Grammar : Parts of Speech

This section on Parts of Speech is your second lesson. Remember the first lesson so that this lesson will be very clear for understanding. You saw in the first lesson that the words are very important in the formation of sentences. The words constitute the Parts of Speech. The words used in English are divided into eight parts according to the functions carried out by those words in a sentence. Those EIGHT PARTS are: 1. Noun 2. Verb 3. Adjective 4. Adverb 5. Pronoun 6. Preposition 7. Conjunction 8. Interjection All these parts of speech have their own roles in the formation of sentences. In the following lessons, we can see all these parts of speeches indepth. Now,let us see these eight parts one by one briefly. 1.Noun: A noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action etc... Examples: Mr. John is our English teacher. In this sentence the words Mr. John and teacher are nouns. Harvard University is the oldest University. In this sentence the words Harvard and University are nouns. Lions live in forest. In this sentence the words Lion and forest are nouns. He is my best friend. In this sentence, the words He and friend are nouns. London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road, Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree, mango, fruits and flowers are few of the nouns. Few other nouns are ball, town, bill, boy, child, hospital, hotel, home, hall, fame, college, road, fruit, computer etc The another part in the parts of speech is To know more about Noun a. Noun-Types

Noun-Types
In this lesson we are going to see only Noun-Types. Other parts will be dealt with in the following lessons. What is NOUN? A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action etc... Examples: Mr. John is our English teacher. In this sentence the words Mr. John and teacher are Nouns. Harvard University is the oldest University. In this sentence the words Harvard and University are Nouns. Lions live in forest. In this sentence the words Lion and forest are Nouns. He is my best friend. In this sentence, the words He and friend are Nouns. London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road, Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree, mango, fruits; flowers are few of the Nouns. Nouns can be classified into four Noun-Types. The Noun-Types are: i. Proper noun: A proper noun is the name given to a particular person. Mr.Peter, Hemingway, Kennedy, London, Italy, Mango and California are Proper Nouns. Examples: Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a Proper Noun. Mr. Clinton is good administrator. In this sentence, Mr. Clinton is a proper noun. Ford is a car producing company.

In this sentence, the word Ford is a proper noun. ii. Common noun: A common noun is a name given in common to persons and things belonging to the same species. Examples: Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a proper noun. A developed country has more responsibilities. In this sentence the word country is a common noun which could be used for other countries like India, England, Germany, Brazil etc Man, woman, city, fruit, tree, river, book, hotel, country, mountain are common nouns which we use in our day-to-day lives. Another type in Noun-Types is Common Noun. iii. Collective noun: A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of persons or things taken as a single group or entity. Examples: A herd of cows is crossing the road. A fleet of ships is sailing deep along the western coast. Army is called to rescue the boy caught in the flood. In these sentences the words herd, fleet and army are collective nouns. Herd means a group of cattle. Fleet means a group of ships. Few other collective nouns are police, gang, galaxy, family, team etc iv. Abstract noun: An abstract noun is the name given to a quality or action or state which we can understand but we can not touch and see. Examples: Kindness is expected of everyone. Laughter heals many deceases. Sleep regenerates our energy-system.

 Music is a product of harmony. In these sentences, the words kindness, laughter, sleep and music are abstract nouns which we could only understand but could not see or touch. Other abstract nouns are quality, goodness, beauty, mercy, youth, movement, slowness, length, humility, truth, depth, wisdom, pride, sanity, vacancy, novelty, justness, justice, height, life, excellence, occupation, action, seizure, defense, hatred, protection, choice, flattery, death, service, thought, advice, obedience, vanity, bravery, strength, cruelty, freedom etc We believe that You have clearly understood the Noun-Types and their usages.It is better for you to spend some more time on this section Noun-Types so as to become a better qualified person to move on.

b. Noun-Gender

Noun-Gender
The Noun-Gender tells us about the sex of the noun. In Grammar-Nouns, there are FOUR GENDERS. 1. Masculine gender: A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male character or member of a species. Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of masculine gender. Example: A boy is playing in the play-ground. Hero of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words boy and hero are masculine-gender nouns. The next in the Noun-Gender is feminine gender.

2. Feminine gender: A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female member of a species. Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and actress are few of the femininegender nouns that we use. Example: A girl is playing in the play-ground. Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words girl and heroine are feminine-gender nouns. The next in the Noun-Gender is common gender. 3. Common gender: A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a member of species which can be a male or a female. Child, student, friend, applicant, candidate, servant, member, parliamentarian and leader are few of the common-gender nouns. Example: A child is playing in the play-ground. A Parliamentarian should have command over his language. In these sentences the words, child and parliamentarian are nouns of common gender. The next in the Noun-Gender is neuter gender. 4. Neuter gender: A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a member of a species which is neither a male nor a female. Normally nouns referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns. Chair, table, tree, star, mountain, street, book, car, school, paper, pencil and computer are few of the neuter nouns which We use regularly. Example: Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives. Tree is cleansing the air.

 Stars are not visible in the day-time. Books are our best friends. In these sentences the words, computer, tree, stars and books are the neuter-gender nouns.

NOTE: a. Collective nouns, even if they refer to living-beings, are used as neuter-nouns. Example: i. The army is doing its task. ii. The police are called to manage the situation. In these sentences the nouns (army and police) refer to only living-beings. But they are used only as neuter-nouns. b.Objects noted for their power, strength, and violence are used as Masculine gender nouns. The sun, summer, time, death etc are masculine-gender nouns. Example: i. The sun is so scorching now that we can not go out now to face him without an umbrella. ii. The death is cruel. He is as certain as tomorrow. In these sentences the words sun and death have been used as Masculine-gender nouns. c. Objects noted for their beauty, gentleness and grace are used as feminine-gender nouns. The moon, the earth, spring, charity etc are feminine-gender nouns. Example: i. The moon is so bright at this time that she induces romantic mood in us. ii. The earth is patient. Her beauty is spoiled day-by-day. The masculine-genders and their respective feminine-genders have been given below for your reference. Masculine genders-----Feminine genders 1. Bachelor----- Spinster 2. Bachelor----- Maid

3. Bullock----- Heifer 4. Dog----- Bitch 5. Drone------ Bee 6. Horse----- Mare 7. Nephew----- Niece 8. Jew----- Jewess 9. Wizard----- Witch 10. Heir----- Heiress 11. Manager----- Manageress 12. Poet----- Poetess 13. Shepherd----- Shepherdess 14. Benefactor----- Benefactress 15. Hunter----- Huntress 16. Negro----- Negress 17. Emperor----- Empress 18. Traitor----- Traitress 19. Prince----- Princess 20. Lion----- Lioness 21. Bull----- Cow 22. Ox----- Cow 23. Mayor----- Mayoress 24. Tiger----- Tigress 25. Actor----- Actress 26. Host----- Hostress 27. Uncle----- Aunt

28. Monk----- Nun 29. Gentleman----- Lady 30. Duck----- Duchess Take many pracitising exercises to become familiar with the Noun-Gender. As you read books, note down the various gender- forms of nouns that you come across in those books. That is the best method for you to know the difference among the Noun-Genters.

c. Noun-Number

Noun-Number
There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and Plural. 1. Singular: When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun in singular form. Single means one. Plural means many. Examples: a. A man is smoking within the premises. b. A group of cows is called Herd. c. Joy is what we want in our lives. d. Church is the worshipping-place of Christians. e. This chair is made of plastic. In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular forms. Joy, run, wife, knife, army, hero, ox, life, loaf, baby, city and tooth are few singular-nouns which we use. We have seen the singular form of Noun-Number. The Noun has various dimention in its usages. The same Noun can be used in different manner in different contexts. Let us go to the next form of Noun-Number. 2. Plural: When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use the noun in plural form.

Examples: a. Few men are standing in the foyer. b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows. c. These chairs are made of plastic. d. Children should be given proper guidance. e. Keep the knives in a safe place. In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are plural-nouns. Joys, runs, wives, knives, armies, heroes, oxen, lives, loaves, babies, cities and teeth are few singular-nouns which we use. How to form plural from singular? 1. By suffixing s to the singular-noun. Examples: Joy-joys Run-runs Chair-chairs Radio-radios Canto-cantos Momento-momentos Dynamo-dynamos Piano-pianos 2. By suffixing es to the singular-noun Examples: Glass-glasses Bench-benches Bush-bushes Church-churches

 Watch-watches Buffalo-buffaloes Negro-negroes Hero-heroes Echo-echoes Mango-mangoes Potato-potatoes Noun-Number is another part under Noun. 3. By changing the last letter y into ies. Examples: Baby-babies Lady-ladies Story-stories City-cities Army-armies 4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular. Examples: Man-men Woman-women Foot-feet Tooth-teeth Goose-geese 5. By suffixing en to the singular. Examples: Ox-oxen Child-children

