5

Circuits and Networks

UNIT 1 CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Electric Circuit
1.2.1 Different Elements in the Circuits
1.2.2 Difference between the DC and AC Sources
1.3 AC Circuits
1.3.1 Alternating Quantities and their Representation
1.3.2 Average and Effective Values
1.3.3 Kirchhoffs Laws
1.3.4 Impedance in AC Circuits
1.4 AC Series Circuits
1.5 Power in AC Circuits
1.5.1 Power Factor Correction
1.5.2 Loop and Node Analysis
1.6 Three Phase System
1.6.1 Generation of Three Phase Voltages
1.6.2 Merits of Three Phase System
1.7 Summary
1.8 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electric circuits play a vital role in every sphere of our life. They have wide application in
every field like communication, medical sciences, industrial sector, defence etc. With the
growth of time, technology is changing very fast. You must have come across with simple
electrical circuits and basic laws like Ohms law, which can simplify complicated
electrical circuits. The bulk of electrical energy utilisation whether in domestic
installations or in industry is through alternating current system involving single phase and
three phase systems. Therefore, in this Unit the emphasis is placed on the AC series
circuits involving single phase and three phase system besides the various techniques used
to simplify complicated electrical circuits. The subject matter of Unit 1 covers Kirchhoffs
laws to determine the current and voltage in electrical circuits besides some other
quantities. You will learn about the various combinations of circuit elements
(R, L and C) in single phase AC system. Also, R-L-C series circuits, resonance and power
in AC circuits will be introduced in Sections 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5.
In the subsequent Section 1.6, you will come to know about the generation and advantages
of three phase AC system.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
analyse different circuits,
explain AC circuits in series and parallel,
calculate the impedance in AC circuits,
calculate the power in AC circuits, and
describe the advantages of three phase networks.


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Electrical Technology
1.2 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
An electrical device is represented by a circuit diagram or network constructed from series
and parallel arrangements of any number of 2 terminal elements. There are various types
of circuit AC circuits and DC circuits depending on the nature of voltages or currents
in the circuit. There are certain basic elements which are important in circuits which will
be studied in the following sections. Majority of electrical energy utilisation, including
installations for domestic and industrial purposes, is based on alternating current systems.
Hence, AC circuits will be introduced in detail in single phase and three phase systems
with their relative advantages.
By interconnecting two or more circuit elements an electrical network is formed. If this
network contains at least one closed path it is called an electric circuit as shown in
Figure 1.1.
R
V

Figure 1.1 : Typical Electrical Circuit
There are three characteristics that are fundamental to all electric circuits.
(a) A source of voltage or current must be connected to the circuit. If there is no
source available, there is no current flow.
(b) Circuit must have a complete path for current flow.
(c) The resistance is used to represent a device where some form of work is
accomplished.
1.2.1 Different Elements in the Circuits
Active Element
The active elements are those elements which are capable of supplying energy to the
network elements like voltage and current sources.
+

V
I

(a) Voltage Source (b) Current Source
Figure 1.2 : Active Element
Passive Element
The passive elements are those elements which take energy from the sources and can
convert it to another form of energy. Resistance (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C)
V

7

Circuits and Networks
are examples of passive elements whose resistance, inductance and capacitance are
measured in Ohms, Henry and Farad respectively.




Figure 1.3 : Passive Elements (a) Resistor, (b) Capacitor, and (c) Inductor
Dependent Source
The voltage or current source which is dependent on current or voltage existing at
some other location in the electrical circuit or which changes according to the
condition given is called a dependent source.



Figure 1.4 : Dependent Sources (a) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS), (b) Current
Controlled Voltage Source, (c) Current Controlled Current Source and (d) Voltage Controlled
Current Source
Independent Source
A source which is not affected by any changes in the circuit.


