I.

What is MATLAB?

I.1.1 Introduction
MATLAB stands for matrix (MAT) laboratory (LAB). It is a high performance language for scientific computing. MATLAB integrates numerical computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notations. With its interactive capabilities, you can solve many numerical problems in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a language such as BASIC, FORTRAN, or C. With MATLAB, you can develop new applications without writing a single line of low-level computer code.

I.1.2 Starting and Ending a MATLAB Session

To start MATLAB on a PC or Macintosh (Mac), double-click on the MATLAB icon. To start MATLAB on a UNIX system, type matlab at the operating system prompt. To quit MATLAB at any time, type quit at the MATLAB prompt. On both the PC and the Mac, you have the option to exit or quit from the file menu.

Remember
MATLAB reacts to your command only after the return or enter key is pressed.

I.1.3 MATLAB Windows The Command Window

When you start MATLAB, the Command Window opens by default. The name MATLAB Command Window appears at the top section of the MATLAB Window. In this window, you communicate with the MATLAB interpreter. The MATLAB interpreter displays a prompt ( >> ) indicating that it is ready to accept commands from you. For example, to enter a 1 5 vector, you can enter the following command: >>x = [1 2 3 4 5] MATLAB responds: >> x =

1 2 3 4 5 >> To find the dimension of x, you can use the size command. . . >> size(x) MATLAB responds: ans = 1 >> indicating that x is a vector with 1 row and 5 columns. 5

Remember
MATLAB is case sensitive. X and x are distinctly different variables.

The icons at the top of the Command Window can be used for managing files, workspace, editing, and getting online help.

Figure Windows
A figure window is used by MATLAB to display graphs. The number of figure windows allowed in MATLAB depends on the amount of available memory in your system. Whenever you ask MATLAB to plot a function for you, it automatically opens a figure window and plots the desired function in that window. If you are interested in opening several figure windows, you can do so by typing:
>>figure (x)

where x is the number assigned to the figure window. This number will appear in the title bar of the figure window. For example, if you are interested in seeing two plots in two different windows, you can type >> figure (1)

which opens Figure No. 1 and >>figure (2) which opens Figure No. 2. The size and location of these windows can be easily modified. You can move a window by clicking on the title bar and dragging it to a desired location. You resize a figure window by moving the mouse pointer to the edge/corner of the window until the pointer becomes a resize handle. Then you drag in the desired direction and the window size adjusts accordingly. We will discuss more windows in Chapters 4, 5, and 6.

I.1.4 What can MATLAB do for You ?

MATLAB provides the user with a set of high-level numerical and graphical routines. The routines are written in C code and are optimized for high performance. Typical use of these routines include: Mathematics and computations Algorithm development Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis Simulation Visualization Scientific and engineering graphics Application development The basic data element in MATLAB is an array that does not require dimensioning. This feature of MATLAB allows you to solve problems that can be formulated with a matrix or a vector in a much faster time than it would take to write a program in C, FORTRAN, or BASIC. For example, you can solve for the roots of the following polynomial: f ( x ) = x 5 + 2 x 4 + 5x 3 + 12 x 2 + 5x 15 in two simple steps. Step 1 is to tell MATLAB which polynomial you want to solve. This is done by typing the following statement at the prompt in the command window: >> p = [1 2 5 12 5 -15] With this expression, you have given MATLAB sufficient information about the polynomial that you want to solve. In step 2, you tell MATLAB to solve for the roots of the polynomial. This is done by issuing the following command: >>r = root(p).

With this command, MATLAB solves for the roots, displays them, and stores the roots in a vector r. Here is the complete program used in MATLAB to solve for the roots of f(x). p = [1 2 5 12 5 -12] p= 1 2 5 12 5 -12

r = roots(p) r= 0.2704+ 2.3713i 0.2704- 2.3713i -1.6243+ 0.5818i -1.6243- 0.5818i 0.7077

Plotting in MATLAB
MATLAB provides you with powerful 2-D and 3-D plot routines. For example, you can plot the function defined below in two easy steps. f ( x ) = sin( x ) + sin(3x ) In step 1 you define three parameters: the starting point of the graph, the distance between two consecutive points on the graph, and the end of the graph. An example is given in the following expression: >>x = 0:0.01:6

Starting point of the graph

x = 0:0.01:6 End point of the graph

Distance between two consecutive points on the graph

In step 2, you plot the function f(x) by typing: >>plot( (sin(x) + sin(3 * x)) After this command, MATLAB opens another window (Figure No.1 Window) and plots the function as shown below.

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

There are many commands that allow you to control different aspects of a plot. We will discuss these in Chapters I.5 and I.6.

I.1.5 MATLAB Functions

MATLAB provides you with many functions that can be used to solve different problems. These functions fall in different categories. In the following table, we list some of the most widely used operators and functions used in MATLAB. In addition to the standard MATLAB functions, you can easily develop a customized function using an M-file. In Chapter 3 we will show you how you can build your own M-files to perform specific tasks.

General Purpose Commands

Managing Commands and Functions
Command demo help info lookfor Description Run demos Online documentation Information about MATLAB and MATHWorks Keyword search through the help entries

path type what which

Control MATLABs search path List M-file Directory listing of M, MAT, and MEX-files Locate functions and files

Managing Variables and the Workspace

Command clear disp length load pack save size who whos Description Clear variables and functions from memory Display matrix or text Length of vector Retrieve variables from disk Consolidate workspace memory Save workspace variable to disk Size of matrix List current variables List current variables, long form

Working with Files and the Operating System

Command cd delete diary dir getenv unix ! Description Change current working directory Delete file Save text of MATLAB session Directory listing Get environment values Execute operating systems command; return result. Execute operating system command.

Controlling the Command Window

Command clc echo format home more Description Clear Command Window Echo commands inside script files Set output format Send cursor home Control paged output on Command Window

Starting and Quitting MATLAB

Command matlabrc quit Startup Description Master startup M-file Terminate MATLAB M-file executed when MATLAB is invoked

Language Construct and Debugging

MATLAB as a Programming Language
Command eval feval function global nargchk Description Execute string with MATLAB expression Execute function specified by string Add new function Define global variable Validate number of input arguments

Control Flow
Command break else elseif end error for if return while Description Terminate execution of loop Used with if Used with if Terminate the scope of for, while, and if statement Display message and abort function Repeat statement for a specific number of times Conditionally execute statement Return to invoking function Repeat statements until a condition is met

Interactive Input
Command input keyboard menu pause Description Prompt for user input Invoke keyboard as if it were a script-file Generate menu of choice for user input Wait for user response

Debugging
Command dbclear dbcont dbdown dbquit dbstack dbstatus dbstep dbstop dbtype dbup Description Remove breakpoint Resume execution Change local workspace context Quit debugging mode List who called whom List all breakpoints Execute one or more line Set breakpoint List M-file with line numbers Change local workspace context

Elementary Matrices and Matrix Manipulation

Elementary Matrices
Command eye linspace logspace meshgrid ones rand randn zeros : Description Identity matrix Linearly spaced vector Logarithmically spaced vectors X and Y arrays for 3-D plots Ones matrix Uniformly distributed random numbers Normally distributed random numbers Zeros matrix Regularly spaced vector

Matrix Manipulation
Command diag fliprl flipud reshape rot90 tril triu Description Create or extract diagonals Flip matrix in the left/right direction Flip matrix in the up/down direction Change size Rotate matrix 90 degrees Extract lower triangular part Extract upper triangular part

Specialized Matrices
Command Description compan Companion matrix hadamard Hadamard matrix hankel Hankel matrix hilb Hilbert transform invhilb Inverse Hilbert matrix magic Magic square pascal Pascal matrix rosser Classic symmetric eigenvalue test problem toeplitzToeplitz matrix vander Vandermonde matrix wilkinson Wilkinsone eigenvalue test matrix

Elementary Matrix Functions

Command cond det norm null orth rcond rank rref trace Description Matrix condition number Determinant Matrix or vector norm Null space Orthogonalization LINPAK reciprocal condition estimator Number of linearly independent rows or columns Reduced row echlon form Sum of diagonal elements

Linear Equations
Command chol inv iscov lu nnls pinv qr \ and / Description Cholesky factorization Matrix inverse Least square in the presence of known covariance Factors from Gaussian elimination Non-negative least-squares Pseudoinverse Orthogonal-triangular decomposition Linear equation solution

Matrix Eigenvalues and Singular Values

Command balance cdf2rdf eig hess poly qz rsf2csf schur svd Description Diagonal scaling to improve eigenvalue accuracy Complex diagonal form to real block diagonal form Eigenvalues and eigen vectors Hessenberg form Characteristic polynomial Generalized eigenvalues Real block diagonal form to complex diagonal form Schur decomposition Singular value decomposition

Advanced Matrix Functions

Command expm exmp1 exmp2 exmp3 funm logm sqrtm Description Matrix exponential M-file implementation of exmp Matrix exponential via Taylor series Matrix exponential via eigenvalues and eigenvectors Evaluate general matrix function Matrix logarithm Matrix square root

Data Interpolation
Command griddata interp1 interp2 interpft Description Data gridding 1-D interpolation 2-D interpolation 1-D interpolation using FFT method

Data Analysis
Command cumprod cumsum max mean median Description Cumulative product of elements Cumulative sum of elements Largest component Average or mean value Median value
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min prod sort std sum trapz

Smallest component Product of elements Sort of ascending order Standard deviation Sum of elements Numerical integration using trapezoidal method

Special Variables and Constants

Command ans computer eps flops i, j inf NaN nargin nargout pi realmax realmin Description Most recent answer Computer type Floating point relative accuracy Count the floating point operations Imaginary units Infinity Not-a-Number Number of function input arguments Number of function output arguments 3.1415926535897 Largest floating point number Smallest floating point number

Time and Date

Command clock cputime date etime tic, toc Description Wall clock Elapsed CPU time Calendar Elapsed time function Stopwatch timer functions

Operators and Special Characters

Command + * .* ^ .^ kron Description Plus Minus Matrix multiplication Array multiplication Matrix power Array power Kronecker tensor product

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\ / ./ : () [] . .. ... , ; % ! . = == <> & | ~ xor