6. By changing f or fe into ves. Examples: Thief-thieves Life-lives Wife-wives Calf-calves Knife-knives Wolf-wolves Leaf-leaves Shelf-shelves Exceptions: Chief-chiefs Roof-roofs Gulf-gulfs Safe-safes Proof-proofs Hoof-hoofs 7. Singular-nouns from foreign languages retain their original plural. Examples: Erratum-errata Index-indices Radius-radii Formula-formulae (or formulas) Axis-axes Basis-bases Criterion-criteria Memorandum-memoranda Terminus-termini (or terminuses) Hypothesis-hypotheses Cherub-cherubim (or cherubs) Parenthesis-parentheses 8. By suffixing s to the main word in a compound word. Examples: Commander-in-chief..commanders-in-chief Son-in-lawsons-in-law Step-sonstep-sons Maid-servant.maid-servants Passer-by..passers-by Man-servant..men-servant Man-servant..man-servants

9. Special cases. a. Few nouns which end in s are used in singular form. Examples: News, Mathematics, Physics, politics, innings etc b. Few collective nouns, though they are in singular forms, are used in plural forms. Examples: Poultry, Cattle, People, gentry etc c. Few nouns have the same forms both in singular and plural forms. Examples: Sheep, deer, swine, cod etc d. Few nouns are used only in the plural forms. Examples: Trousers, scissors, spectacles, drawers, thanks, billiards, draughts, annals, tidings etc e. Few nouns have two different forms in plural. But the two forms have different meanings. Examples: Brother.Brothers (sons of same parents) Brethren (members of a society) Cloth.....Cloths (pieces of cloth) Clothes (items of cloth) FishFish (more than one of same variety)Fishes (of different varieties) GeniusGeniuses (persons of great talent)Genii (spirits) Index..Indexes (tables of contents)Indices (signs used in algebra) 10.Few nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural: Examples: Advice (counsel).advices (information) Air (atmosphere).airs (artificial manners) Good (morally correct)goods (merchandise) Force (strength)...forces (troops) Physic (medicine).physics (a branch of science) Wood (portion of tree)woods (a grove of trees) 11.Few nouns have one meaning in singular but two or more meanings in plural. Examples: Custom (habit)customs (habits & taxes collected on imports Quarter (one fourth & a direction)quarters (fourth parts, living places & directions) Effect (result)...effects (results & property) 12.Letters, numbers and other symbols form their plural by adding an apostrophe ands.

Examples: Write your is and ls clearly. Add two 8s and six 4s. These are various kinds of Noun-Number. That means a Noun can be classiffied by the number of units that the Noun denotes.

d. Noun-Functions

Noun-Functions
A noun or a pronoun can perform five functions. Those five noun-functions are: 1.It can be THE SUBJECT of a verb. Examples: Mr. Ram leads the team. Mr. Ram is the subject of the verb leads. He is writing. He is the subject of the verb is writing. The monkeys destroyed the garden. The monkeys is the subject of the verb destroyed. The children are playing joyfully. The children is the subject of the verb are playing. The second one in Noun-functions is: 2. A noun or a pronoun can be THE DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb. Examples: I took the book. Book is the direct object of the verb took. The Government will take the decision. The decision is the direct object of the verb will take. A herd of elephants is crossing the river. The river is the object of the verb is crossing. He gave me the news. Me is the direct object and news is the indirect object of the verb gave. The third one in Noun-functions is:

3. A noun or a pronoun can be THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. Examples: I saw him in his office. Office is the object of preposition in. The girl returns from school. School is the object of prepositin from. The meeting will be held at short notice. Notice is the object of preposition at. The children are shouting at the stray dogs. Dogs is the object of preposition at. The fourth one in Noun-functions is: 4. A noun or a pronoun can be DESCRIPTIVE OF ANOTHER NOUN OR A PRONOUN. That means that the noun can be in apposition with another noun. The word apposition means placed side by side Or placed parallel to Examples:

I, the president of this association, will take the decision. The President is in apposition with I. Mr. Ram, the captain, scored only fifty points. The captain is in apposition with Mr. Ram. You, the eldest son of your parents, should assume all the responsibilities of your family. Son is in apposition with You. Everest, the highest peak in the world, is 29000 feet high. Peak is in apposition with Everest'. One of the most of US Presidents, Abraham Lincoln was known for his ready wit. One of the most famous of US Presidents is said to be used in apposition with the subject of the sentence Abraham Lincoln. Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Indian nation, led a non-violent struggle to attain independence from the British. Father of the Indian nation is in apposition with Mahatma Gandhi. Examples: 1. The House of Commons, The Mother of Parliamentarians, has been the scene of many

scintillating debates between leading orators. 2. The greatest playwright of all times, William Shakespeare wrote not only plays but also sonnets and other poems. Examples: 1. The office is closed. Here, the noun office is used as the subject. 2. My friend is the manager of this company. Here the noun manager is used as the object. 3. Pickwick-papers, a novel, was written by Charles Dickens. Here the noun novel has been used in apposition With Pickwick-papers. 4. Mr. K.R.Narayanan, the ex-president of India, is a fine gentleman. The noun-phrase the ex-president of India has been used in apposition with Mr. K.R.Narayanan. 5. I met your friend yesterday. The noun your friend has been used as object of the verb met. e. Noun-Cases

Noun-Cases
NOUN-CASES is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES. They are: Nominative case Objective case (or Accusative case) Dative case Possessive case (or Genitive case) Vocative case All these five Cases have been explained in detail below. Are you going as you wish in the process of learning Grammar? Take a breath. This section of Noun-Cases will simplify your process. 1. Nominative case: A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence) Examples: Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy. Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.

 The painter paints the portraits. The painter is a common noun in Nominative case. I am buying vegetables for my family. I is a pronoun in Nominative case. These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun. For example: I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns. There are only seven pronouns. Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there. Those variations can be used in place of the nouns. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 2. Objective case (or Accusative case): Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out). Examples: I met your sister. Your sister is in objective case. The vendors sell mangoes. Mangoes is in objective case. The book is on the table. Table is in objective case. It is object of the preposition on. This is one of my policies. Policies is in objective case. It is object of the preposition of. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 3. Dative case: A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the object of that preposition.

Examples: The teacher gave the students few exercises. Students is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb give. The Postman brought me a letter. Me is in dative case. Get him a pen. Him is in dative case. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 4. Possessive case (Genitive case): A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it. Examples: This is your pencil. (Your is in possessive case. It is our idea. Our is in possessive case. Johns sister has been hospitalized. Johns is in possessive case. The last one in the Noun-cases is: 5. Vocative case: A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the attention of) a person or persons. Examples: Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall. Mr. Bill is in vocative case. You there, stand up. You is in vocative case. Brother, a letter for you. Brother is in vocative case. Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago. Chairman is in vocative case. The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objective cases. But few pronouns change their formsbetween Nominative and Objective cases.

Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case 1. I __________________ me__________________ my 2. We_________________us____________________our 3. You________________ You___________________your 4. He_________________ him____________________his 5. She_________________her_____________________her 6. It___________________it_______________________its 7. They_________________them______________________their How do you feel about this Noun-Cases? Other section, waiting for you, will also be as simple as this section of Noun-Cases.

2.Verb: A verb is a word used to express an action or state. Examples: She wrote a letter. In this sentence, the word wrote indicates what she did. So the word wrote (write) is a verb. New York is big city. In this sentence, what is now the city New York is indicated by the word is. So the word is is a verb. The child played in the hall. Here in this sentence, what the child did is indicated by the word played. So the word played (play) is a verb. Few other verbs are talk, walk, speak, kill, elect, eat, conclude, confess, convene, collect, go, freeze, pass, communicate, learn etc To know more about Verb a. Verbs Verbs are the word denoting actions or states. Examples: Mr. Hales takes the class today morning. What does Mr. Hales do today morning?

He takes the class. The action he is doing is taking the class. So the action is denoted by the word takes. In that case that word takes is the verb. The Students write their examination in the Lawtey hall. Here, the word write is the verb. The university disqualified him. Here, the word disqualified is the verb. His friends refused to support him when he was in critical moments. Here, the word refused is the verb. The verbs can be classified in different methods. There are four types of verbs. 1. Transitive verbs. A transitive verb is the verb which takes an object. 2. Intransitive verb. An intransitive verb is a verb which does not take an object. 3. Auxiliary verb: A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary verb. 4. Modal verbs: The following verbs are called Modal verbs:. Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal verbs. Let us see them individually. 1. Transitive verbs: Examples: Mr. Hales takes the class today morning. By this sentence, Mr. Hales takes the class. Here

The word Mr. Hales is the noun. The word the class is the object. The word takes is the verb. Only when all the three words are there, the whole sentence becomes complete and meaningful. In case the object word is not there, the sentence Mr. Hales takes conveys no meaning and the sentence does not become complete. In that case what does Mr. Hales take? is not clear. So only when the verb takes gets an object, the meaning behind the verb takes becomes complete. That means the verb takes needs an object to make itself complete. Such a verb which needs an object is called transitive verb. That means the action of the verb is transmitted to another noun or another thing. They brought the suitcase two days back. Here the verb brought (bring) needs an object to become meaningful. What was brought? The suitcase was brought by them. So the verb bring (brought) is a transitive verb. My father has written a book which may interest you. We are crossing the river by a boat. The child is reading English poems clearly. An uncivilized man killed John Kennedy. She created this structure for our proposed-house. My teacher gave me a pen before I entered the exam-hall. They sell their properties. In all the seven sentences given above, the respective verbs write, cross, read, kill, create,give and sell need their respective objects to make the sentences meaningful. So, all these verbs are transitive verbs. Few other Transitive verbs are: build, carry, begin, bear, eat, choose, eat, find, forget, feed, drink, deal, cling, give,

grind, have, hold, make, ride, lend, know, learn, win, steal, weave, shut, spread etc 2. Intransitive verbs. As stated above, an intransitive verb is the verb that does not take an object. Examples: He laughed loudly. In this sentence, the verb laughed does not need an object to complete the sentence. So the verb laugh is an intransitive verb. I daily wake up at 5am. Here the verb wake does not need an object for completing itself. So the verb wake is an intransitive verb. The ball fell down. The verb fell (fall) is an intransitive verb. They are sitting on their cars. The verb sitting (sit) is an intransitive verb. The river is winding through the forest. Here the verb winding (wind) is an intransitive verb. Few verbs go, fall, die, sleep etc are exclusively intransitive. Few more Intransitive verbs are: swim, stand, sit, sink, smite, shine, run, rise, lie, leave, kneel, grow etc Notes: 1. Many Transitive verbs can be used as Intransitive verbs as well. Examples: a. They fought their enemies. (Transitive verb). They fought fiercely. (Intransitive verb). b. He spoke the truth. (Transitive verb).

