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This paper describes a co-rotational formulation for three-dimensional beams in which both the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix are consistently derived from the adopted 'strain measures'. The latter relate to standead beam theory but are embedded in a continuously rotating frame. A set of numerical examples show that the element provides an excellent numerical performance.
1. Introduction
Three-dimensional beam elements have been proposed by a number of authors [1-16]. In the non-linear context, as considered here, the formulation is complicated by the non-vectorial nature of rotational variables [17]. Under rotations including a significant rigid-body component, many elements produce over-stiff solutions due to 'self-straining'. As a consequence, a number of authors have introduced so-called co-rotational elements or co-rotational theories [3, 7-10, 18-22]. The phrase 'co-rotational' is used in a number of different contexts but, in the present paper, it will be taken to refer to the provision of a single element-frame that continuously rotates with the element. Co-rotational elements of this kind appear to have been first proposed by Belytschko and co-workers [3, 18, 19] and Oran [9, 20, 21] although the latter author included 'beam-column' terms which somewhat obscured the co-rotational basis. The co.rotational formulation seems to offer a non-linear framework in which standard linear formulations are used with respect to the rotating frame and non-linearity is introduced via the rotation of this frame. This argument has led some authors to simply apply transformation matrices to linear tangent stiffness matrices [7, 10]. However, this procedure does not correctly account for the variation of these transformation matrices. This was recognised by Oran [9] who, in a two-dimensional context, derived an elegant and consistent tangent stiffness formulation. Similar principles were applied to a three-dimensional formulation [20] although the latter was restricted to both small increments and small local rotations. Belytschko's work involved 'explicit integration' in a dynamic context [3, 18, 19] and so the issue of a consistent tangent stiffness matrix was not directly addressed although Belytschko did schematically outline the procedure for such a formulation and showed [18] that, contrary to some arguments [23], it was possible to derive a tangent stiffness matrix using co-rotational procedures (rather than updated Lagrangian, in which for a certain period the reference configuration is fixed).
0045-7825/90/$03.50 1990 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland)
132
In an important paper, Rankin and Brogan [10] derived a general framework for threedimensional large-rotational problems (both beams and shells) within which one could embed a 'standard element'. Special care was taken of the non-vectorial nature of large-rotations and a number of useful updating formulae were derived. However, the issue of consistent derivations for the out-of-balance force-vector and tangent stiffness matrices was not addressed. In a more recent paper (first seen by the author since the original draft of this paper), Rankin and Nour-Omid [24] have addressed these matters although the direct applications are limited to linear analysis.
2. Theory
(1)
o2 03
o~i, + od,
o~i~= oi,
0 = [o'o] ''~
(2)
sin 0
S(O) +
(1 - cos 0)
02
S(O)S(O),
(3)
s(o)=
o3 o o3 -o,~ o,
(4)
Throughout the paper, the notation S will be reserved for such skew-symmetric matrices. For small-rotations, R becomes I + S(O). For compound rotations, if x~ = R~(fl)x o is followed by x 2 = R2(ff2)x~,
In order to compute R n without adopting the matrix multiplication of (5), it is useful to define
133
2 tan(O/2) O.
0
(6)
1 1+
(7)
where S(co) is of the same form as S ( O ) in (4). (If oJ is replaced by 0, (7) provides the approximate relationship due to Hughes and Winget [25]). With the pseudo-vector in the form of (6), we can directly c o m u t e R12(~12 ) appropriate to (5) using
~12 4~O "l" ~2 -- tfO1 X ~2 1 1 - ~ l l ~t O 2 (8)
The adoption of such vectorial updating reduces the required computer storage. The scaled pseudo-vector of (6) becomes infinite at 0 = 180 (and multiples thereof). This difficulty can be overcome by adopting a sine-scaling [11] but, with a view to the provision of unique updating with angles beyond 180, it is better to adopt Euler parameters or normalized quartonians [14, 17,26-29], so that q--q+qffi[~
(9)
For angles of magnitude less than 180, we can obtain the tangent-scaled pseudo-vector, ~o of (6) from
o, = 2q/ .
(10)
ql
q2 .