Left division Right division Array division Colon Parentheses Brackets Decimal point Parent directory Continuation Comma Semicolon Comment Exclamation point Transpose and quote Nonconjugated transpose Assignment Equality Relational operator Logical AND Logical OR Logical NOT Logical exclusive OR

Elementary Mathematical Functions

Command abs acos acosh angle asin asinh atan atan2 atanh ceil conj cos cosh exp fix floor imag log log10 Description Absolute value Inverse cosine Inverse hyperbolic cosine Phase angle Inverse sine Inverse hyperbolic sine Inverse tangent Four quadrant inverse tangent Inverse hyperbolic tangent Round towards plus infinity Complex conjugate Cosine Hyperbolic cosine Exponential Round towards zero Round towards minus infinity Complex imaginary part Natural logarithm Base 10 (common ) logarithm

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real rem round sign sin sinh sqrt tan tanh

Complex real part Remainder after division Round towards nearest integer Signum function Sine Hyperbolic sine Square root Tangent Hyperbolic tangent

Finite Difference
Command del2 diff gradient Description Five-point discrete Laplacian Difference function and approximate derivative Approximate gradient

Correlation
Command corrcoef cov Description Correlation coefficients Covariance matrix

Filtering and Convolution

Command conv conv2 deconv filter filter2 Description convolution and polynomial multiplication Two-dimensional convolution Deconvolution and polynomial division One-dimensional digital filter Two-dimensional digital filter

Fourier Transform
Command cplxpair fft fft2 fftshift Description Sort numbers into complex conjugate pairs Discrete Fourier transform Two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform Move zeroth lag to center of spectrum
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ifft Inverse discrete Fourier transform ifft2 Inverse two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform nextpow2 Next higher power of 2 unwrapRemove phase angle jumps across 360o boundaries

Polynomial and Interpolation Functions

Command poly polyder polyfit polyval polyvalm residue roots Description Construct polynomial with specified roots Differentiate polynomial Fit polynomial to data Evaluate polynomial Evaluate polynomial with matrix argument Partial-fraction expansion Find polynomial roots

Function Functions
Command fmin fmins fplot fzero ode23 ode45 quad quad8 Description Minimize function of one variable Minimize function of several variables Plot function Find zero of function of one variable Solve differential equations, low order method Solve differential equations, high order method Numerically evaluate integral, low order method Numerically evaluate integral, high order method

Sparse Matrix Functions

Command spdiags speye sprands sprandsym Description Sparse matrix formed from diagonals Sparse identity matrix Sparse random matrix Sparse symmetric random matrix

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Full to Sparse Conversion

Command find full sparse spconvert Description Find indices of nonzero entries Convert sparse matrix to full matrix Create sparse matrix from nonzero and indices Convert from sparse matrix external format

Working with Nonzero Entries of Sparse Matrices

Command issparse nnz nonzeros nzmax spalloc spones Description True if matrix is sparse Number of nonzero entries Nonzero entries Amount of storage allocated for nonzero entries Allocate memory for nonzero entries Replace nonzero entries with ones

Visualizing Sparse Matrices

Command gplot spy Description Plot graph Visualize sparsity structure

Reordering Algorithms
Command colmmd colperm dmperm randpers symmmd symrcm Description Column minimum degree Order columns based on nozero count Dulmage-Mendelsohn decomposition Random permutation vector Symmetric minimum degree Reverse Cuthill-Mckee ordering

Norm, Condition Number, and Rank

Command condest normest sprank Description Estimated 1-norm condition Estimate 2-norm Structural rank

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Miscellaneous
Command spaugment spparms symbfact Description Form least squares augmented system Set parameters for sparse matrix routines Symbolic factorization analysis

Two Dimensional Graphics

Elementary X-Y Graphics
Command fill loglog plot semilogx semilogy Description Draw filled 2-D polygons Log-log scale plot Linear plot Semi-log scale plot Semi-log scale plot

Specialized X-Y Graph

Command bar compass errorbar feather fplot hist polar rose stairs Description Bar graph Compass plot Error bar plot Feather plot Plot function Histogram plot Polar coordinate plot Angle histogram plot Stairstep plot

Graph Annotation
Command grid gtest text title xlabel yaxis Description Grid lines Mouse placement of text Text annotation Graph title X-axis label Y-axis label
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3-Dimensional Graphs
Command fill3 plot3 clabel contour contour3 contourc image pcolor quiver Description Draw filled 3-D polygons in 3-D space Plot lines and points in 3-D space Contour plot elevation labels Contour plots 3-D contour plots Contour plot computation Display image Pseudocolor plot Quiver plot

Surface and Mesh Plots

Command mesh meshc meshz slice surf surfc surf1 waterfall Description 3-D mesh surface Combination mesh/contour plot 3-D Mesh with zero plane Volumetric visualization plot 3-D shaded surface Combination surface/contour plot 3-D shaded surface with lighting Waterfall plot

Graph Appearance
Command axis caxis colormap hidden shading view viewmtx zlabel Description Axis scaling and appearance Pseudocolor axis scaling Color lookup table Mesh hidden line removal mode Color shading mode 3-D graph viewpoint specification View transformation matrices Z-label for 3-D graph

3-D Objects
Command cylinder sphere Description Generate cylinder Generate sphere
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General Purpose Graphics Functions

Command clf close figure gcf Description Clear current figure Close figure Create figure Get handle to current figure

Axis Creation and Control

Command spaugment axes axis cazis cla gca hold subplot Description Create axes in arbitrary position Control axis scaling and appearance Control pseudocolor axis scaling clear current axes Get handle to current axes Hold current graph Create axes in tiled position

Handling Graphics Objects

Command line patch surface uicontrol uimenu Description Create line Create patch Create surface Create user interface control Create user interface menu

Handling Graphics Operations

Command delete drawnow get reset set Description Delete object Flash pending graphics event Get object properties Reset object properties Set object properties

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Hardcopy and Storage

Command orient print printopt Description Set paper orientation Print graph or save graph to file Configure local printer default

Movies and Animation

Command getframe movie moviein Description Get movie frame Play recorded movie frame Initialize movie frame memory

Miscellaneous
Command ginput ishold Description Graphical input from mouse Return hold state

Color Maps
Command bone cool copper flag gray hsv hot pink Description Gray-scale with a tingle of blue color map Shaded of cyan and magenta color map Linear copper-tone color map Alternating red, white, blue, and black color Linear gray-scale color map Hue-saturation-value color map Black-red-yellow-white color map Pastel shaded of pink color map

Color Map Related Functions

Command brighten hsv2rgb rgb2hsv rgbplot spinmap Description Brighten or darken color map Hue-saturation-value to red-green-blue conversion Red-green-blue to hue-saturation-value conversion Plot color map Spin color map

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Lighting Models
Command diffuse specular surf1 surfnorm Description Diffuse reflectance Specular reflectance 3-D shaded surface with lighting Surface normals

Sound Processing Functions

Command saxis sound Description Sound axis scaling Convert vector into sound

Character String Functions

Command Description abs Convert string to numerical values eval Execute string with MATLAB expression isstr True for string setstr Convert numeric values to string str2matForm text matrix from individual string string About character string in MATLAB

String Comparison
Command lower strcmp upper Description Convert string to lowercase Compare string Convert string to uppercase

String-to-Number Conversion
Command int2str num2str sprintf sscanf str2num Description Convert integer to string Convert number to string Convert number to spring under format control Convert string to number under format control Convert string to number

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Hexadecimal-to-Number Conversion
Command dec2hex hex2dec hex2num Description Convert decimal integers to hex string Convert hex string to decimal integer Convert hex string to IEEE floating point number

Low-level File I/O Functions

Command fclose fopen Description Close file Open file

Unformatted I/O
Command fread fwrite Description Read binary data from file Write binary data to file

Formatted I/O
Command fgetl fgets fprintf fscanf Description Read line from file, discard new line character Read line from file, keep new line character Write formatted data to file Read formatted data from file

File Positioning
Command ferror frewind fseek ftell Description Inquire file I/O error status Rewind file Set file position indicator Get file position indicator

String Conversion
Command sprintf sscanf Description Write formatted data to string Read string under format control
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I.2
I.2.1

Communicating with MATLAB

Expressions and Variables The building

MATLAB provides mathematical expressions which involve entire matrices. blocks of mathematical expressions in MATLAB are: Variables Numbers Operators Functions

Variable Variables in MATLAB do not require any type of declarations or dimension statements. Variable names are not limited in a number of characters. A MATLAB variable name consists of a letter, followed by any number of letters, digits, or underscore. MATLAB uses only the first 31 characters of a variable name and ignores the rest. MATLAB is case sensitive, it distinguishes between lowercase and uppercase letters. X and x, for example, are not the same and represent two separate MATLAB variables. Numbers MATLAB uses conventional decimal notation. Scientific notation uses the letter e to specify a power-of-ten scale factor. Imaginary numbers use either i or j as a suffix. For example x=2+3i or x=2+3j represent the same imaginary numbers. Operators Expressions in MATLAB use familiar arithmetic operators: + Plus Minus * Multiplication ^ Power / Division Complex conjugate or transpose of matrix () Specify evaluation order [] Specify vector and matrices Functions MATLAB provides a large number of standard elementary mathematical functions. The most commonly used function are: abs Absolute value

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acos acosh angle asin asinh atan atan2 atanh ceil conj cos cosh exp fix floor imag log log10 real rem round sign sin sinh sqrt tan tanh

Inverse cosine Inverse hyperbolic cosine Phase angle Inverse sine Inverse hyperbolic sine Inverse tangent Four quadrant inverse tangent Inverse hyperbolic tangent Round towards plus infinity Complex conjugate Cosine Hyperbolic cosine Exponential Round towards zero Round towards minus infinity Complex imaginary part Natural logarithm Base 10 (common ) logarithm Complex real part Remainder after division Round towards nearest integer Signum function Sine Hyperbolic sine Square root Tangent Hyperbolic tangent

In addition, several special functions provide values of useful constants. The default values for the following variables are: pi i j eps realmin realmax inf nan 3.14159265358979 Imaginary unit i2=-1 The same as i A small number equal to 2-52 Smallest floating-point number, 2-1022 Largets floating-point number, 21023 Infinity Not-a-number

The variable names for the above functions are not reserved by MATLAB. It is possible to overwrite any of them with a new variable, such as pi=3.1416 and then use that value in subsequent calculations. The default value can be restored with clear pi.