He spoke to me. (Intransitive verb). c. The peon rings the bell. (Transitive verb). The bell rings continuously. (Intransitive verb). d. He walks. (Transitive verb). The hostler walks the horse. (Intransitive verb). e. Birds fly in the air. (Transitive verb). The observatory flies balloon to study weather. (Intransitive verb). f. The bulb broke. (Transitive verb). The students broke the glass. (Intransitive verb). Another type of verb is called Auxiliary verb. 3. Auxiliary verb: A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary verb. Have, be(am,are,was and were) and do are usually used as auxiliary verbs, they can be used as Main verbs as well. Examples: I have few urgent works. (Main) They have done very well in the examinations. (Auxiliary) God is in Heaven. (Main) He is liked by all. (Auxiliary) The man does his work quietly. (Main) Did he come here? (Main)

4. Modal verbs: The following verbs are called Modal verbs. Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal verbs. SHALL: When shall is used in the second or third person, it has the force of a command, a promise,

a thread, determination, certainty i. You shall not go out without my permission. ii. He shall get my help. iii. She shall be punished for his mistake. iv. He shall apologize for his behavior. v. No man shall take this way. WILL: When will is used in the first person, it can express (in addition to the future tense) willingness, a promise, a threat, determination i. I will help you. ii. I will be there in your wedding. iii. I will not allow him to go. iv. I will not miss this opportunity. MAY: May has the force of possibility and permission. In the past tense might is used. i. He may come here. ii. You may go now. iii. I believed that he might be honest. CAN: Can has the force of ability and permission. i. He can do this work easily. ii. She can go home. iii. Everyone can learn this subject. MUST: Must has the force of compulsion, necessity, determination, duty, certainty of belief, inevitability

i. Everybody must attend this function. ii. I must go urgently. iii. I must have full freedom. iv. A minister must be honest. v. She must be made to talk like this. vi. This building must be demolished in near future. OUGHT: Ought indicated duty or moral obligation. i. You ought to be careful. ii. As the secretary I ought to have attended that meeting. This verb ought must be followed by to. DARE: Dare conveys the force of challenge or the courage to do a thing. i. He dare not oppose me. ii. The prime Minister dared the opposition to prove the charge. NEED: Need has the force of necessity or obligation. When this verb need is used to mean obligation in the negative or interrogative form, s is not added to need in the third person singular(present tense). i. She need not come here. ii. It need not be white in the Shirt. iii. He need not have educational qualifications. For you attention please: The list of verbs is long one. Every sentence will have a noun and a verb(predicate as well).

For your kind attention, few verbs have been given below. 1. arise 2. bear 3. beat 4. behold 5. bid 6. bite 7. blow 8. break 9. begin 10. become 11. bind 12. bleed 13. build 14. burn 15. carry 16. catch 17. cling 18. come 19. deal 20. creep 21. do 22. draw 23. drink 24. eat 25. fall

26. feed 27. feel 28. fight 29. find 30. fling 31. flee 32. forbid 33. forget 34. forsake 35. freeze 36. get 37. give 38. grind 39. have 40. hold 41. kneel 42. know 43. lay 44. lead 45. learn 46. leave 47. lend 48. lie 49. loose 50. make

51. mean 52. meet 53. pay 54. read 55. rid 56. ride 57. ring 58. run 59. rise 60. see 61. set 62. shoot 63. sling 64. slit 65. speak 66. slay 67. shake 68. shed 69. slide 70. spin 71. split 72. spring 73. stand 74. wed 75. write

b. Verb-Be The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. The Verb Be can be used as a main verb as well as an auxiliary verb. Examples: I am in London. In this sentence, the verb am has been used as a main verb. I am a qualified candidate. In this sentence, the verb 'am' has been used as an auxiliart verb.Whereas the main verb is qualify. It has other forms when it is used as an indicator of tense of the verb. They are: Is, was, am, are and were. Examples: He is a teacher. (main verb) He was sent out of the meeting hall for his ill-behaviors. ( was is auxiliary verb and the main verb is send) The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. It takes the following forms in the Principal forms. Present tense .Past tense..Past Participle Be................................................................Been Am.......................................was................. Is.......................................was................. Are......................................were................ So, be, been, is, was, are and were are the only different forms of the verb be. Examples: Many forms of the Verb-Be have beed used here. i. Be careful. ii. Be kind to others.

iii. I am the secretary of the association. iv. He is a kind man. v. They are social workers. vi. She was a good companion. vii. The books were available. viii. She has been the secretary for two years. ix. You are not a member of this organization. You can form your own sentences using the various forms of the Verb-Be. Note: The Verb Be can be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: i. The child is very cute. ii. It was six oclock. iii. There were many people. iv. They are the people whom we are looking after. v. I am a student of that college. vi. Be careful. Auxiliary verb: Examples: The Verb Be is used as auxiliary verb as follows. i. I am working here. ii. She is doing her work quietly. iii. The train was running late. iv. The women were working in the field. Note:

Unlike the other verbs, the verb be can not be split in the interrogative and negatve forms of sentences. We use it as follows.

Negative: Examples: i. I am not your enemy. ii. He was not responsible for the accident. iii. The people were not excited. Interrogative: Examples: i. Where is the building? ii. How was the film? iii. Were all the materials available? Note: The verbs do and have can be used as main verb and auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: i. I do a lot of exercises. ii. He does his work rather carelessly. iii. I have no difficulty. iv. They had a solution to this problem. v. She has no compassion for others. Auxiliary verb: Examples: i. I do not know anybody here. ii. She does not love him.

iii. I have seen this film. iv. A plan has been prepared. Examples: i. I do not have an answer to your question. (auxiliary verb) ii. The committee has submitted the report. (auxiliary verb) iii. They are investigating into the matter. (auxiliary verb) iv. The matter is urgent. ( main verb) v. He has done a lot of research. (auxiliary verb) vi. All the candidates were present. ( main verb) vii. She does all the work herself. ( main verb) viii. The boy did not bring his book. (auxiliary verb) ix. I had applied for the job. (auxiliary verb) x. Our manager has been ill for quite some time. (auxiliary verb)

3.Adjective: An adjective is word used to add something to the meaning of a noun. Examples: He is a brave boy. In this sentence, what kind of boy is he is answered by the word brave. So the word brave is an adjective. They are perfect people. In this sentence, what kinds of people are they is answered by the word perfect. So the word perfect is an adjective. Few other adjectives are beautiful, tall, shy, courteous, ugly, short, long, lengthy, costly, calm, nice etc To know more about Adjectives

A noun may have many attributes.

Boy is a noun. That boy may be tall or short, intelligent or fool, educated or uneducated, rich or poor. What is the quality of that boy? In order to express the quality of that boy, we have to use an adjective. "That boy is a rich boy". In this sentence, the word rich indicates that the boy is a rich boy. That means that the boy has a lot of money. Those words which tell us about the quality of the nouns (which might have been used either as the subject or the object) are called adjectives. America is a country. America is a rich country. (rich is an adjective) Nile is a river. Nile is a long river.(long is an adjective) Harvard is the name of a university. Harvard is the name of the oldest university. (Oldest is an adjective) She is a student. She is a beautiful student. (Beautiful is an adjective) Water is an element. Water is one of the essential elements. (essential is an adjective) Other sentences written with adjectives: London is a large city. Jacob is an honest man. We have had enough exercises. There has not been sufficient rain this year. The hand has five fingers. Most boys like cricket.
An adjective will come before a noun. It will not come before a verb. 1. Adjectives of quality:

Good, honest, old, big etc Examples : Their good performance in their final examinations gave them what they expected. Mr. Antonio is an honest policeman. Our Chairman is an old man. The big temple might have been constructed a long time back. Their excellent presentation bagged them the first prize.