Figure 1.5 : Independent Sources
1.2.2 Difference between the DC and AC Sources
The energy sources (voltage or current) which do not change their direction with time are
called direct current or DC sources. When voltage and current are varying functions of
time and are changing direction with time, such as sources that are sinusoidal in nature
they are referred to as AC sources.
SAQ 1
(a) Current flow is determined by :
(i) voltage and resistance
(ii) amperage and voltage
(iii) resistance and amperage
(iv) resistance only
(b) Current flow is measured in
(i) ohms
C R L
+
_
v1 +
_
ri1 a1 gv1
+
_
V
l


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Electrical Technology
(ii) volt
(iii) watt
(iv) ampere
1.3 AC CIRCUITS
1.3.1 Alternating Quantities and their Representation
Now we consider an electric circuit where the primary source is an AC voltage supply.
The AC circuits have two new elements, inductors (the energy is stored in a magnetic
field) and capacitors (the energy is stored in an electric field) in addition to resistors.
At any instant, an alternative e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by
t E e
m
= sin . . . (1.1)
where e is the instantaneous value of alternating e.m.f., E
m
is the peak value of e.m.f. and
is the angular frequency. The angular frequency is represented as = 2 f, where f is
the frequency of voltage. This sinusoidal function of time is widely used in AC circuits
because e.m.f. generated by AC generator is sinusoidal. The quantity t is the phase of the
alternating e.m.f.
The sinusoidal representation of e.m.f. is shown in Figure 1.6.
O
E
m
= 2 t
= t
e
T
t

Figure 1.6 : Sinusoidal Representation of e.m.f.
If R is the resistance of the circuit, then the instantaneous value of alternating current, i,
can be represented as
i = (E
m
/R) sin t
= I
m
sin t (1.2)
where I
m
= E
m
/R is the maximum value of alternating current and t is the phase of
alternating current.
1.3.2 Average and Effective Values
The average value of a sinusoid over the complete one cycle is defined as

2
0
1
sin
2
av m
e E t dt

(1.3)
This value comes out to be zero. The average value of e.m.f. over a half cycle is

1/ 2
0
1
sin
av m
e E t dt

9

Circuits and Networks

2
0.637
m m
E E = =

(1.4)
It is found that the above is true for alternating current for half cycle.

m m av
I I i 637 . 0
2
=

= (1.5)
Therefore, the average value of alternating current for half cycle is 0.637 times the
maximum value of alternating current. The same is true for alternating e.m.f. The average
value of alternating current for the negative half cycle will come out to be 0.637 I
m
.
Hence, over one complete cycle of A.C., the average value comes out to be zero.
The effective or root mean square value of a sinusoid is defined as

1/ 2
2
2
0
1
( sin )
2
m
E t dt

(1.6)
The expression obtained for Root Mean Square (rms) value or Effective Value of e.m.f.
over one complete cycle of AC voltage is

m
m
E
E
e 707 . 0
2
rms
= = (1.7)
Similarly, the rms value of alternating current is

m
m
I
I
i 707 . 0
2
rms
= = (1.8)
Therefore, rms value of e.m.f. is 0.707 times the maximum value of alternating emf.
Figure 1.7 shows the relative magnitudes of average value (over half cycle), rms value and
maximum value of alternating e.m.f.
E
m
e
rms
e
av
t
e
emf

Figure 1.7 : Sinusoidal Representation of
2 / 1

av
e , erms and Em with respect to Time
Another quantity known as Form Factor of the waveform is the ratio of effective value to
average value.
Form Factor =
m
m
E
E
2 2 value Average
value RMS
= = 1.11
The currents and voltages in any electrical circuit are real quantities. However, it is
mathematically more convenient to treat them as complex quantities. Now, we will briefly
introduce the concept of complex number and how these alternating voltages and currents
can be represented in terms of complex numbers.
Let Z is a complex number and in the form of x and y which can be represented as
Z = x + j y
where j is an imaginary quantity and is equal to , 1 = j where j
2
= 1, j
3
= j, j
4
= 1
etc. The first term x is the real part and the second term jy is the imaginary part. This form


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Electrical Technology
of is suitable for addition and subtraction. The other form of a complex number Z is
trigonometric form which is represented as
= r (cos + j sin )
where r is the absolute value of Z or modulus
2 2
y x r + = and the angle
( ) x y
1
tan

= is the argument of Z.
y-axis
Imaginary Part
x-axis
Real Part
x
y
r
P(x, y)

Figure 1.8 : Representation of a Complex Number
The polar form of a complex number Z is convenient and is widely used in circuit analysis.
This form is suitable for multiplication and division. The polar form is given as
Z = r
where is usually in degrees and values of r and are same as those in trigonometric
form. Polar form of Z is said to represent a phasor of magnitude r and phase . It may be
noted that
Z = r
= r (cos + j sin )
= r e
j