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I.2.2

Data Format

MATLAB stores all numbers using long format specified by the IEEE floating-point standard. Floating-point numbers have a finite precision of roughly significant digits and a finite range of roughly 10-308 to 10308 . The format command in MATLAB controls only the numeric format of the data being displayed on the screen. The format command does not affect the way MATLAB stores and manipulates the data. The following examples illustrate the effect of different formats on displaying the output. Example I.2.1.1 First we assign the value x=4/3 x= 1.3333 format short displays data using 5-digit scaled fixed point. format short x x= 1.3333 format long displays data using 15-digit scaled fixed point. format long x x= 1.33333333333333 4 to a variable x, then we display x using different formats. 3

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format short e: displays data using 5-digit floating point. format short e x x= 1.3333e+000 format long e: displays data using 16-digit floating point. format long e x x= 1.333333333333333e+000 format hex : displays data using hexadecimal. format hex x x= 3ff5555555555555 format bank: displays data using dollars and cents format. format bank x x= 1.33 format rat: displays data using a ratio of small integers.
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 format rat x x= 4/3 format + : displays data using + for positive and - for negative numbers. format + x x= + format by itself with no other entries will return to default (short) format. format x x= 1.3333 Summary of formats short long short e long e hex bank rat + 5-digit scaled fixed points. 15-digit scaled fixed points. 5-digit floating point. 16-digit floating point. Hexadecimal. Fixed dollars and cents. Ratio of small integers. Positive/negative designation.

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I.2.3

Input / Output Data

You can enter data into MATLAB in two different ways: directly from keyboard or reading from a data file. Entering Data from Keyboard The prompt >>in the Command Window indicates that MATLAB is ready to accept input data or a command from the keyboard. You can enter data from the keyboard in one simple step. For example, A=3.25 A= 3.2500 At this stage MATLAB has assigned value 3.25 to the variable A. This value remains in a memory location reserved for A as long as you do not overwrite it or clear it, or by ending the current MATLAB session through termination of the Command Window. You can change the value of A by simply entering a new value for A. For example, A=2 A= 2 To clear the variable A, at the prompt type clear A. clear A Note that if you typed clear instead of clear A, MATLAB would have cleared all variables without giving you a notice. So be very careful. This can be very painful when you have entered many variables and suddenly you have accidentally cleared them all!

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Practice I.2.3.1 Assign values 2, 3, and 4 to variables A, B, and C, respectively. There are different ways of entering these data from the keyboard. We mention two of them here. Method 1. All in one line. At the prompt, type A=2,B=3,C=4 and press Return or Enter. MATLAB responds A=2,B=3,C=4 A= 2 B= 3 C= 4 Method 2. Entering one at a time. A=2 A= 2 B=2 B= 2 C=3 C=

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3 I.2.4 Suppressing Output A semicolon at the end of a MATLAB statement stops the MATLAB from displaying the output

Anytime you press the return or enter key, MATLAB takes two actions: first it automatically displays the input data, then it performs the necessary computation ( if needed ) and displays the output. However, if we end the input statement with a semicolon (;), MATLAB does not display the input data but it performs the computation and displays the output. This is particularly useful when you generate a large array vector. For example a=0:0.001:1000; In this example, you generated a vector containing 1000001 numbers. Imagine that if you had not ended the statement with a semicolon. Without the semicolon, MATLAB displays all numbers on your computer screen. I.2.5 Long Command Lines

MATLAB allows 4096 characters per line. However, it is impossible to display all of these on one line. If your statement is long and does not fit on one line, use three periods, . . . , followed by a return or enter to indicate that the statement continues on the next line. For example, x=2 + 1 - 5 +6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 11 + ... 13+14+15-12 - 13 - 14 x= 42

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I.2.6

Entering and Manipulating Arrays and Matrices

You can enter arrays and matrices into MATLAB in several different ways. Enter an explicit list of elements. Load from an external data file Generate arrays or matrices using built-in functions Create arrays or matrices with your own functions in M-files. (M-files are explained in Chapter III.)

Entering arrays Arrays are entered into MATLAB using the following format: v= initial value : difference between two consecutive elements : final value

The default value for the difference between two consecutive elements is 1. For example: v=1:10 v= 1 You generated a row vector of length 10 consisting of the integers 1 through 10 v=10:0.1:11 v= Columns 1 through 7 10.0000 10.1000 10.2000 10.3000 10.4000 10.5000 10.6000 Columns 8 through 11 10.7000 10.8000 10.9000 11.0000 . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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In the above example, you generated a vector containing numbers from 10 through 11 with an increment of 0.1. You can access an individual or a range of elements from a vector using the following format: v(from index : to index) Example: I.2.6.1 Enter a vector v containing elements 1 through 10; do not display the elements. Add elements 1 through 5 to elements 6 through 10 of this vector v. The elements 1 through 5 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and the elements 6 through 10 are: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. We would like to add 1 to 6, 2 to 7, etc. v=1:10; v(1:5)+v(6:10) ans = 7 9 11 13 15

Matrices are entered into MATLAB using the following two format: M= [ first row; second row;; last row] or M= [first row 2nd row . . . last row ]

For example to enter a 3x3 matrix you can enter either M=[1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9] M= 1 4 2 5 3 6

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or M=[ 1 2 3 456 7 8 9] M= 1 4 7 To access different blocks of matrices you can use the following format: M1 = M (from row: to row , from column: to column ) where M is the original matrix and M1 is the desired sub-matrix. 2 5 8 3 6 9

Example: I.2.6.2 a) Enter a 3x3 matrix M with the first row being 1, 2, and 3, the second row being 4, 5, and 6, and the third row being 7, 8, and 9, respectively. Do not display the matrix. b) Assign the elements from row 1 through 2 and columns 2 through 3 to a matrix M1. c) Assign the elements from row 2 through 3 and columns 1 through 2 to a matrix M2. d) Obtain a matrix MSUM containing the sum of the corresponding elements in M1 and M2. a) The matrix M is: 1 2 3 M = 4 5 6 7 8 9 b) M1 is: 2 3 M1 = 5 6

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c) M2 is 4 5 M2 = 7 8 6 8 MSUM = 12 14 You can do this in MATLAB as shown below. M=[1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9]; M1=M(1:2,2:3) M1 = 2 5 3 6

d) MSUM is

M2=M(2:3,1:2) M2 = 4 7 5 8

MSUM=M1+M2 MSUM = 6 12 I.2.7 Generating a Matrix from Arrays 8 14

You can combine vectors to generate a matrix. If vectors v1, v2, v3, and v4 are row vectors of dimension 1x4, then the matrix M can be formed using these vectors. M=[v1;v2;v3;v4]

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Example: I.2.7.1 a) Generate row vectors v1, v2, v3, and v4 containing element, 1,2,3,4, and 5,6,7,8, and 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13, 14, 15, 16, respectively. b) Generate matrix M containing v1, v2, v3, and v4 as its 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th rows. v1=1:4 v1 = 1 2 3 4

v2=5:8 v2 = 5 6 7 8

v3=9:12 v3 = 9 10 11 12

v4=13:16 v4 = 13 14 15 16

M=[v1;v2;v3;v4] M= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 I.2.8 Special Matrices

Identity Matrix

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An nxn identity matrix is a matrix whose diagonal elements are ones and all other elements are zeros. eye(4) ans = 1 0 0 0 Note that you can generate an m x n matrix whose diagonal elements are ones and zeros elsewhere using the eye function. eye(3,4) ans = 1 0 0 Companion matrix An nth order polynomial is represented by p( x ) = a1 x n + a 2 x n 1 +...+ a n x + a n +1 . You can represent this polynomial in MATLAB as a vector with entries being the coefficients a1 , a 2 ,..., a n , a n +1 . Once you entered this polynomial as a vector in MATLAB, you then can solve for its roots. For example, you can solve for the polynomial p( x ) = x 2 5x + 6 as p=[1 -5 6]; r=roots(p) r= 3
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0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

0 1 0

0 0 1

0 0 0

2 The vector r holds the roots of the polynomial p(x). The companion matrix of p is a matrix whose eigenvalues are the roots of the polynomial p. For example, the companion matrix corresponding to the polynomial p( x ) = x 2 5x + 6 is: p=[1 -5 6]; A=compan(p) A= 5 -6 1 0 In other words, if we compute the eigenvalues of A, they will be identical to the roots of the polynomial p. eig(A) ans = 3 2 Hadamard matrices The Hadamard transform has many applications in signal and image processing. The 1-D and 2-D Hadamard transformations are given in the following equations: 1-D Hadamard transform

2-D Hadamard transform

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The elements of the Hadamard matrix H are either +1 or -1. You can generate an nxn Hadamard matrix by H = hadamard (n) The 4x4 Hadamard matrix is: A=hadamard(4) A= 1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 Note that the rows and columns of the Hadamard matrices are orthogonal, that is if we sum the product of any two rows or any two columns of a Hadamard matrix the result is zero. Also, if we multiply the transpose of a Hadamard matrix by a Hadamard matrix itself, the product is equal to n times an identity matrix. Which states that the inverse of a Hadamard matrix is equal to its transpose divided by n. Lets try this on a 4x4 Hadamard matrix. A=hadamard(4); trans_a=A'; trans_a*A ans = 4 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4

trans_a*A/4 ans = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

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In addition to the above matrices, MATLAB can generate many more special matrices. Examples are: Function Purpose hilb Hilbert matrix Inverse Hilbert transform invhilb magic Magic square pascal Pascal matrix rosser Classic symmetric eigenvalue test problem toeplitzToeplitz matrix vander Vandermonde matrix wilkinson Wilkinson's eigenvalue test matrix

38

I.3
I.3.1

FILES IN MATLAB
Why do we need M-Files ?