2. Adjectives of quantity: Little, some, much, enough etc Examples : I know little about music. Adding some sugar will make the coffee tastier. We have enough study-materials for the forth-coming examinations. 3. Definitive numeral adjectives: One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc.. Examples : One student came forward to become a leader of this class. Two children make a perfect family. Four subjects of Management Studies are very difficult. Ten employees have resigned their jobs. 4. Indefinite numeral adjectives: All, no, many, few, several etc Examples : All the employees have to be here by 10am tomorrow. No one will be exempted from paying the monthly due. Few birds have become extinct.

 It rained several days continuously. 5. Distributive numeral adjectives: Each, every, either, neither etc Examples : Each one of you should support this cause. I mean that every employee has stake in the growth of this company. Either of you should take care of your child. Neither of you can go away from other. 6. Demonstrative adjectives: This, that, these, those, such etc Examples : This dog is ours. That gentleman donated his fortunes to a charitable trust. These flowers are not for sales. 7. Interrogative adjectives : What, which, whose, when etc Examples : What happened after I came out of the house is not known to me. Which team won the match is not our problem. Whose child is this is a mystery. 8. Adjectival Phrase: Sometimes a phrase may be used as an adjective. In that case the phrase is called adjectival phrase. Very often this adjectival phrase appears after the noun that it qualifies. In the following sentences, the adjectival phrases are colored blue. Examples : The chief lived in house built-of-stone.

 A friend in need is a friend indeed. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. He was a student of great promise. 9. Adjectival Clause: Often a full-clause may add meaning to a noun in which case it is known as an adjectival clause. In the following sentences the adjectival clauses are colored blue. Examples : Nehru was a statesman whom everyone responded. The house which caught fire is in the street. John is the boy who broke the window.

4.Adverb: An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples: He worked the sum quickly. Here, whether he worked the sum slow or quickly is answered by the word quickly. So the word, quickly is an adverb. This flower is very beautiful. Here the word very is used to add more meaning to the word beautiful. That means the flower is more beautiful.So the word very is an adverb. She pronounced the word quite correctly. Here the word quite is used to add meaning to the word correctly. So the word quite is an adverb. Few other adverbs are wonderfully, nicely, fast, beautifully, honestly, freely, slightly, healthily, calmly etc Many of the adverbs end with -ly as stated above. But it is not a condition. The next part in the parts of speech is To know more about Adverbs

n Adverb will modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples: The deer runs very fast. (The word fast is an adverb which modifies the verb run) The mango is a very sweet fruit. (The word very is an adverb which modifies the adjective sweet) Philips speaks quite clearly. (The word quite is an adverb which modifies the adverb clearly) He runs fast. (The adverb fast modifies the verb run) I write slowly. (The adverb slowly modifies the verb write) The boy speaks clearly. (The adverb clearly modifies the verb speaks) The most common adverbs are those which answer the questions when, where, how, and why. 1. Adverbs may indicate time. Examples: Now, before, soon, yesterday, never, formerly etc

2. Adverbs may indicate frequency. Examples: Often, twice, again, frequently, seldom etc

3. Adverbs may indicate place. Examples: Here, there, everywhere, up, backward etc

4. Adverbs may indicate manner. Clearly, hard, soundly, slowly, sadly etc

Note-1: If the work of the adverb is performed by a phrase, that adverb (phrase) is called adverbial phrase. Examples: He lived in this house for nearly twenty years.

 I stood on the bridge at midnight. They sat for a while on the bench. I thank you with all my heart.

Note-2: A full-clause may also do the job of an adverb. In that case such a clause is called adverbial clause. Examples: When you finish the work, you may go home. Before you go, bring me some water. I have left the book where I can find it again. Since you were not there, I spoke to your brother. If it rains, we shall stay at home. Unless you work hard, you will fail in the test. Emma is older than she looks. He had come while I was out. If he were rich, he would probably help us. The sum is so simple that everyone can solve it. Though he is poor, he is honest. The earth is bigger than the moon.

5.Pronoun: A pronoun is word used instead of a noun. Examples: Raman is boy. He is going to school. Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word he is used to indicate Raman. So the word he is a pronoun. The students refuse to take their meals. They want to meet the warden. Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word they is used to indicate the students. So the word they is a pronoun.

There are only seven pronouns. They are he, she, it, I, we, they and you. Other pronouns are their variations.

To know more about Pronouns A pronoun is a word that is used to represent a noun. Pronoun means for-a-noun. Example-1: Ramu is not a member of this organization. In this sentence the word Ramu is the name of a person. So Ramu is a noun. When we write about the same person in the following sentence, we use the word He. So, he could not attend the meeting meant only for the members. In this sentence the word he represents Ramu. He is a pronoun. Example-2: Sri Lanka is a big island. It has many tourist-attractions. In these sentences, Sri Lanka is a noun. It is a pronoun. Example-3: I do not know why he did not continue his studies. It is a mystery for many of us. In these sentences, the phrase why he did not continue his studies is noun but in phrase form. It is a pronoun. Example-4: Oxygen is essential for life on earth. It is a purifying element. In these sentences, the word oxygen is a noun. The word it is pronoun. There are seven types of pronouns. They are: 1. Personal 2. Reflexive

3. Demonstrative 4. Indefinite 5. Distributive 6. Relative 7. Interrogative Let us see one by one. 1. Personal : There are only seven personal pronouns. They are He, She, It, They, You, We and I. Here we use the word you to indicate both the singular and plural forms. Here we use the pronoun they to indicate the plural form of both neuter gender and masculine or feminine gender. SINGULAR PRONOUNS: I, He, She, It and You. PLURAL PRONOUNS: We, They and You. Examples: Mr. Gandhi, why not you seek his help? Here the word you is used to indicate only Mr. Gandhi (singular). See another sentence. Students, you have to be assembled at the Lawtey hall by 11pm. Here the word you has been used to indicate the students (plural). Examples: Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. He has gone to Paris to attend a meeting. Here, Mr. Clinton is noun and he is pronoun. Mrs. Clinton is the author of the book Why not you?. She has been nominated to the Nobel Prize for her book.

Here Mrs. Clinton is noun whereas the word she is pronoun. This University was founded in 1907. Then it had only 75 students. Here the University is noun whereas it is pronoun. The students of this university participated in the foot-ball competition. They have won the competition. Here, the students of this university is noun whereas They is pronoun. Mr. John, why can not you take more training in this field? Here Mr. John is noun whereas you is pronoun. We, the natives of England, will support you for your humanitarian approach. Here, the natives of England, is noun whereas we is pronoun. I, the father of the child, will attend the parents-meet scheduled to be held on 13th of this month. Here the father of this child is noun whereas I is pronoun. The pronoun it is used to indicate only the neuter gender. Tree, lion, river, sky, book, car, computer and language can be denoted by the pronoun it. Al these seven Personal Pronouns as such are called Nominative forms of Personal Pronouns. All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Possessive forms of Personal Pronouns. Mine( I ), ours(we), his(he), hers(she), its(it), yours(you) and theirs(they). Examples: This book is not mine. That house of hers is beautiful. That is the college of ours. This book is his. All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Accusative forms of Personal Pronouns. Me( I ), us(we), you(you), him(he), her(she), it(it) and them(they). Examples:

 He gave a book to me. The presents are meant for you and her. The Dean warned all of them. He gave us his house to stay for ten days as he went to Tokyo. I, we, you, he, she, it and they are the seven personal pronouns. Because, they stand for the threepersons. i. The person speaking ii. The person spoken to iii. The person spoken of The pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON. The pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal Pronoun of SECOND PERSON. YOU is used both in the singular and in the plural. The pronouns, he, she, it, and they which denotes the person or persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of THIRD PERSON.. The following are the different forms of the personal pronouns.

A.FIRST PERSON: I and We are First Persons. Nominative forms: I will come to your house today evening. We will do our best to get the job. Possessive forms: That book is mine. That University is ours. Accusative forms: He gave me a five-rupee note. He called on us. B.SECOND PERSON:

You is the only SECOND PERSON. Nominative Form: You are our best friend. You are welcome. Possessive form: That suitcase in brown cover is yours. Accusative form: We gave you your room-key. C. THIRD PERSON: He, She, They and It are THIRD PERSONS. Nominative forms: He is a student of this University. She is learning French. They are from Japan. It is my home-town. Possessive forms: That book is his. That book is hers. That book is ours. Japan is a workaholic country. The growth that it has attained is its. Accusative forms: They gave him an award. They praised her for her splendid performance. People voted us to power. We thanked them. A cow is giving us ten liters of milk a day. We feed it properly. These are the only seven pronouns. The pronouns that you are going to see under other differenttypes of Pronouns as mentioned below are various forms of these seven pronouns only. 2. Reflexive (or Emphatic pronouns): The pronouns which are used to reflect upon the person or persons or thing or things which the pronouns represent are called reflexive pronouns. Himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves and myself are the reflexive

pronouns. Examples: Mr. John himself called on us two days back. Mrs. Clinton herself came forward to contest the election to the post of Presidency of this association. Students themselves went out of the class-room in protest against the increases in the admission fees. You yourself can not cut you hair. You yourselves can organize a meeting to seek the opinions of all the students. We ourselves will come to your seeking your support. I motivated myself. The singular form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourself. The plural form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourselves. 3. Demonstrative : This, that, those, and these are the demonstrative pronouns. Examples: I want only this book. Those incidents changed his mind drastically. These people are not qualified to attend the training program. That train is not the one for which we are waiting. 4. Indefinite : These pronouns refer to persons or things in general. One, many, all, some, somebody, someone, few, many, others, nobody, everybody etc are the indefinite pronouns. Examples: Somebody crossed the road. Nobody came forward to assume responsibilities.

