ.
j
MUJ,
mQ
ikagF
a
cUts
mf ne Rikila cfU
lbgWsJ vd fljh.
1
4.5 x 10-5 br. jok cs bka
2
jfjfo Cnl, MghJffiw
3
1. CLU brYj
4
2. Xus yf miljit
Mgh Jf
3. mf ms yf miljit
fiw
4. 1800 nfhz ms Ugglit
mQ mik
10.3. %jnghL mQbfhif
bra 10.1
%jnghL bfhifgo,
%jnghL M,
X mQ fa ml
mfKs
neRik
bfhl
mQfU
csJ.
mQ
bgUgFahd
btl
mQfUit
R
vyuhf
l bgWsd. j vyuhf
mQfUit R ntfkhf efUtjh,
it mQ bgUghyhd fdmsit
Muwd. j vyuhf
mQfUit Rs ilbt
mntf aFwd.
1) bgUghyhd Mgh ff vj
gh cnyhfjfil
CLU brwjF fhuz ahJ?
2) xU y Mgh Jff kL
yf miljjF fhuz ahJ?
3) mQ
cUtsnthL
xLif,
mQfU
cUts ajh? bgajh?
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU Eh xU Kid fiy
fo, jid R mfiw
xU Wt RWtjhf fUJnth.
f ntfkhf RwgL nghJ, mf
fdmsit
f
Mugij
fhzyh. Jngh mQfUit
R
vyuhf
ntfkhf
aFnghJ mit mf fdmsit
Muwd.
cfU
vyuhf
10.3.1 tuf
fhj bfhifgo, ntfkhf
a
bfhoUF
vyuh
bjhlJ Mwiy Hf ntL.
thW Mwiy Hgjh, vyuh
mQfUit RtU ghij RU
W mQfUD H ntL.
thW fjh mQ mj iy
jikia Hf neL. Mdh mQ
iy jik cilaJ. jdh
%jnghL bfhif mQ iy
jikia sf ayiy.
ngh (1885-1962)
blkh
cs
nfhg
nAf ngh 1885 M ML
mnlhg 7M nj wjh. t
xU wj fhgJ uU Mth.
khbrl
gfiyfHf
UjnghLl
gahdh.
ngh bfhif, ed aayhd
Fthl bfhifF mogilahf
mikjJ. 1922 aaYfhd
nehggir bgwh.
cfU
vyuh
165
myF-10
nta
10.4. ngh mQbfhif
%jnghL
mQkh
Ujf nkbfhL, ngh
a
mQkh
bfhiffis
cUthdh.
X mQ vyuh iyahd
tlghij mQfUit R
tUwd.
tl
ghijf
MLf myJ Mw klf
vd miHfgLwd.
Xnu tlghij vyuhf
R tUif Mwiy Hgnjh
Vgnjh iy.
tl ghijf 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ
K, L, M, N vd bgalgLwd. j
vf Kjik Fthl vf (n)
vdgL.
M cUts ajhf UF
nghJ, mj MwY Fiwthfnt
UF.
_whtJ
Mw kl
(M - M)
ulhtJ
Mw kl
(L - M)
n = 1 (K M)
n = 2 (L M)
n = 3 (M M)
M
vyuhf cfUit RtU
ghij M vdgL.
nkY mJ bfhnth
uhf
vif
=
iwv
nuhlhf
vif (mQ v)
uhf waf
Kj Mw
kl (K - M)
cfUUJ
bjhiy
mfF nghJ, Mo MwY
izahf mfwJ.
xU Mw kl (n) lbfhS
vyuhf mfgr vif
2n2 MF.
vyuh Mwiy cR nghJ,
Fiwj Mw klUJ ca
Mw klF jhwJ.
ca Mw kl UJ
Fiwj Mw klF vyuh
lbgaUnghJ Mwiy bt
LwJ.
166
gF
jk
kW
nrk
mQ mik
aa,
nta
gfis
mt
mls
mQ
mogilJffis bghWJ sf
aY. xU mQ mogil
Jffshtd,
bra 10.2
11 nuhlhf, 11 vyuhf
A
kW 12 uhf csd.
15 nuhlhf, 15 vyuhf
B
kW 16 uhf csd.
nuhlhf : it neRik
cila Jff. it xU mQ
cfUD csd.
4 nuhlhf, 4 vyuhf
C
kW 5 uhf csd.
vyuhf : it vRik
cila Jff. Jff cfUit
tlghijf R tUwd.
uhf : it eLiyahd,
Rikaw Jff. Jff
cfUD csd.
v
A, B kW C
jkfis flf.