The complex conjugate Z* of a complex number or phasor Z is
Z* = r
(It is to be noted that the phasor quantities have absolute values of 2 1 times the
maximum value.) The currents and voltages in any electrical circuits are real quantities.
The alternating voltage can be written as
e
r
= E
m
cos t
But as a complex quantity

j t
c m
E E e

=
The real voltage, also known as physical voltage, is in fact the real part of complex voltage
e
c
.
e
r
= real part of Re [ ] Re [ cos sin ] cos
j t
c m m m m
E E e E t j E t E t

= = + =
The complete voltage E
c
can, therefore, be represented as phasor E
c
such that
E
c
= E
m
t
Where Em is its magnitude and t the phase angle. However, as a convention the
magnitude of the voltage and current phasors in electrical circuits represent their rms
values instead of peate values. Thus, a voltage given by equation

11

Circuits and Networks
= V
m
sin (t + )
will be represented as a complex voltage

2
m
V
V =
It may be noted that if more than one quantity are represented in one phasor diagram, all
the quantities should be of frequently and the scales of different quantities can be different.
However, same quantity should have same scale.
Example 1.1
Construct the phasor diagrams and determine the circuit constants for the following
voltage and current :
= 150 sin (5000 t + 45) volts,
i = 3 sin (5000 t 15) amperes.
Solution
= = 45 106 45
2
150
V
= = 15 12 . 2 15
2
3
I
V
I
45
15

Figure 1.9 : Phasor Diagram
Example 1.2
If the two voltages are given as
) 30 ( sin 2 20 + = t V
A
, and
) 90 ( sin 2 40 + = t V
B

then after addition of two above phasor quantities, find another phasor voltage V
C
.

Solution

B A C
V V V + =
) 90 ( sin 2 40 ) 30 ( sin 2 20 + + + = t t
[ ] ) 30 sin cos 30 cos sin 2 20 t t + =
[ ] ) 90 sin cos 90 cos sin 2 40 t t + +


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Electrical Technology
[ ] t t t +
(
(

+ = cos 2 40 cos
2
1
2
3
sin 2 20
( ) t t + + = cos 2 40 2 10 sin 6 10
t t + = cos 2 50 sin 6 10
( ) 9 . 70 sin 2 9 . 52 + = t V
C

SAQ 2
(a) Sketch phasors of the following voltages on same diagram.
) 30 ( sin 100 2 + = t V
A

2 120 cos
B
V t =

o
200cos ( 60 )
C
V t = +
(b) Express phasors of the voltages given in SAQ 3 in complex numbers.




1.3.3 Kirchhoffs Laws
After studying about alternating quantities and their representation, now we will study two
fundamental laws of electrical networks which are known as Kirchhoffs Current Law
(KCL) and Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL).
The two Kirchhoffs laws form the basis of circuit analysis. In order to apply KVL, we
must know the magnitude and polarity of all the voltages in a closed network. We also
follow sign conventions.
In AC circuits, we deal with phasor quantities.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
This law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed network is zero at any
instant of time.
For any closed loop, as given in Figure 1.10, all voltages are phasor quantities, then
according to KVL.
~
A
B
D C
V
BC
V
AB
V
S
V
CD
+
+
+
+

2

Figure 1.10 : Circuit to Illustrate KVL in AC Circuit

13

Circuits and Networks
0 = + +
S CD BC AB
V V V V
or
S CD BC AB
V V V V = + +
In the circuits, we follow a convention that if the current is entering at a terminal of the
element, it will have +ve potential and the terminal where current is leaving the element is
considered of ve potential.
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
According to this law, the algebraic sum of currents at a node (or junction) is equal
to zero at any instant of time. In other words, sum of the currents entering a junction
is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
KCL is also applicable for AC circuits similarly.
Here, 0 =
C B A
I I I
or
C B A I I I + =
SAQ 3
In Figure 1.11, if ja V
A
+ =10 here a > 0, jb V V
C B
+ = = 20 , 26 ,
4 j c V
D
+ = , jd I j I
B A
+ = + = 4 , 8 6 and 2 j e I
C
+ = ,
then calculate , a, b, c, d and e.
~
I
C
I
C
V
C
I
B
V
A
V
D V
B
I
A
+
+
+ +