 Few candidates did not attend the interview. All are welcome. One has to be wise enough to live peacefully. Anybody can do that. In these sentences the indefinite forms have been used only in general. Those forms do not represent anybody in particular. 5. Distributive : The pronouns which are used to indicate all the members of the representative group are called distributive forms. Each, everyone, either and neither are the distributive forms. Examples: Each one of you will be given a chance. Everyone, present here, should take their dinner. Either of you can take the matter to the chairman. Neither of you is qualified to attend the final. 6. Relative : The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns. Who, what, that, which and where are relative pronouns. Examples: The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns. In this sentence, the word which has been used to represent those pronouns used as conjunctions. That which is in relative form. The University which gave me admission is a very good University. Mr. Kobe who is a native of London is not the owner of this car. What you did is my problem. A grove of trees that is at the outskirts of the city is for sales. 7. Interrogative :

The interrogative forms of the pronouns are used here. Whom, which, whose, what and that are interrogative pronouns. Examples: Mr. Kodak whom we are searching for is a native of Japan. Mrs. Goosd whose son is studying in Harvard has been hospitalized.

6.Preposition: A preposition is word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else. Examples: There is cow in the garden. Here the word in is preposition. He is in the play-ground. Here the word in is a preposition. They are coming to your office. Here, the word to is a preposition. The fruits are behind the leaves. Here the word behind is preposition. Few other prepositions are away, from, on, towards, till, until, unless, under, of etc The next part in the parts of speech is To know more about Prepositions Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun or a verb to explain their relation with another noun or pronoun. There are two types. 1. Simple prepositions: Examples:

1. A bird is on the tree. 2. I am fond of music. 3. The man was standing under the tree. 4. He runs after money. 5. I have to go to London to meet him. 6. Do not look at Sun at noon. 7. He is from your office. 8. One of you has to attend the meeting. 9. Go out. 10. You have to study English till you become a master of it. 11. He, with his friends, has gone to hotel to celebrate his birthday. In the above sentences, the simple ones are colored red. Few others are: By, in, of, off, on, through, up, with, from, after, about, above, across, amidst, among, around, before, behind, below, within, between, inside, outside, without, beside, etc 2. Phrasal prepositions: A phrasal verb is formed by combining a verb with a preposition. According to, agreeable to, along with, away from, in addition to, in course of, in favor of, in honor of, in order to, in spite of, with reference to, with regard etc Nouns, verbs, adjectives and participles are often combined with prepositions such as Noun + Preposition, Verb + Preposition, Adjective + Preposition, and Participle + Preposition. Each combination has a separate meaning, sometimes totally different from the meaning of the main verb.

Examples: 1. Every citizen should abide by the laws of his country. 2. This lake abounds in fish. 3. Rajeev Gandhi started his Prime Ministership with abundance of goodwill of Indians. 4. Why were you absent from class yester day? 5. When I entered the room, I found my grandfather absorbed in deep thought. 6. The Judge refused to accede to the request of the accused to release him on bail. 7. I regret that your proposal is acceptable to me. 8. Gupta is well-known to politicians and has a ready access to a number of ministers. 9. The Engineer was accused of taking a bribe from the contractor. 10. Are you acquainted with this neighborhood? 11. The accused was acquitted of the charge of perjury? 12. You have to adapt yourself to changing times. The Phrasal ones in the above sentences are colored blue. (Quite often as in this case-12, the main verb and the preposition may be separated by other intervening words)

NOTE: One can give thousands of examples. There is no grammatical rule to describe why a particular preposition is used along with a particular word to convey a particular meaning. These combinations have come out of mere conventions and usages. You would yourself be using such phrases in your writings and speeches without your even being aware of them. There are two ways, a preposition can be used. The first is as in the following phrases: Examples: 1. On the table

2. In the year 3. With his friend 4. From the village 5. At the post office 6. Between the books 7. Underneath the tables In sentences such as mentioned above, the preposition is written before the noun that governs it. That is why it is called pre-position. Few prepositions are in the forms of two-words, three-words, four-words. According to, in addition to, The second way in which a preposition is used is after a verb, adjective or adverb. Few are followed by or preceded by a certain words to provide a fixed meaning. Examples: 1. Go after 2. Endow with 3. Participate in 4. Divide into 5. Confine to 6. Abstain from 7. Conform to 8. Affection for 9. Pity towards 10. Alliance with 11. Acquaintance with 12. Distrust of

13. Result of 14. Access to 15. Opposition to 16. Incidental to 17. Deficient in 18. Acquainted with 19. Delighted with 20. Accused of 21. Fond of 22. Anxious about 23. Grateful for 24. Tantamount to 25. Sympathy for 26. Sure of 27. Surrender to 28. Suspect of 29. Stick to 30. Ready for 'In', 'at', and 'on' have similar meanings, but there are conventions about their usages. IN is used before large places such as a country, state or city. Examples: 1. In India 2. In Texas 3. In New York ON is used before middle sized places such as a road, train, plane, ship etc Examples:

1. On Mount road 2. On Parliament road 3. On the East coast AT is used to denote an exact spot. Examples: 1. At the door 2. At 7 Oclock IN is also used to denote a very small place I was staying in a room at Door No.43 on Anderson Street in Boston on East coast in Massachusetts State in USA. There are three conventional uses of these three ones in regard to time also. IN is used before the year and month. ON is used before the day and date. AT is used before actual time. That accident happened at 7.30pm on 7th March in 1989. The correct phrasal forms to denote specific times of the day are: Examples: 1. At dawn 2. In the morning 3. At noon 4. In the afternoon 5. At dusk 6. At night The preposition between must be used when referring to two things or persons. Examples: 1. The problem between Jack and Jill was solved by their parents.

2. This train is playing between New York and Chicago. When more than two things or persons are involved, the correct preposition to be used is among. Examples: 1. Among all the students in this class, John is the most intelligent. 2. He dose not show partiality among his three children 3. There is not a good understanding among the Parliamentarians of the ruling party. Examples: 1. Buttercups are avoided by the grazing animals because of the bitter juices. 2. By the time Columbus arrived at America in 1492, other Europeans had already reached the New York. 3. In times of war, people must take precautions against not only actual violence but also acts of sabotage. 4. Between Stephen and his sister, the latter is the taller one. 5. Despite the road block, the police allowed us to enter the restricted area to search for our friends.

7.Conjunction: A conjunction is word used to join words or sentences. Examples: Ram is a student. John is a student. Ram and John are students. Here the word and is used to join the two words Ram & John. So the word and is a conjunction. I ran fast, but missed the train. The word but is a conjunction. Few other conjunctions are or, eitheror, not only, so that, still, else, since, so, after etc To know more about Conjunctions

Conjunction is word or a phrase which connects two words or two phrases or two clauses or two sentences. The Conjuctions are.... 1. and 2. or 3. either...or... 4. for 5. but 6. also 7. neither...nor... 8. only 9. after 10. because 11. if 12. so...that... 13. that 14. as 15. when 16. while 17. till Examples: You and he should attend the function. (The word and is connecting two other words you & he) He and I are good friends. (The word and is connecting two other words HE& I) Pay the fees or you will not be admitted. (The word or is connecting two sentences Pay the fees &

You will not be admitted) 1. A preposition may connect two words: Examples: Jack and Jill come up the hill. We bought a book as well as a pen. You could find clean air not in the city but in the village. He will conduct either you or me. They offer not only coffee but also tea. You should be here when our Chairman arrives. I will not attend mobile-phone calls while driving my car. He has to study till he becomes thorough in the subject. We are waiting here for you only. Not only Shirts but also pants are sold here. 2. A preposition may connect two phrases: Examples: The police have to find out not only who committed this crime but also how this crime was executed in this day-light. A big-lorry in blue color as well as a car in white color went into this village one by one. 3. A preposition may connect two main clauses: Examples: The 1973 oil-price adjustment checked the runaway consumption trend, but it was the 1979-increase that reversed it. J.W.Jeffrey, a retired University of London professor, conducted a thorough economic assessment of British nuclear plants and concluded that nuclear plant is considerably more expensive than coal-fired power.

 My father spent ten years to create a chemical solution, which, if used in agricultural lands, will give very high yields, but he expired before he started manufacturing in big-scale.

4. A preposition may connect a main and a subordinate clause: Examples: If our generation persists in mining the soil so that we may eat, many of our children and their children may go hungry as a result. Whereas the 60% of the trees in France had been affected by acid rain in 1982, 75% of them were suffering in 1983. Because the last bus already left, we had to take a taxi. If the business goes on losing money, we will have to close it down. I shall get my air ticket to USA as soon as I receive the visa. What do you propose to do after you complete your graduation? The plane will not take off until the fog clears. 5. Coordinating conjunctions: The conjunctions which coordinate two words are called coordinating conjunctions. The following conjunctions are called Coordinating conjunctions: 1.and 2. but 3. for 4. or 5. nor 6. also 7. only 8. till

Examples: Mr. John and Mr. Rams are the only invitees to meet the Prime Minister. The whole country is waiting for the results of this international-tournament. We have to be here in London till we are acquainted by the court. 6. Subordinating conjunctions: A word introducing a subordinate clause is called subordinating clause. The following conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions: 1. after 2. because 3. if 4. that 5. though 6. although 7. till 8. before 9. unless 10. as 11. when 12. while 13. how 14. until Examples: You can come to the function after you finished your work.