10.7. mQv kW iw v
mQ v
X mQ nendw bgw
nuhlhfS,
v
ndw
bgw vyuhfS csd vgJ
ekF
bjjnj.
bkhj
mQ
RikawJ,
Vbd
nuhhfS,
vyuhfS
rk
vif l bgUgjh
MF. btifna mQv
vdgLwJ.
nuhlhf neRikila
Jff,
xj
Rikia
bgUgjh
nuhlhf
xiwbahW yF jikia
bgWwJ. fa cUts bfhl
iyahd
cfU
uhf
xWF nkgl nuhlhf
lbfhs ayhJ.
uhJf, cfU cs
nendw
bgw
nuhlh
JffSilna
y
yF
iria Fiwgj _y, cfU
cs
Jff
midij
csla iyahd cfU cUthf
fhuzkhwJ.
nuhlh
uh
cfU
Ma
X mQ mQ viz,
cfU cs nuhlhf
vif (myJ)
cfUit
R
tUw
vyuhf vif vd
tiuaWfyh.
bra 10.3
FLs
jkf
mQ vfis Fl aYkh?
i) bga ii) fhg iii) ieu#
iv) ah v) bka
iw v
X mQ iw mj cfU
iwia bghWnj mikwJ vgij
eh
bjUnwh.
XuyF
iwahf, f vil Fiwj jkkhd
167
myF-10
nta
iAu#
mQ
mQiwna
mogil myfhf fUjgLwJ. X
mQ cfU nuhlhfS,
uhfS Ugjh, X mQ
cfU cs nuhlhf kW
uhf
viff
TLjny, mtQ iw v MF.
iw v( A ) = nuhlhf
vif + uhf
vif
nkY mJ bfhnth
vil Fiwthd mQf cfU
iyjikF, xU nuhlhDF
xU uh vw j nghJkhdJ.
vil mfkhd, fdkhd mQf
cfU
iyjikF,
nuhlhf
vifia
bghWJ
mf
vif
uh j mikwJ. vdnt
xU cfU iyjikF
uh-nuhlh
jnk
mogil fhuzkhf mikwJ.
bra 10.4
tU mltizia brf.
d
nghu
nrhoa
11
ghgu
15
ah
10
uhf
vif
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU Fpo nk cs v,
iw viz cs v
mQviz
FLwd.
rhwhf,
Fnsh
d
mQiw
kilaJ. Vbd Fnsh-35
cs mQf 75% - K kW
Fnsh - 37 cs mQf 25%K csd.
ieu# jk mQv 7, iw
v 14 v iw viz mQ
viz 7N14 vd Flyh.
vdnt Fnsh mQ
ruhr mQiw =
{ }{ }
75 x35
25 x37
+
= 35.5
100
100
bra 10.5
tUtdtW vjkf
xnu vifyhd uh
fis bgWsd?
10.8. Inrhnlhf
mbkf mayh T.W. r,
btntW lfUJ nrffgl
by (fha) khf mQiw
btntwhf Ugij flJ
awh. xnu jk mQf
midJ
xnu
jkhf
iy
vgijna bra vLJiuwJ.
1. a 3Li7
2. fhg 6C12
3. ieu# 7N14
4. bga 4Be8
5. M# 8O16
168
mQ mik
xnu jk mQf midJ
ntgf xUj iyY,
mt
mQiw
kf
ntWgLwd vgJ bjthwJ.
bra 10.6
(i) FlgLs Inrhnlh
f
cs
uhf
v ifia fzLf.
nuhlh
uh
jk
Li
Inrhnlh
iAu#
nuhoa
oOa
ooa
6
Li
3
Fnsh
a Inrhnlhf
fhg
Inrhnlhf waf
xnu
jk
Inrhnlhf,
mt
iw
vf
kL
ntWgLwd.
nua
uhf
vif
ntWgLtjh, mt iw vfS
ntWgLwd.