(11)
(It can be shown that substitution of (10) into (8) is consistent with (11).) In place of (7), the rotation matrix, R, can be expressed in terms of the quartonian via [28]
R ffi ( ~2 _ qtq) I + 2qqt + 2~S(q). (12)
In some circumstances, we require to compute the quartonian or pseudo-vector from the rotation matrix R. This computation involves the eigenvectors of R. Here, we follow Simo and Vu-Quoc [14] and adopt an algorithm due to Spurrier [26], which obtains the quartonian from the rotation matrix via a = max(Tr(R), Rll, R22, R33)
134
and
if a = T r ( R ) = R,, + R22 + R33, (14) (15)
then
q-'- (1 + a) 112 ,
q, = 2(Rkj -- R j k ) / q ,
for i = 1, 3,
(16)
with i, j, k as the cyclic permutation of 1, 2, 3 and qi as the ith component of the vector q in (9). If a # Tr(R) but instead ffi R . , (17) then
qi = [a + 14(1 - T r ( S ) ) ] '/2 , (18)
(19) for I= j, k .
(20)
For rotations of magnitude less than 180, the tangent-scaled pseudo-vector can then be obtained from (10). When applying the principle of virtual work, we will require the variation of (1) which is given by
Sx = s ( ~ 0 ) x = - S ( x ) 8 0 , (21)
where the last relationship stems from the skew-symmetric nature of 5 (see (4)). The notation in (21) is a little unconventional because, following (21), the pseudo-vector O could not be updated via 0, = 0o + 80 (with subscript n for 'new' and o for 'old') but rather from R(0n) = [l + $(68)]R(0o) or via (8) or (11).
2.2. The element and nodal base-vectors and the local 'strains'
In the following description of the finite element theory, we will initially refer to the most basic implementation. Sophistications will be discussed later. Apart from the matrix $, which will be reserved for skew-symmetric matrices of the form of (4), the notation will be independent of that given previously. Figure 1 shows the three-dimensional beam element with the element base-vectors el-e3 (colmans of ), the left-hand side nodal base vectors t~-t 3 (columns of T), and the right-hand side nodal base vectors q~-q3 (columns of Q). T and Q are rotation matrices associated with pseudo-vectors a and/3, respectively. The initial values of these matrices would be input as geometry and the associated pseudo-vectors, a 0 and ~ , can then be computed from (13)-(20), (10) and (6). The non-additive changes in a and/3 (Sa and 8j0) are the structural rotation variables so that as the analysis proceeds, we can use (8) tO update scaled versions of the pseudo-vectors and hence T and Q (via (7)). Alternatively, we can use (2) and (9) to obtain the quartonian equivalent of, say, 8a, then update the quartonian equivalent of a using (11) before obtaining T from (12).
135
Current configuration
Initial configuration
q2
(b)
z,l,
Fig. 1. The element. (a) Geometry. (b) Current base-vectors and local slopes.
The nodal displacement variables would be updated in a conventional manner using, for
1 el-----~-(X21 +d21 ) , tn
(23)
where 1~ is the new 'length' between nodes and the 21 convention implies, for example, X2, = X, - X , , (24)
136
with X~ containing the initial co-ordinates of node 1. The base-vector e 2 should in some sense be an average of t 2 and q2 but orthogonal to e~ (with a similar procedure for e3). ~re will postpone discussion of the details until we have defined the 'local strains'. The local axial 'strain' is simply the relative displacement in the el direction, i.e., u, = I. - lo = sqrt((X21 + d2,)t(X21 + d 2 , ) ) - sqrt(X2,X21), (25)
where 1, and lo are new and original straight-line 'lengths' between nodes. In practice (25) is badly conditioned and it is better to adopt the mid-point formula [18],
ut = (1. + 1o)
(X21 + d2~)td2~.
(26)
Using (26), the axial force in the bar can be computed from
EA
N~-" to ui
(27)
The local rotational 'strains' are the local rotations 0zl - Or6 (collectively, #t) (Fig. 1) which can be computed from
2 sin 011 = --tae 2 + tt2e3 , 2 sin 0~3 = - t 3'e ~ + e~t~, 2 sin 015 ffi - q 2 'e s + e2q I , ' 2 sin 012 ffi -t'2e, + e~tl, 2 sin 014 = -q32 + q23 ,
t t
(28)
(Apart from the sine terms, which could probably, with little loss of accuracy, be replaced by the angles, (28) can be obtained from the anti-symmetric part of E t T for the first three and EtQ for the last three.) The local 'bending moments' M are conjugate to 0t with
M tffi (M1, M 2, M3, M4, Ms, Me) ,
(29)
where M 4 = - M I is the torque (Fig. 1). The moments M are related to the slopes, 0t, via M = D(0z - 8zo) where 8to are the initial local slopes and
m I
(30)
=y
GJ 0 0 -GJ 0
0
(31)
i
137
The second-moment of area, 12 in (31), is assumed to be 'associated' with rotations about t2 and q2, while the inertia I 3 relates to rotations about t 3 and q3We must now detail the previous, rather loose, definitions for e 2 and e 3. In order to introduce a frame-invariant choice we firstly define an 'average nodal rotation matrix', so that
s.,,-- s( a+p )
(32)
(33)
(34)
Although pseudo-vectors are not additive, (/3 - a ) will only be moderately large and hence AR((/3- a)) can be used as a reasonable representation of the rotation from T to the 'average configuration' R,v. (Further details on the precise method for the computation of R
rI X e1
(35)
so that, for example, e 2 = R ( p ) r 2. However, with a view to subsequent differentiation for the
virtual work, the author has used a 'mid-point rule' (see Fig. 2) to obtain the approximations
e2--r2
(36)
(37)
e3 - r3
2 (el + rl).