Figure 1.11
1.3.4 Impedance in AC Circuits
In AC circuit, the passive elements R, L and C are appropriately connected to voltage and
current sources. Resistance is used as a heat dissipating element so the current that passes
through resistance has same phase as applied voltage. But inductance opposes the change
of current due to nature of opposition against any change. The current flows through any
inductor lags behind to the voltage across it by 90.
If v = V
m
sin t then
Current in resistor
v
i
R
=
Current in inductor

= dt v
L
i
1

= t V
L
i
m
sin
1

) cos ( t
L
V
i
m

=


14
Electrical Technology
) 2 / ( sin

= t
L
V
i
m

90
V
I
9
0

I
c
V
c
V
R
I
R

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.12 : Voltage Current Phasors (a) Pure Resistive Circuit, (b) Pure Inductive Circuit, and
(c) Pure Capacitive Circuit
Similarly, current through capacitor leads the voltage by 90. If applied voltage is
v = V
m
sin t, then
( ) sin 2
1
m
V
i t
c
= +

In above relations, L is known as inductive reactance (i.e. X
L
= L) and
1
c
is known as
capacitive reactance
1
.
C
X
c
=

Here is 2 f, f is frequency of supply voltage.

SAQ 4
A practical lossy inductor coil which has R = 10 and L = 200 mH in series with a
10 F capacitor is connected across a 200 V, 50 Hz source. Find current in circuit
and draw phasor using voltages across each element.
~
+
V
RL
V
S
V
C
C
+

I


Figure 1.13



1.4 AC SERIES CIRCUITS
When two elements like R-L or R-C are connected in series, then the overall effect of a
quantity which opposes the current flow or ratio of / V I of the combination is known as
impedance and is represented by Z. Its unit is ohm.
For R-L series circuit
L
jX R Z + =

15

Circuits and Networks
and for R-C series circuit
C
jX R Z =
If there is an R-L-C series circuit, then
( )
C L
X X j R Z + =
Here, the term
L
X L = represents the opposition by inductor to the flow or alternating
current through it and is known as inductive reactance, which is measured in Ohms.
Thus, X
L
= 2 f L
where, f is the frequency. So, higher the frequency of AC supply, greater will be the value
of inductive reactance and similarly

=
C f
X
C
2
1

Here, the term 1/C represents the opposition offered by capacitor to the flow of
alternating current through it and is known as capacitive reactance, which is also measured
in Ohms. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
Thus impedance can be written as polar form of complex number like
= Z Z X j R Z + = = ( )
L C
R j X X +
here
2 2
L
Z R X = +
and
1
tan
c
X
R

=
1.4.1 Resonance
Let us consider that R, L and C are connected in series in an electrical circuit. The
impedance in this RLC circuit is
( )
L C
Z R j X X Z = + =
and
2 2
) (
C L
X X R Z + =
where fL L X
L
= = 2 and
fC C
X
C

=
2
1 1
. If source frequency is variable, then X
L

and X
C
will vary.
In this R-L-C series circuit at a frequency f
r
called resonance frequency, the
X
L
= X
C
, i.e.
1
2 ,
2
r
r
f L
f C
=

, which gives
1
2
r
f
LC
=

. At this instant, total

impedance of circuit is equal to resistance R, i.e.

r Z R =
at f = f
r
. Therefore, current is maximum and in the same phase of supply voltage, so the
circuit works at a unity power factor.
The variation of Z and I in series R-L-C circuit is shown in Figure 1.14(a).
At resonance, since X
L
= X
C
, V
L
= I X
L
, V
C
= I X
L
and I being maximum,
V
L
= V
C
and magnitudes are many times more than supply voltage. It is known as voltage
amplifier or accepter circuit. The phasor diagram at this situation is shown in
Figure 1.14(b).
If resistance of R-L-C series circuit is zero, then at resonance current will be infinite.