When you start MATLAB it defaults to the Command Window. To solve a specific problem, you can enter a series of commands at the prompt in the Command Window. For example: if you are interested in converting Fahrenheit to Celsius, you can simply enter an expression for this conversion using the formula C=(F-32)*5/9 and obtain your answer. So to convert 10 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius you would type the following : C=(10-32)*5/9 C= -12.2222 The resulting temperature is -12.2222 degree Celsius. This is easy and fast. Now if you want to convert F=-30 degree Fahrenheit to C, you need to enter this expression again. Is there another way to go through this conversion without entering the Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion each time? Of course there is! You can create an M-file for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius. I.3.2 What is an M-File ?

Instead of typing your commands one by one in the Command Window, you can type them only once in an M-file using a text editor of your choice. When you tell MATLAB to run your M-file, it will open the file and evaluate commands in the sequence appearing in the file.

Remember
M-File filename must end with the extension .m
These files are called script files, or simply M-files. The term script emphasizes the fact that MATLAB simply reads from the script found in the file. The term M-file recognizes the fact that script filenames must end with the extension .m , e.g., f_to_c.m.

Remember
An M-file consists of a sequence of MATLAB command statements
All M-files are either in script or function form. Scripts are suitable when you need to perform a long sequence of commands. Function files, on the other hand, are more flexibility as they allow the user to pass and return values as would with other MATLAB functions.

39

Remember
There are two types of MATLAB M-files : script and function files

I.3.3

How to Create and Edit an M-file

Remember
Steps involved in working with MATLAB M-files are: CREATE EDIT RUN
M-Files are ASCII files that can be created using a text editor or word processor . To create a new M-file, choose New from the File menu and then select M-file.

This procedure will open a default text editor where you can begin entering your MATLAB commands. If you would like to add comments to your code, you may do so by starting the comment line with a % character. Once you have finished entering your commands, you must save your file. To save your file, choose Save As from the File menu of the text editor.

Remember
you must save your MATLAB M-files with .m extensions
Once you have created your M-file, you can execute it by either typing the name of the M-file at the command prompt in the Command Window or by choosing Run M-File (Script File) from the File menu in the Command Window. If you choose Open from the File Menu in the Command Window, you will probably find several files with .m extensions. For example, if you want to rotate a matrix by 90 degrees there is an M-file that will do that called rot90.m. Go to the File Menu and select Open M-file, then change your directory to matlab/toolbox/matlab/elmat. The rot90.m file is located there.
40

This brings up the question of locating both user written M-files and built-in MATLAB functions. Suppose you wanted to do a matrix rotation with the function rot90.m, but you do not know where it is located. The function which {M-file} will search through the MATLAB path and give you the location of the desired M-file. For example, to find the location of the function rot90.m, you can enter: which rot90 c:\matlab\toolbox\matlab\elmat\rot90.m Occasionally, one forgets the name of an M-file to do a certain task. Or one may want to search for a selection of similar MATLAB capabilities. You can use the lookfor {keyword} command, which will give you a list of M-files that relate to a given keyword. For example, if you wanted a list of all the M-files that have anything to do with the word "rotate," you would enter: lookfor rotate ROT90 ROTATE XPR IMROTATE Rotate matrix 90 degrees. Rotate an object by angle alpha about a specified direction. Radial coordinate of t-point of xy-curve rotated through angle u. Rotate image.

I.3.4

Working with M-files

To better understand how to write and operate an M-file, lets work through a couple of examples. Well start by writing a script file.
1.

Choose New from the File Menu and select New M-file.

41

2.

When the editor is opened, type in the following:

% This script M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. % Tc is the temperature in Celsius and Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit. Tf = 78.; Tc = (Tf -32.0)*(5/9) % display Celsius Temperature to screen 3. Save the file as f_to_c.m and run it by either typing f_to_c at the command prompt or going to the Run M-file option of the file menu. degree Tc = 25.5556

Remember
A % at the beginning of a statement denotes a comment in MATLAB M-files

Now try typing help degree. You should see the following : help degree This script M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. Tc is the temperature in Celsius and Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit. The first two lines of the M-file which explain the code should appear on the screen. The % sign in an M-file indicates a comment and allows you to create your own on-line help. Notice that help will display only those comments before the beginning of the actual code. Any comments in the code are not included in help. This program, however, has several limitations. First, the temperature in Fahrenheit can only be changed by editing the M-file and running it again. So in order to make this M-file more useful lets make some modifications. Make the following changes to the f_to_c.m file so that it looks like the following:

42

% This script M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. % Tc is the temperature in Celsius and Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit. echo on % Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit Tf = input(Input the temperature in Fahrenheit: ); % Tc is the temperature in Celsius Tc = (Tf -32.0)*(5/9) % display Celsius Temperature to screen After saving the M-file try running it again. As before, either run it from the command prompt or go to the file menu. This is what should happen when you run it with a temperature of 45 degrees Fahrenheit. degree % This script M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. % Tc is the temperature in Celsius and Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit. echo on % Tf is the temperature in Fahrenheit Tf = input('Input the temperature in Fahrenheit: '); Input the temperature in Fahrenheit: 45. % Tc is the temperature in Celsius Tc = (Tf -32.0)*(5/9) Tc = 7.2222 % display Celsius Temperature to screen There are two things to note in this M-file. First, after the initial set of comments there is a statement echo on. This command allows the M-files to be viewed while running. So if there is an error in the code, the user can see which command and at what line caused the problem. This could be useful in debugging the M-file; once you have worked out all the bugs, you can remove the echo on command. In addition to the echo command there are other commands used for debugging M-files. The command pause in an M-file will halt program execution temporarily. The program will resume execution when the user presses any key on the keyboard. Similarly, pause(n) will cause the program to stop for n seconds. There is another command called keyboard which is used in M-file debugging and modification. When used in an M-file, it invokes the keyboard as if it were a script M-file. During execution of an M-file, the keyboard command halts execution, allowing the user to modify or observe the contents of MATLAB variables. Upon

43

execution of the keyboard command, MATLAB is placed in the Keyboard mode, which is noted by a K>> prompt appearing in the Command Window. The Keyboard mode can only be exited by typing return and then pressing the Enter key to resume execution. A second point of note in the above M-file is that the MATLAB variable Tf is now an input from the user. When the M-file was run, the user was prompted for the temperature. After entering the desired value and then pressing return, the program finished executing and displayed the result. Script files are just one example of M-files. As mentioned previously, M-files can also be in the form of functions. Function M-files can easily be differentiated from script files since the word function always appears first in a function M-file. Function files also allow values to be passed into the M-files. To explain the implementation of function M-files we will work through another example. This next example will be similar to the previous M-file in that it again converts from Fahrenheit to Celsius. However, this M-file will be a function M-file that will allow the user to pass in the value for degrees Fahrenheit. The M-file f_to_c.m should be changed to the following:

function yc = degree(xf) % This function M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. echo on % xf is the temperature in Fahrenheit % yc is the temperature in Celsius yc = (xf -32.0)*(5/9); fprintf(The Temperature in Celsius is %4.2f degrees.\n,yc) Now try running the new function M-file. Type in the name of the M-file and the corresponding temperature in parentheses. The output will be a print statement of the temperature in Celsius. degree(45); The Temperature in Celsius is 7.22 degrees. Function files are no more difficult to create than script files. Just remember, when defining the function, use the same name as the M-file. For instance, in our previous example the first statement was the following: function yc = degree(xf). Note that function name, degree, is the also the name of the corresponding M-file, degree.m. Also you are not limited to passing only numbers. Vectors and matrices can be passed to functions just as easily. Another point of note is that the variables xf and yc are local to the

44

degree function and are not in the workspace. So if you type whos you will not see those variables. Finally, you are not limited to a single output. In other words our previous example could also have returned the temperature in Kelvin. The M-file could have looked like this.. function [yc,yk] = degree(xf) % This script M-file will convert Fahrenheit to Celsius and Kelvin. echo on % xf is the temperature in Fahrenheit % yc is the temperature in Celsius % yk is the temperature in Kelvin yc = (xf -32.0)*(5/9); yk = yc + 273; fprintf('The Temperature in Celsius %4.2f degrees.\n', yc) fprintf('The Temperature in Kelvin %4.2f degrees.\n', yk) Again, after running the M-file you should see the following results. degree(45); The Temperature in Celsius 7.22 degrees. The Temperature in Kelvin 280.22 degrees. Some Final Words on M-files When you first write an M-function file it is interpreted and placed into memory. It is then available for the user throughout the working session without any further compilation. Functions defined using M-files can also be called in other M-files just like any other function. In other words, the function degree could have been called by another M-file. In the examples mentioned previously it was not mentioned where the M-files were saved. When the name of an M-file is invoked by the user, MATLAB has to determine what that name means. This is done by following a certain sequential process. The MATLAB interpreter will look for the name first as a variable, then as a built-in function, then in the current directory, and finally in directories available through the MATLAB search path. There is also one more hint that should be mentioned. If you are using Windows 95 you could run into a problem with the naming of your M-files. On most Windows 95 machines, Notepad is probably the default editor used to write an M-file. Usually you would go to the top of the MATLAB Command Window and select File. Then you would choose to open a new M-file. You would then proceed to type in all your commands and then save the file. Suppose you choose to save the M-file as simple.m. You then proceed to try to run it. You type simple at the command prompt and then get a message such as the following: >> simple ??? Undefined function or variable simple.