(38)
As illustrated in Fig. 2, with 30 for the angles related to the inner products, the lack of orthogonality in (38) is 1.9. Thirty degree angles are fairly large for 'local slopes' (after removal of the element rigid-body rotation). For slopes of 15, the lack of orthogonality is reduced to 0.25 . Using (36) and (37), it can be shown that the lack of orthogonality in e~e 3 is even smaller. As the mesh is refined, so that the local angles tend to zero, full orthogonality is recovered.
138
'2
jr1/~*
2.3. Computation o f the internal force vector, qi, using virtual work
(39)
where 8p t = (Sd',, 8at, ~d~, 8fit) are the virtual nodal 'displacements'. A consistent derivation of qj requires the variation of ut and 0t. From (23) and (26),
t 8u~ = et 8d2, ffi etl(Sd2 - 6dl).
(40)
(41)
In order to obtain 60t from (28), we require terms such as 6t 2, which can be obtained from (21) so that
= - s(t, ) , s q , = - S ( q, ) SIJ ,
(42)
where it should be emphasized that 6a and 6~1 are non-additive to a and/3 even when a and II are small. We also require 8et-~e 3. From (23) and (41),
(43)
(44)
139
In order to obtain 6e 2 and 6e:3, we require 6r~-6r~. From (33), we can find 6r~ -- S(an)ri - (R.v.Rta.o - l ) r i ,
(45)
where R,v o, the old R,v matrix, is that in (33) (a function of a and ~1), while the new Ray matrix, Ra, ., is that following the application of 66 and 8/I (as in (42)). It can be shown that S(611) = S(6a + 6p) + ~$(fl - a ) S ( 6 a - 8/I) + ~S(6fl - 6 a ) S ( p - a ) and that the pseudo-vector 611 is given by (46)
(47)
The second term should be very small because not only are ( / I - a) (a local difference after the removal of the overall rigid-body rotation) and (66 - 6 # ) small, but, in addition, the two terms are often nearly parallel thus making the cross-product even smaller. Hence, the author has considered only the first term so that, in conjunction with (45),
(48)
8e, = n(r~)* sp ,
(49) (50)
B2(r~) = 5(2 Q
(52)
With the aid of (42), (43), (48) and (49), the variations of 8t (28) can now be obtained as
sot = F' ~p ,
where
Fwith
f~ = B ( r 3 ) t 2 - B ( r 2 ) t , + h~ ,
J'2 -
(53)
1 f6], 2 cos 06
S(r2)t~
+
(54)
h2 ,
(55)
I"3 - B(r3)tl
h3 ,
:, = B(r,)e,- B(r,~)q~ + h, ,
fs -- B(r2)ql + hs ,
f 6 - B(r3)qx h6
140
and
(56)
(57)
and hence, from (39), the internal force vector, q~, is given by
q, = + Ng, (58)
with F from (54) and g from (57). 2.4. The tangent stiffnessmatrix The tangent stiffnessmatrix follows from the variationof (58). In particular,
8q, - g t 8p - (K,t + K~,)
8p.
(59)
The 'standard' tangent stiffness matrix, Kt~ is derived by making variations on N and M. From (58), (27), (30), (53) and (57), it is given by
g, t =
EA
lo
ggt + F D F t "
(60)
In forming the geometric stiffness matrix, K~,, it is useful to define a modified moment vector m, where
mr-'-[
MI
(61)
The geometric stiffness matrix K., involves the variations of F and g in (58) and is given by K~, = K~,~+ F Diag(M, tan O,)F' + m,[K.2(r2, t 3 - q3) + K,,2(r3, q2 - t2)]
+ m2K.2(r 2, t,) + m3K.2(r3, t,) + msK.2(r2, tit) + m6K.2(r3, q,) + K.3 + Kt,.3 + g.4 + K.s.