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Electrical Technology
Z
min
= R
fr
I R
X
L
(X
L
X
C
)
X
C
I
Z
Z + 1
= I
max
V
R
S
f
V
C
V
L
I
V
S
V
R

(a) (b)
Figure 1.14 : (a) Variation of Z and I in RLC Series Circuit, and (b) Phasor
Diagram
1.5 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
In many electrical devices, the concept of power is involved. It is important to know about
power in many electrical devices. The power delivered by a radio or television transmitter,
the power input to an electric motor drive or the power generated by an alternator. Now in
the subsequent section, we will learn about power in an AC circuit.
In an AC circuit, if jX R Z Z + = = then current I flows when we apply a voltage
sin
m
V V t V = = .
Here V V =
Let = 0
So, we are taking voltage as reference.

0 V V
I
Z Z

= =

= I I
here .
Z
V
I =
There are two components of I as shown in Figure 1.15(b), one in phase with V which is
horizontal component and the other in quadrature to V, i.e. the vertical component.
~
Z
I
V

V
I
I cos
I cos

(a) (b)
Figure 1.15 : (a) AC Circuit, and (b) Horizontal Vertical Components of I

17

Circuits and Networks
The horizontal component is I cos , called the real or active component and vertical
component is I sin called the reactive component. Then
Active Power (P) = V Real component of I = V I cos
Reactive Power (Q) = V Reactive component of I = V I sin
Apparent Power (S) = V I
Thus,
2 2
S P Q = +
Active power is denoted by P and its unit is watt or kW (here 1 kW = 1000 watt). The
product V I is termed as apparent power and is denoted by S and its unit is volt ampere
(VA) or kilovolt ampere (kVA). The unit of reactive power are volt amperes reactive
(VAR) and kiloVAR = 1000 var. The power factor (cos ) is the ratio of active power to
the apparent power
Active or real power P is product of effective value of source voltage and current and the
cosine of phase difference between voltage and current. This represents transfer of energy
from source to load.
The reactive power is associated with energy storage elements (L or C) and does not
contribute to the net transfer of energy from the source to the load. It is measured in volt
amperes reactive (VAR or KVAR).
or .
. .
cos
cos
VI
P
S
P
I V
VI
= =

=
Power factor is said to be the leading type if I leads V (i.e. X < 0) and of the lagging type
if I lags V (i.e. X > 0).
Load
Z
Z IV = V/Z S = VI P = VI cos
Q = VI
sin
Power
Factor
Resistor R R 0
V
R

2
V
R

R I VI
2
=
R V
2
=
Zero Unity
Inductor jL jL 90
V
L

2
V
L
Zero
2
V
L

Zero
(lagging)
Capacitor
1
j C

1
C
90 V C
2
V C
Zero

C V
2

Zero
(leading)
1.5.1 Power Factor Correction
Electrical power distribution system operates at nearly constant voltage level and a
variable current governed by the demands of the connected load. The lower value of power
factor enhances power supply cost, increases power losses and also increases line current.
A high value of power factor preferably close to unity is therefore a desired operating
condition in power supply systems.
Normally, industrial electrical loads comprise of electromagnetic machines and equipments
operating at power factors of around 0.8 lagging. The lagging power factor loads draw
positive reactive power which can be compensated by connecting capacitor in parallel with
the load, capacitors which draws negative reactive power. This process is known as power
factor correction.
We know that power factor =
S
P



18
Electrical Technology
or . cos
2 2
Q P
P
+
=
Then the reduction in Q leads to an increase in power factor which can go upto unity and
hence can be corrected to desired level.
Value of C is decided by overall economical consideration and the desired level of overall
power factor. These capacitors are static and used for low ratings. For large power ratings
and power distribution centres where power factor is variable, we use synchronous
condenser. We will discuss synchronous condenser in Unit 7.
Let the current taken by the load impedance
L
Z be
L
I lagging at an angle behind the
supply voltage shown in Figure 1.16(b).