45

Dont worry if this happens; you didnt do anything wrong. In the MATLAB Command Window, open a DOS shell by typing !command & and then go to the directory where you saved the Mfile. For you DOS novices you can change directories by using cd directory name. Then list the files in that directory using the command dir. You should see your M-file listed as simple.m.txt. Since MATLAB only looks for .m extensions, it wasnt able to find your M-file. Simply rename the file using rename simple.m.txt simple.m and hopefully your problem will be solved. Another problem that you may encounter relates to the search path that MATLAB scans to find your M-file. If you save your file in a directory that is not in the MATLAB search path, then MATLAB will give you an ??? Undefined function or variable simple error message. To remedy this situation, you have 3 choices. You can move the MATLAB workspace to the directory of the M-file by entering the command cd followed by the name of the directory where the M-file is found. Another option is to move the M-file to a directory that is in the MATLAB path. Finally, you can modify the MATLAB path to include the directory of your M-file. I.3.5 Saving Workspaces

As you gain more experience in MATLAB, your computations will likely become more complex. As you become more familiar with MATLAB, you will likely start writing M-files to make your work easier. As your computations become more complex, the amount of data that you generate will increase. This can be a big problem especially if you are on a slower machine. Every time you decide to end your MATLAB session, you lose all the data you have generated. So the next time you resume your work, you have to spend precious time re-creating the previous information. Fortunately, all is not lost!! You can save your variables and data generated in a workspace for future use. The following example illustrates how to save variables and the workspace. Y = [1 2;3 4] Y= 1 3 2 4

X = [5 6;7 8] X= 5 7 6 8

U = rot90(Y) U= 2 1 4 3
46

 V = rot90(X) V= 6 5 Two matrices, X and Y, were created. Then, two rotated versions of X and Y were created and saved as variables, U and V. The matrices are small and should not take too much time for MATLAB to generate. Next, type whos. As you might remember from previous exercises, this command will list all the variables used in the current work session and how much memory is being used. You should see the variables, Y and X, as full 2 x 2 matrices. You may also have several other variables in your workspace. Now suppose that you want to save the variable Y. This is done by typing the following at the command prompt: save variable Y This command will save the variable Y in a file called variable.mat. You could have also typed either of the following two commands : save or save variable If you had used just save all the variables in the workspace would have been saved to a file called matlab.mat. If the command save variable had been used, all the variables would have been saved to a file called variable.mat. Now exit MATLAB. Then reopen it and type the following : load variable This command will then load the variable Y and the data in the matrix that was saved previously. You can save multiple variables also. In other words, if you wanted to save only a few variables out of several, you could either delete them from memory using the clear command or you could specify the exact variable that you wanted to save. In our previous example it would have been the following : save test X Y Therefore using just a few commands you can save your work to use in the future. The load and save commands also have a different use. They can be used to import and export ASCII data. Their use and other topics are discussed in the next section. 8 7

47

Remember
use the load or save command to save variables in your workspace

I.3.6

Importing and Exporting Data

In the preceding section we learned how to use the save and load commands to retain data from a previous MATLAB session. You can use these commands, along with several others, to read and write out ASCI data files. These ASCI files can either be used as a data file for other M-files, or they could be used as an input file for a Fortran or C program. Again, most of the concepts will be explained through examples. Y = [1 2;3 4]; save temp.dat Y -ascii save a:\temp.dat Y -ascii This will create the Y matrix and then save the data in ASCII format to your hard drive and also to the floppy disk drive. The file can then be opened in another application. This could be useful if, for example, you are generating some statistics on population growth to include in a report. The data could then be saved in this manner and then used in a spreadsheet or plotting package to include in reports. As mentioned previously, the data files could also be used as input files to Fortran or C files. For example, suppose that a Fortran or C program requires the Matrix Y as an input. The matrix Y can be saved and the C or Fortran program can be executed all within MATLAB by using a few simple commands : Y = [1 2;3 4]; save temp.dat Y -ascii !prog_execute load output.dat The matrix Y will be saved in the text file temp.dat. The external program prog_execute will be called using the shell escape command !. The prog_execute program will then read in the data file temp.dat, execute the program, and then create the output file, output.dat. This output file is then loaded into the MATLAB workspace. This is a convenient way to run your external programs without interrupting your work in MATLAB. These commands could also have been included in an M-file. Data can also be read or written out with other I/O functions such as fopen, fread, fcanf, fprintf, and fwrite. When trying to read or write to a file you always want to open the file first (using the fopen command), and then close it (using the fclose command) once you are finished with the file. A typical fopen and fclose command may be the following :

48

fid = fopen(filename,permission) fclose(fid) where permission could be the following : r for read only r+ read and write w write over existing contents w+ read and write over existing contents If the file is opened successfully, then the value of fid is an integer greater than 2. Binary files can also be read or written by adding a b at the end of the previous permissions. So r+ would become rb+. The fscanf and fprintf commands are used when reading and writing ASCII data while the fread and fwrite are used for reading and writing binary data. The syntax of these commands will first be explained and then some examples to show their use will follow. The command fprintf is used to write formatted data to a file. The syntax used for this command is : count = fprintf(fid,format,A,...) or fprintf(format,A,...) Recall that the file, fid, was first defined using the fopen command. Count returns the number of bytes that was written out. The format statement allows you to determine the precision and spacing of your output data. There are two types of specific format syntax. They are escape characters and conversion characters. The escape characters are preceded by a backslash \ and are as follows : \n \t \b \r \f \\ \ start a new line horizontal tab backspace carriage return form feed backlash single quote

The conversion characters are preceded by a percent sign % and are as follows : %e %f %g exponential notation fixed point notation chooses the shorter of %e or %g (does not include significant zeros)

All of this may seem confusing. Hopefully, the next couple of examples will clear this confusion. Type in the following commands :

49

 fid = fopen(test.dat, w); x = 1:100; y = [x; sqrt(x)]; fprintf(fid, %6.2f %6.2\n , y); fclose(fid) Looking at the previous commands, let's concentrate on the fprintf statement. The fprintf command prints the variable y to a file named test.dat. The syntax 6.2f means the minimum field width is 6 spaces long and the 2 specifies the precision of the data. In other words, the printed data will be accurate to within 2 decimal places. The \n is important here, without it all the data would be printed on the same line. The output file test.dat should look like the following:
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 1.00 1.41 1.73 2.00 2.24 2.45 2.65 2.83

. .

. .

The fscanf command works in a similar fashion. The generic format is as follows : [A,count] = fscanf(fid, format, size) [A,count] = fscanf(id, format) The fscanf statement will read the data into a matrix A. The size of the file can be the following : n reads n elements into a column vector inf reads to the end of a file [m,n] reads until m x n matrix is full From the previous example we could read test.dat back in as follows : fid = fopen(test.dat); U = fscanf(fid, %g %g, [2 inf ]) fclose(fid) Test data will be read into MATLAB again with the y data in a two row matrix called U. The next set of commands fwrite and fread deal with binary data files. The commands are very similar to fscanf and fprintf. The generic form for fread and fwrite are:

50

A = fread(fid) or [a,count] = fread(fid, size, precision) count = fwrite(fid,A,precision) or fwrite(fid,A,precision) You open the file and read it or write to it as needed. However since we are now dealing with binary data, there is also a precision option. Use of the precision option requires that the user knows the number of bits in each value being read or written. If noting is used, precision is automatically set to unchar which means unsigned 8-bit character. The following is a list of what could be used for precision when reading and writing binary files. The information is given for both MATLAB and C or FORTRAN. MATLAB char schar uchar short ushort int uint long float ulong float 32 double float64 intN uintN C or FORTRAN char or char*2 signed char unsigned char short unsigned short int unsigned int long float unsigned long real*4 double real*8 Interpretation character 8 bits signed or unsigned signed 8 bit character unsigned 8 bit character 16 bit integer unsigned 16 bit integer 16 or 32 bits integer unsigned 16 or 32 bit integer 32 bit integer 32 bit floating point value 32 bit unsigned integer 32 bit floating point value 64 bit long floating point 64 bit floating point value signed integer, N bits wide unsigned integer N bits wide

Therefore, using freadf you could read in binary data from C or Fortran. Likewise, you could write binary data that would be compatible with your external program. I.3.7 Using the MATLAB Debugger

Often times when writing an M-file you will save it and run it only to find that MATLAB either says you have an error or you get values that you werent expecting. There are several options at this point. You can start by removing the semicolons so that the data is displayed as it is calculated. If this does not help, the echo and keyboard commands could also be used to examine the workspace state at any point during execution. Finally if you are running the MATLAB version of 4.0 or greater you could use the MATLAB debugger. A list of all the debugging commands are listed in Chapter 1.

Remember
the debugger only works on MATLAB function files
51

To better understand the debugger commands we will work through some examples. Create the following function M-file shown below: function [y1,y2] = temp(x) % For each Matrix entered find the determinant and rotate the matrix y2 = rot90(x) y1 = det(x) After running the M-file with a matrix you should get results similar to the following : x = [3 4 5;1 5 6;7 8 9] x= 3 1 7 4 5 8 5 6 9

temp(x); y2 = 5 4 3 y1 = -12 To start using the debugger, first use the dbtype command. This command will list the M-file with line numbers. The syntax of this command is dbtype followed by the function name. In the following example, the dbtype command will be used for both the temp M-file and the rot90 M-file. After using dbtype you should see the following : dbtype temp 1 2 3 4 function [y1,y2] = temp_example(x) % For each Matrix entered find the determinant and rotate the matrix y2 = rot90(x) y1 = det(x) 6 5 1 9 8 7

dbtype rot90 1 function B = rot90(A,k) 2 %ROT90 Rotate matrix 90 degrees.

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3 % rot90(A) is the 90 degree rotation of m x n matrix A. 4 % rot90(A,k) is the k*90 degree rotation of A, k = +-1,+-2,... 5 % For example, 6 % 7 % A = [1 2 3 B = rot90(A) = [ 3 6 8 % 456] 25 9 % 14] 10 % 11 % mesh(B) then shows a 90 degree counter-clockwise rotation 12 % of mesh(A). 13 % 14 % See also VIEW, FLIPUD, FLIPLR. 15 16 % From John de Pillis 19 June 1985 17 % Modified 12-19-91, LS. 18 % Copyright (c) 1984-93 by The MathWorks, Inc. 19 20 21 [m,n] = size(A); 22 if nargin == 1 23 k = 1; 24 else 25 k = rem(k,4); 26 if k < 0 27 k = k + 4; 28 end 29 end 30 if k == 1 31 A = A.'; 32 B = A(n:-1:1,:); 33 elseif k == 2 34 B = A(m:-1:1,n:-1:1); 35 elseif k == 3 36 B = A(m:-1:1,:); 37 B = B.'; 38 else 39 B = A; 40 end Now we will set a stop in the temp M-file and the rot90 M-file using the following command : dbstop at 2 in temp dbstop at 21 in rot90