(62)
141
K=IK
Lg,
I, g,,.l
(63)
and to adopt the convention that if a submatrix is unmentioned, it is zero. Then Kor1 c o m e s from the differentiation of g (see (57)) and involves K n = Kss = -K13 = -K31 = N A ,
(64)
where A has been defined in (44). The K,.2(r~, z) terms come from the variation of the B(r~)z terms in (55) with z being fixed. K2(r~, z) involves the submatrices r~el (2(e',z) + ztr,)A K~I = - g x 3 = -K31 = g33 = U + U' + ~ where 1 A ~ A + r~el Azetl + U=-~ "~
t zt(el + rl)
2/.
Ar~e I ,
- (e 1 + rt)tzS(el)S(r,) + 2S(z)S(r,).
Note that the submatrices K22 etc. are non-symmetric.
The K.3 terms come from (55) via terms such as B ( r 2 ) 8 t I and involve
(70)
with K2 = -B(r2)[m4S(ts) + m2S(tl)] + B(r3)[m4S(t2)- m3S(tl)] , F'4 = B(r2)[m4S( q3) - msS( ql)l - B(ra)[m4S( q2) + m6S( qx)l "
(71) (72)
The matrix K4 comes from terms such as S(St3)e 2 from 6h~ (see (56)) and in relation to (63) has only non-zero K22 and K44 (non-symmetric) submatrices, where K22 = m4[S(e2)S(t 3) -
S(e3)S(t2)] + m2[-S(el)S(t2)
S(e2)S(t~)]
(73)
+
m6[-S(el)S(q3)
S(e3)S(qt)].
142
-(m2AS(t2) + m3AS(t3)],
(75)
Rows 1 and 3 come from terms such as A 8t2 from 8 h 2 (see (56)), while rows 2 and 4 come from terms such as -S(t2)8e 1 in 8 h 2 (see (56)). Finally, K~r5comes from terms such as 8At 2 in h 2 (see (56)) and involves Kll = K33 = with
- K 1 3 = - K 3 1 --~ Avetl
+ e,vtA + (etlv)A,
(76) (77)
It will be noted that the 'geometric stiffness matrix' K is non-symmetric. This observation is consistent with that of Simo [13] and Simo and Vu-Quoc [14] who adopted a different formulation. However, numerical experiments have shown that for the conservative problems addressed here, the tangent stiffness matrix becomes symmetric as the iterative procedure reaches equilibrium. This observation is again consistent with the theory of Simo and Vu-Quoc. In common with the latter authors, the present author ha~ found that the excellent convergence characteristics exhibited by the method (when used in conjunction with the full Newton-Raphson procedure) are only marginally impaired if the tangent stiffness matrix is artificially symmetrised. This will be demonstrated. 2.5. Implementation The updating of nodal rotation matrices T and Q has been performed indirectly using the quartonian update in (11). For the computation of the 'average rotation matrix' Ray in (33), the following procedure has been implemented: ALGORITHM (a) Obtain AR(~ - a) ffi QT t. (b) Use (13)-(20) and (10) to obtain ( / 3 - a) in tangent-scaled form from AR. (c) Obtain the unscaled ( / 3 - a) from the tangent scaled ( / 3 - a) using (6). (d) Compute (/3 - a)12. (e) Tangent scale ( , 8 - a)12. (f) Compute A R ( ( ~ - a)/2) from (7). (g) Compute Ray from (33). This procedure will not work for I/3 - al ~>180. However, p - a is the relative rotation (in
143
pseudo-vector form) of one end of the element with respect to the other. Hence no difficulties are likely (or have been encountered) on this account. A reasonable approximation involves omitting steps (c) and (e) in the above algorithm. For angles up to 30 or so, the tangent scaled pseudo-vector is very close to the unscaled pseudo-vector.
2.6. Discussion
As a result of comments in [30], as well as those from a referee, the following somewhat tentative discussion may be relevant. The tangent stiffness matrix, put forward in this paper, is consistent in relation to variables, 6a say, for which (with the subscript o for 'old' and n for 'new'):
r(an) = T(ao + Sa') = p +
s(~a)]T(ao).