1
cos sin S
L L
I I j I =
A capacitor is then connected in parallel with load which draws a current
C
I leading V
by 90 shown in Figure 1.16(c). Let sin C
L
I j I = . The total current taken from the
supply is cos S
L C L
I I I I = + = .
I
S
V
+

I
L I
C
C Z
L
= Z
L

(a) Illustrating Power Factor Correction Circuit

V
I
L
I
C
I
s
I
L
V

(b) Power Factor with Load Along (c) Power Factor Correction with Capacitor Connected
Figure 1.16 : Illustrating
This
S I is in the same phase of voltage. Thus, source sees a unity power factor combined
load. The required value of capacitance can be calculated from the relation
= = sin
L C
I I C V
or
L
L
Z V
I
C

=
sin
sin

1.5.2 Loop and Node Analysis
In AC circuits, we can also use the mesh and node analysis same as d.c. circuits. Under
these analyses, we consider quantities as phasor or complex.

19

Circuits and Networks
Example 1.3
Calculate currents in the two sources shown in Figure 1.17.
Solution
Writing KVL for loop 1 and 2 we get
Loop 1 : (100 + j 50)
1
I + 100
2
I = 100 0 = 100 . . .
(1.7)
Loop 2 : 100 I
1
+ 100 I
2
+ j 50 I
2
= 100 60 = 50 j 86.6 . . .
(1.8)
~
100 0 <
o
+
+
~
I
1
I
2
j 50 V
A
j 50
100
100 60 <
o

Figure 1.17
By solving equations we have
=
+
+
= 34 41 . 1
10 5 . 2
66 . 13 5
1
j
j
I
and 2 0.60 160.08 I =
Example 1.4
Calculate node voltage V
A
using node analysis in above problem.
Solution
By node analysis

o
100 0 100 60
0
50 100 50
A A A
V V V
j j

+ + =
or
o
1 1 1 100 0 100 60
50 100 50 50 50
A
V
j j j j
| |
+ + = +
|
\


o
o
100 0 100 60
50 50
60.4 58.4 84 44
1 1 1
50 100 50
A
j j
V j
j j

+
= = =
+ +

1.6 THREE PHASE SYSTEM
In a single phase AC generator, rotating magnet is driven by a prime mover and a winding
embedded in stator. Each coil of stator winding functions as a single phase AC generator.


20
Electrical Technology
N
S
A
A'
~
A
1
A
2
e
A
+

(a) (b)
Figure 1.18 : (a) A Single Phase AC Generator, and (b) Generator Symbol with Generating Voltage
eA
In a three phase generator, we have three identical coils AA, BB and CC placed on the
stator with a displacement of 120 from one another. Three emfs e
A
, e
B
and e
C
generated in
the coils, therefore, have the same rms value but have a phase difference of 120 from one
another as shown in Figure 1.19.
N
S
A'
C
C'
B
B'
120
120
120


21

Circuits and Networks
~
A
1
A
2
e
A
+

~
B
1
B
2
e
B
+

~
C
1
C
2
e
C
+

e
C
e
A
e
B
120
120
120

Figure 1.19 : Three Phase Generator with Generated Voltages and Phase Sequences (emf)
1.6.1 Generation of Three Phase Voltages
Three phase generator can therefore be viewed as a composite unit comprising three single
phase voltage sources with a fixed phase difference of 120 between any two of them. In
practice, it is rare for a three phase generator to have all the six terminals brought out. The
three coils are connected either in star or delta and only 4 or 3 terminals are brought out.
For the colour coding of cables for three phases the common practice is to label the three
phases as RRed, YYellow and B-Blue phases.
We shall follow the conventional sequence R-Y-B or Y-B-R or B-R-Y.
Let v
A
= V
m
sin t
v
B
= V
m
sin (t 120
o
)
and v
C
= V
m
sin (t 240
o
) or V
m
sin (t + 120
o
)
The phasor for above three phase voltages is shown below in Figure 1.20(a) and their
variation with time is shown in Figure 1.20(b).
The sum of three balanced quantities is identically zero in time domain.
v
A
+ v
B
+ v
C
= 0
or i
A
+ i
B
+ i
C
= 0
or V
m
sin t + V
m
sin (t 120
o
) + V
m
sin (t 240
o
) = 0
or 0 = + +
C B A
V V V
here = 0 V V
A

= 120 V V
B

= 240 V V
C

V
C
V
A
V
B
120
120
120



22
Electrical Technology
0
v
A
2
v
B
v
C
v
A
V
m
V
m

t

Figure 1.20 : Phasor of Three Phase Voltages and its Variation with Time
We know that all voltages have 120 phase difference to each other. From phasor at any
instant the sum of all voltage is zero.
A
V
B
V
C
V
A B C
V + V V =
120
120
120