FpL
1H
1H
2 (myJ)
1D
3
1H
3
1T
Fnsh - 35
17
cl35
Fnsh - 37
17
cl37
fhg - 12
6C
12
fhg - 14
6C
14
nua - 235
92U
235
nua - 238
92U
238
bra 10.7
nuh jk uL tifahd
Inrhnlhfis bgWsJ.
xU jk Inrhnlhf xj
nta gfis bgWsd.
nuh - 79 (49.7%) ,
vD
ntgf
Inrhnlhf J khWgLwd.
nuh- 81 (50.3%) v,
nuh
mQ
Inrhnlhfis
bfhLs
mQiwia fzLf.
jk mQf, d mQiwfis
bgWsd.
uh
vyuh
nuhlh
nuhoa mQ
(rhjhuz iAu#)
(myJ)
ooa mQ
(fd iAu#)
169
ooa mQ
(faf iAu#)
ruhr
myF-10
nta
Inrhnlhf gaf
kUJt
Jiw
gy
jk
Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.
ujnrhif
neh
ir,
U-59 Inrhnlh gagLwJ.
KfGJfHiy
neh
irF, mnaho-131 Inrhnlh
gagLjgLwJ.
nfhgh-60 Inrhnlh, Wneh
ir gagLwJ.
f
kUjt
Inrhnlh gagLwJ.
ghgu-32
35.5
iAu#
1.008
M#
16.0
10.9. mQf
mik
vyuh
xbthU mQ nuhlhfS,
uhfS mla nendw
cs cfUit bfhLsJ vgJ
eF bjjnj. v ndw cs
vyuhf Fl tlghijf
cfUit R tUwd. it
MLf
vwiHfgLwd.
cfUF mUfhik cs tl
ghijUJ mit 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ
K, L, M, N vd bgalgLwd.
xU tlghij lbfhS
mfgr vyuhf vif
2n2 vw thghlh fzlgLwJ.
n vgJ tlghij vif.
170
n = 1 v, Kj tlghij MF.
lbgW
vyuhf
2
vif = 2 x 1 = 2 MF.
n = 2 v, ulhtJ tlghij
MF. lbgW vyuhf
vif = 2 x 2 2 = 8 MF.
n = 3
v _whtJ tl
ghijahF.
lbgW
vyuhf vif = 2 x 3 2 = 18
MF.
Kj
tlghij
KGtJkhf
vyuhfsh
uggl
ulhtJ
tlghij
vyuhf
ug
MuwJ.
JnghW ulhtJ tlghij
ua _whtJ tlghij ug
MuwJ. Mdh,
_whtJ
tlghij KGikahf u Kdnu
ehfhtJ tlghij vyuhf
ug bjhlFwJ. J Fthl
vf
rhj bfhif _y
sfgLwJ.
thW
cfUit
Rs
xbthU MoY vyuhf
uggLs
vifia
FLtnj
vyuh
mik
vdgL. jkf kW mt
nrkf bgUghikahd gf
vyuh mikigna rhJsd.
jkf
vyuh
mikig
fla, mQ Kjik Fthl
v kig bjUj ntL.
Kjik Fthl v vgJ
X mQ lbgWs bkhj
tlghij
myJ
MLf
vifia FgjhF.
rhwhf,
nrhoa mQit fUJnth.
nrhoa jk mQv = 11
vdnt nrhoa mQ
bkhj vyuhf = 11
cs
mQ mik
gL
y jkf kW
vyuh mik
vyuhf
vif
2
2n = 2 x 12
= 2 vyuhf
2
2n = 2 x 22
= 8 vyuhf
jKs vyuh
=1
1 ( K -M)
2 ( L-M)
3 ( M-M)
mt
vyuh
g
vyuhf
jk
mQ v
Mf
(g)
iAu#
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
vyuh
mik
(H)
(He)
(Li)
nkY mJ bfhnth
jkf
vyuh
mikF rhwhf gagLtJ
mQwkhiy M MF.
bga
(Be)
bra 10.9
nH FlgLs jk
f vyuh gfis vGJf.
jk
a
nghu
q
bka
ghgu
mQ
v
nghu
vyuh
g
K
L
M
(B)
3
5
9
fhg
12
(C)
15
171
myF-10
nta
ieu#
2,8,3
2,5
mYa
2,6
2,7
ghgu
(F)
ah
10
2,8
rg
2,8,5
11
16
2,8,6
17
2,8,7
18
2,8,8
(S)
2,8,1
Fnsh
(Cl)
(Na)
bka
15
(P)
(Ne)
nrhoa
14
2,8,4
(Si)
(O)
13
(Al)
(N)
M#
vyuh
mik
vyuh
g
jk
mQ v
vyuh
mik
vyuh
g
jk
mQ v
12
2,8,2
Mfh
(Ar)
(Mg)
172
mQ mik
10.9.1. izw vyuh
izw
kW
X mQ bttlghij
lbgWs vyuhf nt
izf
gF
twJ.
j
vyuhf izw
vyuhf vdgL.