53

These statements will cause MATLAB execution to stop at line 2 in the temp M-file and at line 21 in the rot90 M-file. Now run the M-file again using a different value of x. You should see something like this. x = [2 6 7;3 8 4; 1 6 3]; temp(x); y2 = rot90(x) K Execution stopped at line 2 in the temp M-file and is now in the keyboard command mode. At this time, use the dbstack command to display all the function calls. The command dbstack should return the function and its appropriate path. This is an example of what you may see. Since you may have saved your M-file somewhere else your path may be different than this. K dbstack In c:\matlab\bin\temp.m at line 3 K At this point you can enter whos to see what variables are being used and what their values are. We will continue execution and move to the next break point using the dbcont command. After typing dbcont you should see something like this. K dbcont 21 [m,n] = size(A); K The dbcont statement allowed the M-file to continue until the next breakpoint. If we wanted to move line by line through our code, we could use the dbstep command. Using the dbstep command in the program we could view the values as the program is being run. The use of the dbstep command is shown below: K dbstep 22 if nargin == 1 K nargin nargin = 1 K dbstep 23 k = 1; K dbstep 24 else K k k= 1
54

K At this point we could use dbcont to allow the program to run to completion or we could step through the entire rot90 M-file line by line. If there are more breakpoints that you do not need anymore, the dbclear command can be used. K dbclear at 21 in rot90 The above statement will clear the breakpoint in rot90. If you are satisfied with the results of your M-file and wish to quit the debugger, dbquit will take the user out of the debugging mode. K dbquit Now try running the program temp again; the following should happen. temp(x) 3 y2 = rot90(x) K dbcont y2 = 7 6 2 y1 = 40 Since all the breakpoints were not cleared, MATLAB again stopped in the temp M-file and reverted to the debugging mode. You have to clear all stops before quitting the debugger, or you can use the clear command in the workspace. Do bee careful, though, as the clear command will clear ALL variables. There were several important topics discussed in this chapter. We learned how to create, run and debug M-files to make your work easier. We also learned how to read and write data to files. The information provided should cover most of your needs. And of course, practice makes perfect so work through those examples. Remember, you can always use the help provided with MATLAB for more information and examples. 4 8 3 3 6 1

55

I.4
I.4.1

MATLAB OPERATORS
Operators

Operators are the basis for building expressions. Operations include basic functions such as scalar addition and subtraction to more complex functions such as matrix multiplication and division. A comprehensive list of operators is provided in the first chapter.

Remember
In MATLAB there are three different groups of operators arithmetic, relational, and logical

Remember
In MATLAB the order of precedence for the operators are arithmetic->relational-> logical

The first group of operators is the arithmetic operators. They include the basic math functions to perform addition, subtraction, etc. The syntax used in MATLAB for the basic arithmetic operators is as follows : + * / \ ^ addition subtraction multiplication right division left division power

The user should be familiar with the addition, subtraction, and multiplication operations. The right and left division, however, does need some explaining. The basic concept behind left and right division is as follows : A/B = B\A Left Division

Right Division

In right division, the first number is the numerator and the second number is the denominator.

56

Left division works opposite to right division; the first number is the denominator and the second number is the numerator. Example I.4.1 Divide 2 by 4 using right and left division. 2/4 ans = 0.5000 4\2 ans = 0.5000 Before finishing this section, lets do one more example with arithmetic operators.. Example I.4.1.2 In one command statement using the arithmetic operators, subtract 8 from 16 squared. 16^2 - 8 ans = 248 This example demonstrates that the power operator takes precedence over subtraction. Precedence of the power operator over subtraction means that the power operation is performed before the subtraction, regardless of the order of the two operations. Rules for precedence of arithmetic operators are as follows. Multiplication, right and left division and the power operator all have equal precedence. Combinations of these four operators in one statement are performed in the order that they appear from left to right. These four operators all have precedence over addition and subtraction. You can use parentheses to assert your own precedence in an arithmetic expression. We will see more examples of precedence when we discuss Relational and Logical operators. I.4.2 Arithmetic Array and Matrix Operators The arithmetic operators mentioned in the previous section are not limited to scalar operations only; they can be used for arrays and matrices.

Remember
In MATLAB array arithmetic operations are carried out element by element
A list of the operators, their function, and their syntax is given below: A + B addition of arrays A and B
57

A A A A A A

.* ./ .\ .^ .

B B B B B

subtraction of arrays A and B element by element multiplication right division of arrays A and B left division of arrays A and B Array A raised to the power of B Transpose of array A

Remember
In using array operations, A and B either have to be of the same dimension or one of them has to be a scalar
The array operations are similar to the arithmetic operations mentioned in the previous section. The . indicates the element by element operation. The next couple of examples show the use of some of these operators.. Example I.4.2.1 Define two arrays x = [5 6 7] and y = [7 8 9] x = [5 6 7] x= 5 6 7

y = [7 8 9] y= 7 8 9

Example I.4.2.2 Transpose x and y x.' ans = 5 6 7 y.' ans = 7

58

8 9

Example I.4.2.3 Multiply x and y. Then multiply x by the transpose of y x.*y ans = 35 48 63

x.*y' ??? Error using ==> .* Matrix dimensions must agree. Again remember the dimensions must agree!! In the previous example, the error was shown because we tried to multiply a 1 by 3 array with a 3 by 1 array. Example I.4.2.4 Divide x and y using left and right division. x./y ans = 0.7143 y.\x ans = 0.7143 0.7500 0.7778 0.7500 0.7778

Example I.4.2.5 Raise x to the power of 2. Then raise x to the power of y. x.^2 ans = 25 36 x.^y 49

59

ans = 78125

1679616

40353607

In example I.4.2.5 above, we raise x to the power of y in an element-by-element fashion by using the .* operator. The array x contains the elements 5, 6, and 7 and the array y contains the elements 7, 8, 9. So the element-by-element power operation raises 5 to the power of 7, 6 is to the power of 8, and 7 to the power of 9. As you can see, the use of array operators is not that difficult. The information learned here will be built upon in the next section when we talk about matrix operators. I.4.3 Arithmetic Matrix Operators Matrix arithmetic operations are defined by the rules of linear algebra. The list of operators are similar to the operators used for array operations. A list of the operators and their functions are listed below: A + B A - B A* B A/ B A\ B A^ p A Adds A and B Subtracts A and B Algebraic Multiplication of A and B Matrix right division Matrix left division Matrix power where p is a scalar or integer Matrix transpose (for complex matrices performs complex conjugate transpose)

Matrix operators are very useful and are used frequently for such functions as solving linear equations. Some examples are again shown here to familiarize the reader with Matrix operators.

Remember
The order of operations is important when using Matrix operations

Example I.4.3.1 Create matrices P and Q. Let P be equal to [1 4;4 5] and Q be equal to [6 5;4 5]. Multiply P and Q, then Q and P, and array multiply P and Q, then Q and P. P = [1 4;4 5] P= 1 4

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Q = [6 5;4 5] Q= 6 4 5 5

P*Q ans = 22 44 25 45

Q*P ans = 26 24 49 41

P .* Q ans = 6 20 16 25 Q .* P ans = 6 20 16 25 As mentioned previously, the order of matrix operations is important. P * Q does not equal Q * P. Note that this restriction is not necessary for array multiplication. P .* Q is just an element-by-element multiplication of the matrices, therefore P .* Q equals Q.* P. Example I.4.3.2 Perform matrix right and left division on matrices P and Q. P/Q ans = -1.1000 1.9000 0 1.0000
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 Q\P ans = -1.5000 -0.5000 2.0000 1.4000 Again, the order of the operations is important. It is interesting to note that right division of matrices is equivalent to multiplication of a the first matrix times the inverse of the second matrix. That is, A/B is equivalent to A*inv(B). Similarly, for left division, A\B is equivalent to inv(A)*B. Example I.4.3.3 Raise P to the second power. Again use matrix and array operators to see the difference. P^2 ans = 17 24 P .^2 ans = 1 16 16 25 Note that P^2 is equivalent to matrix multiplication of P times P. 24 41

At this point you may be asking yourself, How do I know when to use array and matrix operators?. If you want to perform element-by-element operations, use array operators. Suppose, for example, you are solving for X in the equation AX = B where A and B are both matrices. Since this is a matrix equation, the solution will involve matrix operations. The solution for X is of the form X = inv(A)*B. The abbreviated solution for this expression is X= A\B. The preceding is an instance where matrix operations are appropriate. The following is an example where element-by-element operations are appropriate.

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Example I.4.3.4 Suppose you would like to calculate power dissipation in a diode given the following measurements of diode voltage and current:

Diode Voltage 0.5 volts 0.6 volts 0.65 volts 0.7 volts 0.75 volts 0.8 volts

Diode Current
10 A 1mA 4 mA 10 mA 40 mA 100 mA

We all know that power is voltage times current. In MATLAB, we can define a voltage array, v, and a current array, i, and use element-by-element multiplication to calculate the power. v= [0.5 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8] % voltage array v= 0.5000 0.6000 0.6500 0.7000 0.7500 0.8000 % diode current in amps

i = [10e-6 1e-3 4e-3 10e-3 40e-3 100e-3] i= 0.0000 p=v.*i p= 0.0000 0.0006 0.0026 0.0070 0.0300 0.0010 0.0040 0.0100 0.0400

0.1000

% diode power in watts

0.0800

format short e p p= 5.0000e-006 6.0000e-004 2.6000e-003 7.0000e-003 3.0000e-002 8.0000e-002 It takes some practice to remember what the syntax for a given operation should be, but once you have used these operations for a while, the appropriate usage should become second nature.

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I.4.4 Relational Operators Relational operators perform element-by-element comparisons between two matrices or scalars.