Figure 1.21 : Illustration of Sum of all Voltages is Zero at any Instant
From vectors we see
B A
V V + is just opposite to
C
V having same magnitude then sum
of three voltages is zero.
1.6.2 Merits of Three Phase System
The advantages provided by three phase system relative to single phase systems are given
below :
(a) For same physical size three phase AC generator power output is 50% more
than a single phase generator.
(b) All power stations employ three phase generators as they cost less than single
phase generator.
(c) Three phase arrangement for transmission and distribution require less
conductor material for the lines and is less expensive than a single phase
system for handling the same amount of power at a given system voltage.
(d) A three phase motor develops essentially a constant output torque whereas a
single phase motor can inherently provide only a pulsating torque.
(e) Three phase motor is not only quieter in operation but it also provides better
starting and higher efficiency of power conversion.
(f) Three phase motor runs at better power factor and cost is less than a single
phase motor of same power rating.
The above economic and technical advantages have led to the universal adoption of three
phase system for the generation, transmission and utilization of bulk power small electrical
loads of typically less than 3 HP power rating are, however, designed and built for single
phase operation. The benefits that may stem from three phase operation of these loads
(loads less than 3 HP) are not commensurate with the additional cost of manufacturing

23

Circuits and Networks
them due to their small size, to be suitable for three phase use and of running three phase
lines to each individual item. Practically, small loads are fed from single phase supply
available from a three phase distribution system.
1.7 SUMMARY
The concept of electric circuit is introduced in this unit. The AC circuit equations are
formulated in an analogous manner. Features of AC circuits such as resonance, concepts
of power and power factor have also been introduced.
You are also introduced to the basic features of three phase system in comparison to single
phase system.
1.8 ANSWERS TO SAQ
SAQ 2
(a) First convert V
B
and V
C
in standard form of a sinusoid.
t V
B
= cos 120 2

o
2 120 sin ( 270 ) t = +
= 270 120
120
100
120
120
141.4
30
90
C
A
B

Figure 1.22
o o o o
200 200
200cos ( 60 ) sin ( 150 ) 150 141.4 150
2 2
C
V t t = + = + = =
o
100 30
A
V =
The three voltages are presented by the phasors OA, OB and OC.
From phasor we observe that V
A
leads V
B
by 120 and V
B
leads V
C
by 120
and V
C
leads V
A
by 120.
(b)
o / 6 o o
100 30 100 100(cos 30 sin 30 )
j
A
V e j

= = = +
= 86.7 + j 50

o o / 2
120 270 120 90 120 120
j
B
V e j

= = = =


24
Electrical Technology

o o o
200 200
150 (cos150 sin150 )
2 2
C
V j = = +
= 122.5 + j 70.7
SAQ 3
Using KVL we get

A B V V =
so
2 2 2
26 10 so 10 26 ja a = + + =
and
10
24
tan
10
tan
1 1
= =
a
,
a
2
= 26
2
10
2
a = 24,
= 67.4
Now
B C D V V V = +
or 10 + j 24 = 20 + jb + c + j4 20 + c = 10 and b + 4 = 24
so c = 10 and b = 20
From KCL

C B A
I I I + =
so 6 + j8 = 4 + jd + e + j2 4 + e = 6 and d + 2 = 8
so e = 2 and d = 6.

SAQ 4
~
+
V
RL

V
S
V
C
C I


Figure 1.23
Let 0 200 0 200 j V
S
+ = =
|

\
|

+ =
C
L j R Z
1


6
10
10 20 10 255.5
100 10
j j
| |
= + =
|
|

\

= 76 . 87 7 . 255

o
o
200 0
0.782 87.76
255.7 87.76
S
V
I
Z

= = =

25

Circuits and Networks

2 2 2
0.782 63.62 49.8
RL
V I R L V = + = =
0.782 318.31 248.9 C
I
V V
C
= = =

Voltage
C
V lags behind by I at a 90 and
RL
V leads I at an angle .
Here
1 o
20
tan 80.96
10

| |
= =
|
\

87.76
200
I
= 80.96
248.9
v
s
v
c
v
R
L

Figure 1.24