 They have scored low marks in English because she did not study well. All of you are welcome if you have the entrance-tickets. It is not known how he bought this car at this rate. Your father has got you a motor-bike that is eight-year-old. He was not admitted to that college though he has scored very high marks in the entrance. Her boy-friend postponed her marriage-proposal till he started his own business. You can not get a new telephone connection before 1st of next month. 7. Compound conjunctions: There will be few words in every conjunction of this type. 1. in order that 2. in order to 3. on condition that 4. even if 5. so that 6. provided that 7. as though 8. in as much as 9. as well as 10. as if Examples: He comes to this function on condition that we should leave him by 8pm. London is so big that you can not go by walk to reach your office. You as well as your father can go by the train.

 You will not catch your train even if you take a taxi now.

8.Interjection: An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feelings. Examples: Hurrah! I have own the game. Alas! She is dead. In these sentences, the words hurrah and alas are used to express the sudden feelings of those who use these sentences. These are the only eight parts of speech.We have seen these parts of speeches only briefly. We can see individually one by one in the following pages. To know more about Interjections

Articles

Three words are used as articles. They are: 1. a 2. an 3. the Of these, a and an are indefinite articles. Because, the indefinite-articles are used to indicate not any specific object or subject in the sentence. The is the only definite article The definite article is used to indicate a specific object or subject in the sentence. 1. Indefinite articles: Examples:

 A man is standing at the corner of the road. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. He demolished a temple in the next town. What he needed was an umbrella. We need a building to set an office for our company. He gave me an onion. An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. Uses of the Indefinite articles: I. The indefinite articles are used before a singular countable noun. Examples: We want to construct a house for us. A ball costs only few cents. A boy was born to the couples two days back. II. An is used before a word beginning with a vowel (or a vowel sound). Examples: He gave me an onion. An ass is leaping into your field. An enemy need not be far away from you. He may be beside you. An orange is what you have to take to overcome thirsty. Before you go out in the winter season, please remember to take an umbrella with you. III. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant. Examples: A cat is running behind the rat. We need a man to safeguard our car. A hole in the boat will endanger its safety.

IV. An is used before the word beginning with h in case the h is silent in pronunciation. Examples: An hour is a long time for the students who take this examination. An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. (A vowel sound) It is difficult to find an honest policeman. The train was late by an hour. V. A is used before the words beginning with a vowel which is pronounced like the y in young. Examples: The employees of this company formed a union. A European is better placed to reach the Oxford University than an Asian. The government decided to set a university in this area of the country. The ornithologist has written about a unique bird. VI. When the word such is applied to countable things, the indefinite article is used after such. Examples: Mr. Ram is an honest man. You can not find such a man. He confused everybody with his witty talk. Such a blunder is rare to find in our lives. VII. A is used in expression like: Examples: A few students came forward to organize this function. A little sugar should be added to this coffee. A certain number of books have been sold off by the authorities of this library. VIII. The indefinite article is used when a singular noun stands for a whole group or species. Examples: A cow is a useful animal. A dog is a faithful animal.

NOTE: Countable noun is the noun which can be counted as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Five animals, seven students, eight stars, ten countries etc So, animals, stars, students, colleges, computers, countries, books and boats are countable nouns. Uncountable nouns are the nouns which can not be counted. Time, rice, sky, sugar, soil, water, honesty, virtue and wisdom are the nouns which can not be counted. So, they are called uncountable nouns. 2. Definite articles: Examples: The lion is a majestic animal. The boy who is standing there is my nephew. The Andamans belong to India. The book that you wanted is not in this book-stall. The girl is not an Indian. You are welcome to the function. Uses of definite articles: The definite articles the is used as follows. Examples: i. To refer to both countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The book is costly one. The pen is what He sells in his shop. The news is not sweet for our ears. The river is going through our city. ii. To refer to a particular person or thing or one already mentioned in the sentence.

Examples: There is a chair but the chair is broken. The book that you want is not available in this library. The President arrived by a special plane. iii. To refer to a singular noun that represents a whole class. Examples: The elephant is a huge animal. The scientist is a useful person to the society. The definite article the is used: iv. With superlatives: Examples: The highest mountain is Mount Everest. This is the best book on Ornithology. The darkest night has its own dawn. v. With ordinals: Examples: The tenth student in the last row has to stand up. The first man who arrives will be given a prize. vi. Before musical instruments: Examples: He can play the flute. We have master the key-board at the early stage. vii. Before the adjective when the noun is implied: Examples: The downtrodden (people) will vote him to power. The intelligent (students) will answer this question.

 The poor (people) will not agree to this policy. viii. Before names of unique of their kind. Examples: The Sun is the source of all forms of energies. The Sky looks beautiful every night. The earth is the example of patience. The sea is the birth-place of many rare fishes. NOTE: The two words Man and Woman in the general sense do not take any article. Man (not The Man) is the only animal that has intelligence. ix. To refer to rivers, seas, oceans, groups of islands, mountains, ranges trains etc Examples: The Frontier mail will arrive in time. The Bay of Bengal is tsunami affected ocean. The Andaman is a part of India. x. To refer to Holy books. Examples: The Bhaghavat Gita is the sacred book of Indian. The Koran is a book of wisdom. The Bible is an age-old book. NOTE: The is not used when the author name of the book is used as follows. Examples: Valmikis Ramayana is one of the Epics of Hindus. (Not Valmikis the Ramayana) xi. To refer to a noun when it is preceded by an adjective.

Examples: The immortal Keats has created many books of their own classes. The great Alexander followed Buddhism. xii. To refer to the superlative degrees. Examples: The highest mountain is Mount Everest. The tallest man in our class is Mr. Oats. Ms. Sharma is the most beautiful girl in this state. xiii. To refer to the people of a Country but not to their language. Examples: o The French people are civilized people. o The English Men are sensitive to this issue. xiv. Before an adjective when the qualified noun is not mentioned. Examples: The strong should not oppress the weak. He works for the down-trodden. xv. In certain expression like Examples: The more you work, the more you earn. The omission of articles: The uses of articles should be avoided in few sentences to make the sentences meaningful. I. To refer to proper noun. Examples: New Delhi is the capital of India. (Not The New Delhi) Nile is one of the longest rivers. (Not The Nile)

II. Before Abstract nouns when they are used in a general sense. Examples: o Truth always triumphs. (Not The Truth) o Suspicion should be based on evidence. (Not The Suspicion) o Honesty is the best policy. o Wisdom is the gift of heaven. o Virtue is its own reward III. Before material nouns. Examples: o Silver is not as costly as Gold. (Not The Silver) o Cotton is grown in several parts of India. (Not The Cotton) IV. Before languages: Examples: We are learning English. He has planned to study French. They speak Hindi at home. V. Before plural countable nouns when they are used in general sense. Examples: o Children prefer playtimes. o Computers offer various job-opportunities. o Cars are sold like hot-cakes. VI. Before names of relations: Examples: Father is the head a family. Son should shoulder the responsibility of the family. Daughter-in-law is nothing but a daughter.

GERUND is the continuous form of a verb. Read this sentence. . Smoking is prohibited here. The word smoking is formed from the verb smoke by adding ing. You can see that here in this sentence, the word smoking does the function of a subject (Noun). So, it is a Verb-Noun. That is called Gerund. On many occasions the continuous form of the verb can be used as a noun. Smoke is the simple present-tense form. Smoked is the past-tense form of the verb smoke. Smoking is the continuous form of the verb smoke. Those continuous forms of many verbs can be used as nouns. Those nouns are called verbal nouns. GERUND is one of the two verbal nouns. The other verbal noun is Infinitive. We have seen the Infinitive in another section. Let us see Gerund now. A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in ing and has the force of a noun and a verb. 1. A gerund is used as the subject of a verb. Examples: Smoking is prohibited here. Reading improves your knowledge. Running behind a running-car is dangerous. Walking alone is what he likes the most. Buying vegetables in that market is a difficult affair. Following others is not advisable.

You can easily see that the subjects in all these sentences are in gerund forms. 2. A gerund is used as an object of a verb. Examples: Begin reading the book. I like going for a walk. They prefer buying online rather offline. 3. Object of a preposition. Examples: My neighbor is good at breeding dogs. I am fond of eating sweets. Before entering the room, please remove your foot-wear. 4. Complement of a verb. Examples: What I detest the most is drinking alcohol. Seeing is not believing. 5. A gerund is used in the following construction. Examples: Nehru did a lot of reading. We used to do a lot of writing when we were at school. 6. Only a gerund is used after the following verbs. Confess, imagine, finish, practice, hinder, excuse, forgive, drop, stop, prevent, mind etc Examples: Stop talking nonsense. I could not help admiring the picture.