Remember
MATLAB will return a 1 if the relation is true and a 0 if the relation is false
The Relational operators, their syntax, and their functions are listed below : A A A A A A < B checks if A is less than B (works only on real part) > B checks if A is greater than B(works only on real part) <= B checks if A is less than or equal to B(works only on real part) >= B checks if A is greater than or equal B(works only on real part) = = B checks if A is equal to B(works on real and imaginary part of operands) ~= B checks if A is not equal to B(works on real and imaginary part) To understand relational

All the relational operators are relatively self-explanatory. operators and their uses, some more examples are presented. Example I.4.4.1

Create variables a and b. Set a to 6 and b to 8. Then use some of the relational operators to compare a and b and observe the results. a=6 a= 6 b=8 b= 8 a>b ans = 0 a<b ans = 1

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 a == b ans = 0 Note that relational operations return a "1" if the relationship is true, and a "0" if it is false. Example I.4.4.2 Create matrices c and d. Let c be a 2x2 matrix equal to [1 5;7 3] and d be a 2x2 matrix equal to [9 5;2 7]. Again use some of the relational operators to compare c and d and see what type of results you get. c = [1 5;7 3] c= 1 7 5 3

d = [9 5;2 7] d= 9 2 c >d ans = 0 1 0 0 5 7

c >=d ans = 0 1 1 0

c == d ans = 0 0 c <d ans = 1 0

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1 0

0 1

c <=d ans = 1 0 Example I.4.4.3 Now create two complex variables e and f. Let e be equal to 3 + 5i and f be equal to 2 + 7i. Again use some of the relational operators to compare e and f and see what type of results you get. e = 3 + 5i e= 3.0000 + 5.0000i f = 3 + 7i f= 3.0000 + 7.0000i e ~=f ans = 1 e == f ans = 0 e >f ans = 0 e >=f ans = 1 1 1

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 As can be seen by the previous example, all the relational operators, excluding the (= =) and (~=) operators, test only the real part of the operands. Relational operators are very useful for comparing variables and for decision making, as required in for and if loops. I.4.5 Logical Operators

The final set of operators are Logical operators. They perform the AND, OR, and NOT operations. The syntax used is as follows : A&B A|B ~A xor(A,B) A AND B A OR B NOT A EXCLUSIVE OR of A and B

As is the case with Relational operations, if a Logical operation is TRUE then a 1 is returned and if it is FALSE a 0 is returned.

Remember When Logical operators are used in calculations, they have the lowest precedence
Some examples are presented here to better understand Logical operators.

Example I.4.5.1
In MATLAB write a command statement to test if 2+4 is less than 9 and 11. 2+4 < 9 & 11 ans = 1 There are some important things that should be noted in the previous example. First when looking at the command statement above, it should read: Is the value of 2+4 less than 9 and 11. The answer is obviously true; however, it is important to remember that MATLAB used the order of precedence when performing the comparison. The addition of 2+4 was performed first

67

since it has higher precedence than the AND operator. The sum was checked to see if it was less than both 9 and 11. Example I.4.5.2 In MATLAB, write a command statement to test if 2+4 is less than 3 or 11. 2+4 < 3 | 11 ans = 1 The command statement above should be read: Is the value of 2+4 less than 3 or 11. Six is less than 11, so the operation is true and the result is 1. As with Relational operators, Logical operators are useful in performing comparisons and for decision making in programming loops. I.4.6 Special Characters

In this section some special characters and their uses are explained. These special characters are helpful to know when constructing arrays, making comments in M-files, etc. The list of Special Characters and their functions are listed below. [] () = . , ; % ! Brackets are used to form vectors and Matrices Parentheses are used to indicate precedence in arithmetic expressions Used in assignment statements, ==is a Relational operator Matrix Transpose Decimal point Used to separate matrix subscripts and function arguments Used after expression to suppress printing Denotes comment Indicates the rest of the input line is a command to the operating system

You should have been exposed to most of these characters in the previous sections. However, since we have been stressing operators and the importance of precedence in arithmetic expressions, let's look at one more example. Example I.4.6.1 In MATLAB write a command statement to test if 9 + 2*2 > 20. Then add parentheses around 9 + 2 to see the difference. 9 + 2*2 > 20

68

ans = 0 (9 + 2)*2 > 20 ans = 1 As can be seen in the previous example, the parentheses changed the values on the left hand side of the expression. In this section we covered several important topics from the use of operators to the use of special characters. By going through the examples, the user should become more comfortable with MATLAB and more confident in writing M-files.

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I.5
I.5.1

Two- Dimensional Graphics

Linear X-Y Graphs

The common command for plotting two-dimensional data is the plot command. This command plots sets of data arrays on appropriate X-Y (horizontal and vertical ) axes, and connects the points using straight lines. Here is an example of how to use the plot command: Example I.5.1.1 x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); plot(x, y)

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

This example creates 629 data points over the range 0x 2 to form the horizontal axis of the plot. It also creates another array, y, containing the corresponding sine of the data in array x. Once the plot command is entered, MATLAB will open a graphics window (Figure Window) and graph the data by using straight lines to connect the points. It also adds numerical scales and
70

tick marks to the axes automatically. If a Figure Window already contains a graph, the plot command clears the current Figure Window and plots a new graph.

The Plot Command plot(horizontal axis, vertical axis)

An array holding the horizontal variable. An array holding the function to be plotted.

Rotate 90o plot(vertical axis, horizontal axis)

An array holding the function to be plotted. An array holding the horizontal variable.

I.5.2

Multiple Plots on the Same Axes

There are different ways of plotting more than one set of data on the same set of axes: 1) using the hold command, or 2) using the plot command with a multiple pair of arguments The Hold Command The hold command holds the current plot and all axes properties so that the subsequent graphing commands add to the existing command.

Example I.5.2.1: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); zz = sin(x + pi / 4); plot(x, y) hold Current plot held

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 plot(x, z); plot(x, zz); Once the hold command is entered, MATLAB continues plotting new graphs on the same axes.
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

You can stop holding the current graphs by either entering another hold command or using the hold off command.

To stop MATLAB from holding the current plots, enter hold off or hold (if a hold command has been entered before)

Another way of plotting multiple functions on the same set of axes is by giving the plot command more than one pair of arguments. Example I.5.2.2: hold off x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); plot(x, y, x, z)

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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Remember Many functions may be plotted at one time if you supply additional pairs of arguments to the plot command.

If one of the arguments in the plot command is a matrix and the other is a vector, then MATLAB graphs each row of the matrix versus the vector. Example I.5.2.3: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); zz = sin(x + pi / 4); mat_y_z_zz = [y; z; zz]; plot(x, mat_y_z_zz) In this example, you created a matrix , mat_y_z_zz, whose rows are sin(x), cos(x) , and sin(x + pi / 4). The plot command graphs the rows of this matrix versus the variable x at the same time on the same set of axes.

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I.5.3

Interpretation of Plot Command with a Single Argument

When the plot command is used with a single argument, plot(y), it acts based on the data contained in y. If y is a complex-valued function, then plot(y) is interpreted as plot (Real(y), Imag(y)). In all other instances, the imaginary component of y is ignored. Example I.5.3.1: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x) + cos(x) * i; plot(y)

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

In this example, you created a complex array y with Real(y) = sin(x) and Imag(y) = cos(x). The plot command, plot(y) , graphs cos(x) versus sin(x). When y is a real-valued function, then plot(y) is interpreted as plot(x,y). If there is no array involved in the calculation of y, then plot(y) is interpreted as plot(1:length(y),y). That is, y is plotted versus an index of its values. For example, when the single argument is a matrix, then these interpretations are applied to the columns of the matrix. Example I.5.3.2: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; mat_y_z = [sin(x); cos(x)]; mat_y_z = mat_y_z'; plot(mat_y_z)
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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

In this example, you created a matrix mat_y_z with its first and second column being sin(x) and cos(x), respectively. Note that MATLAB interpreted the plot as plotting sin(x) and cos(x) versus its index ( number of rows) not the values of x.

Teaser I.5.3.1: In the previous plots, you have seen different scales for the x-axis. One divided the x-axis between 0 and 7, the other between 0 and 700. Can you explain why ?

If you couldnt explain this, see our explanation at the end of this chapter.

I.5.4 Line Styles, Markers, and Colors Various line types, plot symbols and colors may be obtained with plot(x,y,s), where s is a character string made of one or more elements from the following columns labeled Symbol.
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Symbol

Color

Symbol . o x-mark + * s

Marker point circle -.

Symbol :

Line Style solid dotted dashdot dashed

y yellow m magenta c cyan x r red g green b blue w white d k black

plus star square diamond v triangle (down) ^ triangle (up) < triangle (left) > triangle (right) p pentagram h hexagram

--

Example I.5.4.1: x = 0:0.1:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); plot(x, y, 'kp-', x, z, 'gd--')

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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

In this example, y is plotted with black color (k), pentagram marker ( p), and solid lines. The function z is plotted with green color (g), diamond marker (d), and dashed lines (--).

Remember Line style, marker, and color must follow each pair of the arguments in the plot command. These parameters must be enclosed in single quotation marks , . plot(x, y, bd*) x = horizontal axis y = vertical axis b= blue color d = diamond marker * = start line style I.5.5 Plot Appearance

MATLAB allows flexibility as to how you want your plot to appear on the screen. You can add grids, label the axes, insert a title, create a legend, and eliminate the box that surrounds your graph. Adding Grids

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Example I.5.5.1: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; plot(y) grid on

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

To remove the grid, simply enter grid off Labeling Axes xlabel Labeling axes is simple! xlabel(whatever you want for x-axis) ylabel(whatever you want for y-axis)

xlabel('This is where the x-label goes.') ylabel('This is where the y-label goes.')

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1 0.8 0.6 This is where the y-label goes. 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 This is where the x-label goes. 600 700

Titling Your Plot The title command adds a line of text at the top of the plot. title(This is where the title goes)

title('This is where the title goes.')

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This is where the title goes. 1 0.8 0.6 This is where the y-label goes. 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 This is where the x-label goes. 600 700

Remember You can add a label (or any other text string) to any specific location on your plot with the text command. text ( x,y, text string) The point (x,y) represents the coordinates of the center left edge of the text string in units taken from the plot axes. For example, you can add y = sin(x) at the location (300,0.4) as: text(300,0.4,'y = sin(x)')

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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 y=sin(x)

Legends Rather than using an individual text string to identify each graph, you may use a legend. The legend command creates a legend box in the upper right corner of the plot and adds any text that you supply to each line in your plot. If you wish to move the legend to a different location, simply click and drag it to the desired location. Example I.5.5.2: x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); plot(x, y, '-', x, z, '--') legend('- sin(x)', '-- cos(x)')

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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

- sin(x) -- cos(x)

Remember You can click and drag the legend box to any location that you desire. To remove the legend, simply enter: legend off

Remember To remove the title, x-label, and y-label, enter: xlabel( ) ylabel( ) title( ) The Axes Box When you plot a function, the box is ON. To remove the box, simply enter: box off

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To add the box, simply enter: box on

This is where the title goes. 1 0.8 0.6 This is where the y-label goes. 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 This is where the x-label goes. 600 700

Scaling Axes MATLAB automatically scales the axes to fit your data set. To manually scale the axes, you can use the axis command. This gives you complete control over the scaling and appearance of the horizontal and vertical axes of your plot.