X mQ cs bttlghij
myJ M, mtQ izw
tlghij myJ izw M
vdgL.
izw
Mo
lbgWs vyuhf izw
vyuhf vW miHfgLwd.
izw
vyuhf
vifia FL vk,
mjk izwid fzl
gagLwJ.
X
mQ
kbwhU
mQl iz w, mtQ
izwdh zfgLwJ.
sf :
a mQ (mQ v = 3)
vyuh g
(n =1 ) K M = 2 vyuhf
vyuhf
g
L
bttl
ghij
7 vyuhf csd. k KG
vifahd 8-F mUfhik
csjh,
izw = 8 - 7 = 1 MF.
bttlghij L MF.
bra 10.10
izw vyuhfis, izwid fzLf.
jk
mQv
iAu#
nghu
fhg
bka
12
mYa
13
izw
vyuhf
173
izw
myF-10
nta
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1) x
U Mw kl cs vyuhf mfgr vifia
fzl cj thghL 2n2 (n = 1,2,3.....) v Kj Mw kl cs
vyuhf vif __________ MF.
2)
nuhlhid fljt nfhLO. J mQ cfU csJ. J
__________ jik cilaJ ( v , ne, eLiy ).
3)
J xU cg mQ Jf. J mQ cfUit tlghij R tUwJ.
J v Rik cilaJ. jid fljt bga J.J. jhr. j Jf
bgaiu TWf.
4) 3 Li7 vw jk cs uhf vif 4 v 8O16 vw jk
cs uhf vifia fzLf.
5) X
mQ cfU vgJ uL TWfis cilaJ.
kbwhW __________ ( uh, vyuh ).
xW nuhlh.
6) X
mQ cfU cs nuhlhf kW uhf vifna
iw v vdgL. tU jk nuhlhf vifia
fzLf.
jk
nrhoa (Na)
iw v
23
nuhlhf
vif
?
uhf
vif
12
7) 17
Cl35 - vw jk mQ v 17. iw v 35 v jk cs
nuhlhf vifia TWf.
8) K
fGJfHiy nehia FzgLj
(mnaho - 131, ghgu - 32, U -59).
cj
Inrhnlh
__________
9) x
U mQ bttlghij cs vyuhf izw vyuhf
vdgL. S jk vyuh g 2,7 v j izw k
ahJ?
10) nrhoa vyuh g 2, 8, 1 v jDila izw k vd?
11) X
mQ nuhlhfS vyuhfS vif rk. Mdh it
v v Rik cilait. uh Rik mwJ. jdh mQ
jik vgo UF vd f.
174
mQ mik
- M
12) mQ cs vyuhf iyahd tlghij R tUwd.
m) nkfh Tiw Tat bgaiu vGJf.
M) j tlghij bga TWf.
13) 7N14 - vw jk vyuh g K = 2 v L To Uf ntoa
vyuhf vifia TWf.
14) 17
X35 vw jk xU th. j mQ v 17. iw v 35. cs
vyuhf, nuhlhf kW uhf vifia TWf.
15) kUJtJiw gy jk Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.
m) ujnrhif nehia FzgLJ Inrhnlh vJ?
M) f kUJt gagL Inrhnlh vJ?
16) fl jkf vyuh gfis TW.
jk
nghu
bka
vyuh g
mQ v
5
12
2
-
17)
fl mltizUJ, izw vyuhfis iz wid
vGJf.
jk
fhg
mYa
iz w
vyuhf
mQ v
izw
6 (2,4)
13 (2,8,3)
18) x
j mQ vQ khWgl iw vfis cila xnu jk mQf
Inrhnlhf MF. iAu# Inrhnlhfis TWf.
175
myF-10
nta
-
19) KGikahf us tl ghijfis bgaLf.
jk
mQ v
ieu#
ah
10
bka
12
rg
16
Mfh
18
KGikahf us
tlghijia bgaLf
20) bghUJf
(i)
ne ml mfKs gF
izw
(ii)
eLiy Jf
mQv
(iii)
bttlghij
cfU
(iv)
bttlghij cs
vbyuhf
izw tl
(v)
nuhlhf vif
uh
nuhlh
nkY ma
jf
Advanced Inorganic Chemistry - Satya Prakash, G.D.Tuli,
S.Chand & Company Ltd.
izajsf
http://www.shodor.org
http://www.chemguide.co.uk.
176