 He did not mind waiting. I can not imagine his doing like this. They could not prevent her coming to the function. 7. Few verbs of sensation take the gerund-forms if the action of the verb is in progress. Examples: I saw him doing that work. She felt an insect going up her leg. Have you ever heard a bird talking? NOTE-1: Compare the following two sentences. 1. We expected his being admitted into the university. 2. We expected him being admitted into the university. In the first sentence, the word preceding the gerund being is his. This is in the possessive case. While, in the second sentence, the word preceding the gerund being is him. This is in the objective case. Both the sentences are correct to convey the same meaning. So, we can use either possessive case or objective case before gerunds. Examples: All depends on John/Johns coming in time. Your future depends on your uncle/your uncles meeting your educational expenses. I do not mind his/him sitting on this table. They insisted on my/me being present in the function. NOTE-2:

As both the gerund and infinitive have the force of noun and a verb, they have the same uses. Thus, in many sentences either of them may be used without any special difference in meaning. Examples: Teach me to swim. (Infinitive) Teach me swimming. (Gerund) Both these sentences convey the same meaning. To forgive is better than to punish. (Infinitive) Forgiving is better than punishing. (Gerund) Both these sentences convey the same meaning. Exercises: i. He is interested in becoming a politician. ii. Imagine crossing the river. iii. We saw the lady running up the stairs. iv. A professor has to do a lot of reading. v. I do not like your risking your life. vi. Would you mind helping me? vii. I suggest his taking up the job immediately. viii. I do not deny his speaking well. ix. Do not postpone your learning Hindi. x. Speaking to your child few minutes a day will develop the rapport between your child and you.

Infinitive

Eat, read, write, go, get, speak, walk, smile, cry and laugh are few of the verbs in the "infinitive" forms.

When the preposition to is placed before such a verb, that verb is called full infinitive. To eat, to read, to write, to go, to get, to speak, to walk, to smile, to cry and to laugh are few of the "full-infinitive" forms. This type of the noun is called verbal-noun. This verbal-noun is called Infinitive which has the features of both a verb and a noun. There is another type of verbal-noun. That type is called Gerund which we have seen in another section. An infinitive can be used differently. 1. It can be used as the subject of the verb. Examples: To swim is good for health. To eat too much makes one fat. To go for walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors. To read means to grow. 2.It can be used as the object of the verb. Examples: I forget to tell you an important matter. All of you begin to work. The doctor has come to check you up for blood-pressure. 3. The following verbs take only the infinitive as the object. Afford, appear, arrange, care, chance, come, dare, decide, fail, determine, happen, hurry, manage, mean, offer, pretend, promise, prove, refuse, seem, trouble, undertake, wish etc Examples: I can not afford to pay so much. The man pretended to be innocent. The thief managed to escape. We have undertaken to do the job.

How dare you do it? They refused to pay the bill. She offered to go alone. We are determined to complete the project. 4. The following verbs take only an infinitive as an object, but also are used in the ways as given below. Ask, like, choose, want, intent, mean, hate, beg, love, expect, wish etc a. Subject + verb + infinitive Examples: My sister loves to sing. I like to view few television shows. They hate to borrow money form the bank. Mr. Ramah expected us to help him when he was in London. She chose to stay away from the program. Our Professor asked us to come back after 6pm today. b. Subject + verb + object + infinitive Examples: My sister likes my mother to sing. They begged me to help him. The committee chose me to sing in the function. My father wished me to succeed in the competition. 5. The following verbs take only the verb + object + infinitive construction. Allow, advice, cause, compel, encourage, force, instruct, invite, oblige, order, permit, persuade, press, request, teach, tell, tempt, warn etc Examples: Do not allow him to interfere with his work. The circumstances forced him to tell a lie.

I warned him not to take up that job. They permitted me to take the exam without my hall-ticket. My teacher taught us how to calculate the profit. Our father forced us to continue our studies. He was tempted to take sweets every day. 6. The infinitive without to is used after the verbs make and let. Examples: Let him go. Make them do the job very well. 7. The full infinitive is used with the be verb to indicate commands or agreements or plans. Examples: Everybody is to wear a full suit. Nobody is to touch these things without permission. They are to be married next week. The committee is to meet next month to discuss this matter. 8.It is used in the following construction. For + object + infinitive Examples: It is not for me to advice you. Is the road safe enough for the driver to take the bus on it? 9.It is used in the place of clauses. Examples: Tell him what to do? She does not know who to approach? Can you tell me how to stop the bleeding?

So in these ways the infinitives can be used as nouns in the sentences. Note-1 The word to is frequently used with an infinitive. But to is not the essential part or sign of an infinitive verb. After few verbs (let, need, make, see, bid, hear, dare), we use the infinitive without to. Examples: You need not come to the function. The Doctor can make him walk in a month of time. How dare you open the door! I did not see him do that. They will not let you go out. She bade me go. I have not heard a bird sing. Note-2 The word to need not be added after 'had better', 'had rather', 'would rather', 'sooner than' and 'rather than'. Examples: You had better leave now. I had rather walk than take rest. They would rather leave the show than see the dull-movie. They will come late rather than stay at home.
Participle is a word used to add extra meaning to the sentence. Examples: 1. Hearing the noise, the boy woke up. Here, the boy woke up is a fact. But why did he wake up? He woke up because he heard the noise.

In order to add extra meaning to the sentence, the phrase hearing the noise has been added. The word hearing is formed from the verb hear and governs an object. The word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an Adjective does. The word hearing, therefore, partakes of the nature of both a verb and an Adjective and is called PARTICIPLE. It may be called a Verbal Adjective. The word, which partakes of the nature of both a verb and an Adjective, is called PARTICIPLE 2. I saw an elephant carrying a pack of Vegetables on its back. In this sentence, the word carrying qualifies the noun elephant. So carrying is a participle. Here as well as in the above sentence, the participles are in the continuous forms (hearing & carrying) of their verbs (hear & carry). This type of participle is called PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 3. Being the eldest son, John had to shoulder all the responsibilities of his family after his father died. In this sentence, the word being qualifies the pronoun John. That is a Present Participle. 4. Driven by hunger, He stole a piece of bread. In this sentence, the word driven qualifies the noun he. You see that the word is not in the Present Participle form. This type of participle is called PAST PARTICIPLE. 5. Deceived by his friends, he lost all his properties. In this sentence also the word deceived is a Past Participle. 6. Having elected him President, the people gave him the royal support. In this different sentence the phrase having elected qualifies the noun people. But this phrase is neither Present participle nor Past Participle. This phrase indicates an action which came to an end in the near past.

This type of participle is called PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 7. Having come of age, John entered into partnership with his father. In this sentence, the phrase having come is a Perfect Participle.

So, there are three types of Participles. A. Present Participle B. Past Participle C. Perfect Participle Let us see few more examples in each of these three participles. A.Present Participle: Examples: Going up the stairs, the boy fell down. Working all day, I was fatigued. Not knowing my way, I asked the Policeman. Mounting his horse, the bandit rode off. Seeing the Sunshine, I threw open the window. B.Past Participle: Examples: Encouraged by his wife, he persevered. Enchanted by the whole scene, I lingered on my voyage. We saw few trees laden with fruits. Blinded by smog, we lost our way. Experienced for a decade, I prepared the manual in a minute. C.Perfect Participle: Examples: Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts. Having lost my certificates, I applied for the duplicates. Having gained the truth, He remained calm.

here are TWO TYPES of Voices in English language.

They are: 1.Active voice. 2. Passive voice. When we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the active form. That means that the doer of the action is active. He wrote a letter. When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the sentence is written in the passive form. That means that the doer of the action is not active but passive. A letter was written by him. In passive form, the verb will be in past participle form. Write is Present tense form of the verb. Wrote is past tense form of the verb Written is past participle form of the verb Since a letter was singular form, it is followed by singular-past tense verb was. Let us see one by one: 1.Active voice. As we saw already, when we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the active voice. In active voice the verb is controlled by the subject. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. The subject in the active voice becomes the object of the preposition by in the passive voice. Examples: He helped them in their studies. They invite me. The boys pluck flowers. I take the responsibility.

 BHEL exports boilers. My mother prepares delicious foods. We expect you. The Prime Minister inaugurated the conference. They boycotted the function. The C.B.I. will investigate this crime. 2.Passive voice. When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the sentence is written in the passive voice. In passive voice the verb is controlled by the object. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. The subject in the active voice becomes the object of the preposition by in the passive voice. Only the past-participle of the main verb is used in the passive verb (along with the helping verb). Examples: I. They treat me very well. (Active voice) II. He treats me very well. (Active voice) In the example-I, the subject is in plural form (they). So the verb (treat) is used in accordance with that. But in the example-II, the subject is in singular form (he). So the verb (treats) is used in accordance with that. Let us see the Passive voices of these sentences. Examples: I. I am treated very well by them. II. I am treated very well by him. In both these sentences, the verbs are modified only by the singular Pronoun I, not by the subjects of the sentences.