(78)
Bet = C(a)
6a'
(79)
where the precise form of C(a) is given in [14]. To obtain true Newton-based quadratic convergence, it might appear necessary for the stiffness matrix to be consistent with regard to the 'additive' (in the limit) variables 6a'. This could require the inclusion of additional terms involving the derivative of C(a). However, it would appear that these additional terms will vanish in the limit as the out-of-balance forces tend to zero. Hence, such terms may not be required for quadratic convergence. The issue of quadratic convergence will be raised again in the following section on applications.
3. Applications
The following examples all involve the use of the full Newton-Raphson iterative method in conjunction with a tangential, incremental predictor. The quoted number of iterations do not include the latter. The adopted convergence criterion is
(8o)
where [Ig[[ is the Euclidean norm of the out-of-balance forces and [[q[[ is the Euclidean norm of the total applied forces.
Example 1. Cantilever subject to an end-moment
The first example does not test the full three-dimensional behaviour but, in two-dimensions, is a severe test of inextensional bending. The initially-straight cantilever (Fig. 3) is subject to an end moment of
M * = ~ M L = 1, 2~rE l (81)
144
M*
--
ML 2~'EI
-IVI* ,, 1.0
" - ) M*=O
Fig. 3. Initial and deformed geometries for cantilever subject-to-end moment (5 elements).
which forces the beam tO curl into a complete circle (Fig. 3). Rankin and Brogan [10] showed that with their co-rotational formulation this could be achieved with ten elements. Here, we have followed Simo and Vu-Quoc [14] and used five elements (Fig. 3). The solution was obtained using ten equal steps of AM* = 0.1. At each step, convergence was achieved to r (eq. (80)) < 10 -4 in three iterations. Bathe and Bolourchi [2], also using five elements, found inaccuracies beyond M * = 0.5.
145
= 300
Jt
P =0
by Simo and Vu-Quoc [14], for the fifth increment of solutions obtained using eight equal load increments of 75. Both sets of figures relate to solutions obtained with an artificially symmetrised tangent stiffness matrix. (Very similar figures were obtained with the full non-symmetric stiffness matrix.) I,ittle should be read into the slightly faster convergence of the present solution--choosing one increment at random is hardly scientific. However, both sets of results show a very fast convergence rate as equilibrium is approached. Considering the residual norms for the last three iterations (with I as the last), both methods give
llsll, kllsllT- ,
IIII,-=kI161l,-2,
Load level
300
(82)
Table 1 Tip geometry (x, y, z) for 45 bend (initially, 70.71, 0.0, 29.29)
450 51.93, 48.79, 18.43 52.32, 48.39, 18.62 52.11, 48.59, 18.38
600 46.84, 53.71, 15.61 47.2, 53.4, 15.9 47.23, 53.37, 15.79 47.04, 53.50, 15.55
Present Bathe and Bolourehi [2] Simo and Vu-Quoc [14] Cardona and Geradin [4]
58.53, 40.53, 22.16 59.2, 39.5, 22.5 58.84, 40.08, 22.33 58.64, 40.35, 22.14
146
8 9 13
with a of the order of 3.5 implying at least quadratic convergence. However one should probably not obtain a convergence rate from just these few iterations. Yet, on proceeding further, the present solution appeared to be affected by rounding error and little further improvement was gained so that a meaningful convergence rate could not be derived. Applying (82) (with [[gl[i below 10 -4) to the last three iterations of the other seven increments generally gave a convergence rate, a, greater than two.
Table 3 Comparison of convergence rates for 45 bend (Table gives Ilgll at end of each iteration) Iteration number
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Present
83475 12.9 948 0.23 x 10 -~ 0.193 x 10 -2 0.37 10 -6 m
147
!
I
f
! ! ! ! ! ! I ! ! ! !
! I
The computed response between the applied load and the lateral (z-direction) tip-deflection is shown in Fig, 6. The present solution was obtained using the arc-length method [31], while Simo and Vu-Quoc used displacement control. The kink in their curve (Fig. 6), just prior to 'buckling', relates to the removal of the 'perturbation load'. This load was not removed in the present analysis but (see Fig. 6), the current perturbation load was significantly smaller than that used by Simo and Vu-Quoc. Figure 5 shows the deflected shape of the frame at the final point in Fig. 6.
148
1.5
IA
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8 0
I 5
I 10
I 15
I 20
I 25
I 30 Tip z displacement
I 35
I 40
I 45
I 50
I 55
I 60
149
Acknowledgement
The author would like to acknowledge the help of Garry Cole of Kingston Polytechnic and, in addition, the constructive and thoughtful comments of the referees.
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