Scaling Axes You can control the scales of the x and y axes by axis([xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax]) which sets the minimum and maximum values for the horizontal and vertical axes. Auto Scaling

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The default scaling is automatic. However, if you have scaled the axes manually, you can always go back to auto scaling by entering axis auto Axes Off and Axes On You can turn the axes on or off. The default is on. To turn the axes off, enter axis off

The axis command is a powerful way of controlling the appearance of your plot. In addition to the above features, you can do much more. To get a complete list of what you can do with the axis command, type help axis at the prompt in the Command Window.

I.5.6

Manipulating Plots

At this time, you should know how to plot more than one set of data on the same set of axes by using the hold command. However, there are times when you would like to plot more than one set of data on different sets of axes in the same window. This can be done by using the subplot command. The subplot command divides the Figure Window into different areas defined by the argument of the subplot. For example: subplot(m,n,p) divides the Figure Window into m n rectangular panes (m rows and n columns) and creates a set of axes in the pth pane where the data will be plotted.

Example I.5.6.1: clear x = 0:0.01:2 * pi; y = sin(x); z = cos(x); zz = sin(x + pi / 4); subplot(2, 3, 1) plot(y) subplot(2, 3, 3) plot(z)

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 subplot(2, 3, 5) plot(zz) Plots of y, z, and zz will be in panes 1, 3, and 5, respectively.

1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1

500

1000 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1

500

1000

500

1000

I am stuck in subplot, get me out ! Okay, just close the Figure Window by clicking the left mouse button on the top right corner (X). After the Figure Window has closed, open it by entering the command figure(1) in the Command Window. MATLAB will open a Figure Window that contains no plots. I hope you learned your lesson and learned how to get out of trouble!

Zooming on Plots The zoom command, zoom on is used to activate the interactive zoom in function of the MATLAB. Once this command is entered, clicking the left mouse button on the plot will zoom in and clicking the right mouse will zoom out the plot.
>> 85

Filling the Area

0 -1 0 2 4 6

You can fill in the area under the curve by using the area command. x=0:0.1:2*pi; y=sin(x); area(x,y)

Plotting on log-log and semi-log Scales The loglog command is the same as the plot command except that the logarithmic scales are used for both axes. x=1:2:1000; y=x.*x+2*x+300; loglog(x,y)

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10

10

10

10

10 0 10

10

10

10

The semilogx command is the same as the plot command except that the horizontal axis is a logarithmic scale.

semilogx(x,y) This command is the same as plot(x,y) except that the x-axis will be on a semi-log and the y-axis on a linear scale. The semilogy command is the same as the plot command except that the vertical axis is a logarithmic scale. semilogy(x,y) This command is the same as plot(x,y) except that the x-axis will be on a linear scale and the y-axis on a semi-log.

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Pie Chart pie(x) Plots a pie chart of vector x. pie(x,b) b is a logical vector describing a slice or slices to be pulled out of the pie chart.

x = [1 2 2 3 2]; pie(x) subplot(2, 2, 1) pie(x) subplot(2, 2, 2) pie(x, x==min(x)) Bar Graphs

10% 20% 10% 20% 20% 20%

30% 20% 20%

30%

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bar(x,y) This command is the same as plot(x,y) except that it plots a bar graph. Printing Your Results There are different ways of printing plots. The two most common ways are: a) Click on the Figure Window, choose print from the File menu, or b) Click on the Figure Window, then type print at the prompt on the Command Window. In the latter, you can control the print orientation and size by using the following commands: orient landscape This command tells the printer to change the printout orientation from portrait to landscape. orient tall This command tells the printer to stretch the plot to fill the vertical page.

Teasers Answer
Teaser I.5.3.1 The argument of the plot command dictates how the x-axis is scaled. If a single argument is used for the argument of the plot command, i.e., plot(y), then MATLAB uses the minimum and the maximum values of x to scale the x-axis. If a pair of variables is used for the argument of the plot command, i.e., plot(x,y), then MATLAB uses the number of points in the x vector to scale the x-axis.

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I.6
I.6.1

Three - Dimensional Graphics

Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) data can be displayed in many different styles. Line, surface, and wire mesh are examples of displaying 3D plots. I.6.2 Line Plots

The plot3 command in MATLAB is used to display data using connected lines. A simplified format for this command is:

The 3-D Line Plot Command plot3(x, y, z, s) The argument of plot3 is a fourtuple ( having four vectors), where x, y, and z are three vectors of the same size. For each x, y, and z, there is a unique location in 3D space. The plot3 command uses lines to connect these points with the style defined by s. If s is eliminated, then MATLAB uses the default setting.

Example I.6.2.1:
x = -10:0.01:10; y = sin(x); z = sin(x + pi / 3); plot3(y, z, x) title(Coil), xlabel(sin(x)), ylabel((sin(x + pi / 3)), zlabel(x)

90

Coil

10

10 1 0.5 0 0.5 (sin(x + pi / 3) 1 1 0 0.5 sin(x) 0.5 1

You can plot more than one set of 3D data on the same set of axes. This can be done by adding more fourtuples to the argument of the plot3 command. For example: plot3(x1,y1,z1,s1,x2,y2,z2,s2) displays two sets of three dimensional data, x1,y1,z1 and x2,y2,z2 using styles s1 an s2, respectively. The line types, line colors, and marker symbols are specified by s in the argument of plot3. A set of line styles, colors, and markers is given in the following table:

Table I.6.2.1
Symbol y m c r g b w k Color yellow magenta cyan red green blue white black Symbol . o x + * s d v ^ < > p h Marker Symbol Line Style solid dotted dashdot dashed

point circle : x-mark -. plus -star square diamond triangle (down) triangle (up) triangle (left) triangle (right) pentagram hexagram

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Example I.6.2.2:
x = -10:0.1:10; y1 = sin(x); z1 = sin(x + pi / 3); y2 = sin(x + pi / 4); z2 = sin(x + pi / 6); plot3(y1, z1, x, '-', y1, y2, x, '+') title('Tangled Coils') xlabel('y1') ylabel(z1, y2')
Tangled Coils

10

10 1 0.5 0 0.5 z1, y2 1 1 0 0.5 y1 0.5 1

I.6.3 Mesh Plots

Mesh plots are useful for plotting functions of two variables such as z =f (x,y).The mesh surface is defined by the z-coordinates of points above a rectangular grid in the x-y plane. The mesh command forms a plot by joining adjacent points with straight lines. There are four steps involved in generating mesh plots: Step 1. Define a desired range for two variables, say x and y. Step 2. Use the meshgrid command to generate a mesh related to x and y: [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y). Step 3. Evaluate the function f(x, y), say z = sqrt(x * x + y * y).

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Step 4. Use the mesh command to plot the mesh corresponding to z: mesh(x, y, z). Example I.6.3.1 Plot a mesh graph for z= x 2 + y 2 over the range -10 x 10 and -10 y 10.

x = -10:1:10; y = x; [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y); z = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2); mesh(x, y, z)

15

10

0 10 5 0 5 10 10 0 5 5 10

I.6.4 Surface Plots

A surface plot is the same as a mesh plot except that the patches (the space between the lines) are filled with a specified (or default) color. All of the steps involved in plotting a surface graph are the same as the ones for mesh plots except for step 4, where mesh is replaced by surf. Step 1. Define a desired range for two variables, say x and y. Step 2. Use the meshgrid command to generate a mesh related to x and y: [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y).

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Step 3. Evaluate the function f(x, y), say z = sqrt(x * x + y * y). Step 4. Use the surf command to plot the surface corresponding to z: surf(x, y, z).

Example I.6.4.1:
Plot a surface graph for z= x 2 + y 2 over the range -10 x 10 and -10 y 10.

x = -10:1:10; y = x; [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y); z = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2); surf(x, y, z)

15

10

0 10 5 0 5 10 10 0 5 5 10

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I.6.5 Contour Plots

The contour command draws a contour plot of a function of two variables such as z=f(x,y). The number of contour lines and their values are chosen automatically by the contour command. The Contour Command contour(x, y, z, n) where z is a function of x and y. The parameter n defines the number of contours to be plotted by the contour command. However, if n is deleted, then the contour command automatically chooses the number of contours. The steps involved in drawing a contour plot of a function of two variables are the same steps used for mesh plots except in step 4., where the mesh command is replaced by the contour command. Step 1. Define a desired range for two variables, say x and y. Step 2. Use the meshgrid command to generate a mesh related to x and y: [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y). Step 3. Evaluate the function f(x, y), say z = sqrt(x * x + y * y). Step 4. Use the contour command to plot the contours corresponding to z: contour(x, y, z).

Example I.6.5.1
Plot a contour graph for z= x 2 + y 2 over the range -10 x 10 and -10 y 10.

x = -10:1:10; y = x; [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y); z = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2); contour(x, y, z)

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10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 10

10

If you want to apply a larger number of contours, simply specify the desired number in the last argument of the contour command. For example, to plot 20 contours, type contour(x, y, z, 20) instead of contour(x, y, z).

I.6.6 Three-Dimensional Contour Plots

To produce a 3-D contour of a 3D function, you can use the contour3 command. The argument of the contour3 command is the same as the argument of the contour command. The steps involved in generating a 3-D contour plot are the same as those of the mesh command except that in step 4, the mesh command is replaced by the contour3 command. Step 1. Define a desired range for two variables, say x and y. Step 2. Use the meshgrid command to generate a mesh related to x and y: [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y). Step 3. Evaluate the function f(x, y), say z = sqrt(x * x + y * y). Step 4. Use the contour3 command to plot the 3-D contours corresponding to z: contour3(x, y, z).

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Example I.6.6.1
Plot a 3-D contour plot for z= x 2 + y 2 over the range -10 x 10 and -10 y 10.

x = -10:1:10; y = x; [x, y] = meshgrid(x, y); z = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2); contour3(x, y, z)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 10 5 0 5 10 10 0 5 5 10

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