 He damages the flowers. (Active voice) The flowers are damaged by him. (Passive voice) In this example, in Active voice the verb (damages) is controlled by the singular form of the subject (he). In passive voice, the verb (are damaged) is controlled by the plural form of the object (they). Examples: They tell the story. (Active voice) The story was told by them. (Passive voice) He helps us. (Active voice) We are helped by him. (Passive voice) We take him seriously. (Active voice) He was taken seriously by us. (Passive voice)

Let us see the passive voices of the sentences given under the active voice section above. He helped them in their studies. (Active voice) They were helped by him in their studies. (Passive voice) They invite me. (Active voice) I am invited by them. (Passive voice) The boys pluck flowers. (Active voice) The flowers were plucked by the boys. (Passive voice) I take the responsibility. (Active voice) The responsibility was taken by me. (Passive voice) BHEL exports boilers. (Active voice) Boilers are exported by BHEL. (Passive voice) My mother prepares delicious foods. (Active voice) Delicious foods were prepared by my mother. (Passive voice) We expect you. (Active voice)

 You are expected by us. (Passive voice) The Prime Minister inaugurated the conference. (Active voice) The conference was inaugurated by the Prime Minister. (Passive voice) They boycotted the function. (Active voice) The function was boycotted by them. (Passive voice) The C.B.I. will investigate this crime. (Active voice) This crime will be investigated by the C.B.I. (Passive voice) Passive voice is also used when the doer of an action is unknown or is very obviously known. Examples: The local politician has been murdered. It is not known who murdered the local politician. The ship was wrecked. It is obvious that the ship can be wrecked only by wind or water. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take objects) can be put in the passive voice. Examples: He laughed. This sentence does not have its passive voice form. Because, the verb (laugh) is only an intransitive verb. Clanton killed his friend. This sentence has its passive voice form. (His friend was killed by Clanton) Because the verb (kill) is transitive a verb. Examples: The sentences in BLACK are in active voice where as the sentences in GREEN are in passive voice. 1.He pesters me a lot. I am pestered a lot by him.

2.The opposition criticizes the government for everything. The government is criticized for everything by the opposition.

3.The people expect the government to reduce the prices. The government is expected by the people to reduce the prices.

4.My neighbor teaches me Hindi. I am taught Hindi by my neighbor.

5.The collector goes through every file carefully. Ever file is gone through by the collector carefully.

6.Our teacher gives a lot of home-work. A lot of home-work is given by the teacher.

7.Children like chocolate very much. Chocolate is liked very much by the children.

8.This factory produces consumer-goods. Consumer goods are produced by this factory.

9.They met me. I was met by them.

10.I posted the letters. The letters were posted by me.

11.The Chief Minister rejected the demand of the opposition. The demand of the opposition was rejected by the Chief Minister.

12.He helped me a lot in this matter. I was helped a lot by him.

13.Few months ago, India tested nuclear devices. Nuclear devices were tested by India few months ago.

14.Lost month I sent an application for a new phone connection. An application for a new phone-connection was sent by me lost month.

15.They will accept his plan. His plan will be accepted by them.

16.I will contact your boss directly. Your boss will be contacted by me directly.

17.The police will arrest the culprits within a week. The culprits will be arrested by the police within a week. 18.The Government will soon take a decision in this matter. A decision in this matter will be taken by the government. 19.The workers are loading the Lorries. The Lorries are being loaded by the workers.

20.I am writing a novel. A novel is being written by me.

21.They are considering me for the post. I am being considered by them for the post.

22.The secretary is preparing the annual report. The annual report is being prepared by the secretary.

23.They were signing the documents. The documents were being signed by them.

24.I was teaching English in the college. English was being taught by me in the college.

25.The workers were demanding bonus. Bonus was being demanded by the workers.

26.The doctor was examining the patient. The patient was being examined by the doctor.

27.They have consulted me. I have been consulted by them.

28.You have made a mistake. A mistake has been made by you.

29.The company has made good profits. Good profits have been made by the company.

30.The bank has sanctioned the loan. The loan has been sanctioned by the bank.

31.We have booked all the rooms in the hotel. All the rooms have been booked by us.

32.The Chairman had denied him the right to vote. He had been denied his right to vote by the Chairman.

33.Somebody has disfigured the statue of the leader. The statue of the leader has been disfigured by somebody.

34.I could have solved this problem easily. This problem could have been solved easily by me. NOTE: It is not sufficient to know how to change the voice form of the sentence from active voice to passive voice. The Active voice should be used when the doer of the action is to be made prominent. The Passive voice should be used when the action or the person acted upon is to be made prominent.

Grammar : Passive Voice

There will be two Passive Voice sentences for the sentences with two nouns. There are few verbs which take two objects, a Direct object and an Indirect object. For such sentences, there will be two forms in Passive Voice sentences. 1. Verbs with two objects: Examples: I gave him five rupees. (Active voice)

 Five rupees were given to him by me. (Passive Voice) He was given five rupees by me. (Passive Voice) She has told me the truth. (Active voice) I was told the truth by her. (Passive Voice) The truth was told to me by her. (Passive Voice) They lent me their car. (Active voice) I was lent a car by them. (Passive Voice) A car was lent to me by them. (Passive Voice) The Government has sent him a message. (Active voice) He was sent a message by the government. (Passive Voice) A message was sent to him by the government. (Passive Voice)

2. Imperative sentences (Commands and requests) There is special formula for changing the imperative sentence into passive voice. Please open the door. (Active voice) Let the door be opened by you. (Passive Voice) Here the sentence in active-voice has been changed into a sentence in passive-voice. Please understand the formula which has been followed to change the active-voice to passivevoice. Let is used to convert the active voice sentence into a passive voice sentence. Examples: Do not mistake me. (Active voice) Let me not be mistaken. (Passive Voice) Cut your nails. (Active voice) Let your nails be cut. (Passive Voice) Do not ignore my suggestions. (Active voice) Let not my suggestions be ignored. (Passive Voice). These sentences have been changed into passive voice sentences by adding "let". 3. With Modal verbs: The verbs can, could, may, might, and must are known modal verbs. As per the following

methods these sentences with these verbs are changed into passive voice. Examples: You can take the book. (Active voice) The book can be taken by you. (Passive Voice). Everybody must obey the rules. (Active voice) The rules must be obeyed by everybody. (Passive Voice). They might have studied their lessons. (Active voice) Their lessons might have been studied by them. (Passive Voice). He may not accept this plan. (Active voice) This lesson may not be accepted by him. (Passive Voice). 4. Phrasal verbs: Few verbs, with certain meanings are always used with prepositions. In such situations the prepositions should not be omitted in the sentences. Examples: We are looking at the game. (Active voice) The game is being looked at by us. (Passive Voice). The fire-brigade put out the fire. (Active voice) The fire was put out by the fire-brigade. (Passive Voice). The Government will set up a factory. (Active voice) A factory will be set up by the government. (Passive Voice). 5. With IT: In few sentences, instead of a word or a phrase, a clause may be the object of a verb. In such cases there are two ways of changing the sentences into the passive voice. A. By making the clause itself as the subject in the passive voice. Examples: I hope that he will realize his mistake. (Active voice)

 That his mistake will be realized is hoped by us. (Passive Voice). I expected that they would take up the matter. (Active voice) That the matter would be taken up by them was expected by me. (Passive Voice). B. By substituting the clause with pronoun it. Examples: The Romans expected that they would conquer Carthage. (Active voice) It was expected by the Romans that Carthage would be conquered by them. (Passive Voice). We have learned that you have secured the first rank. (Active voice) It has been learned by us that the first rank has been secured by you. (Passive Voice). Exercises:

The grandmother was telling her grandchildren an interesting story. (Active voice) An interesting story was being told by the grandmother to her grand children. (Passive Voice). Her grand children were being told an interesting story by their grandmother. (Passive Voice).

The postman brought you a parcel. (Active voice) A parcel was brought to you by a postman. (Passive Voice). You were brought a parcel by the postman. (Passive Voice).

I have taught the class the first lesson. (Active voice) The first lesson was taught by me to the class. (Passive Voice). The class was taught the first lesson by me. (Passive Voice).

The office has sent her a message. (Active voice) A message has been sent to her by the office. (Passive Voice). She has been sent a message by her office. (Passive Voice).

The waiter brought us the menu card. (Active voice) The menu card was brought to us by the waiter. (Passive Voice). We were brought the menu card by the waiter. (Passive Voice).

They are offering you another chance. (Active voice) You are being offered another chance by them. (Passive Voice).

 Another chance is being offered to you by them. (Passive Voice).

He had told me a lie. (Active voice) I had been told a lie by him. (Passive Voice). A lie had been told to me by him. (Passive Voice).

I gave her your message. (Active voice) She was given your message by me. (Passive Voice). Your message was given to her by me. (Passive Voice).

Who taught you Sanskrit? (Active voice) Sanskrit was taught to you by whom? (Passive Voice). You were taught Sanskrit by whom? (Passive Voice).

Sign these documents. (Active voice) Let these documents be signed. (Passive Voice).

Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another. There are three Degrees of Comparison in English. They are: 1. Positive degree. 2. Comparative degree. 3. Superlative degree. Let us see all of them one by one. 1.Positive degree. When we speak about only one person or thing,We use the Positive degree. Examples: This house is big.

In this sentence only one noun The house is talked about. He is a tall student. This flower is beautiful. He is an intelligent boy. Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.

The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is... 2.Comparative degree. When we compare two persons or two things with each other, We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree. Examples: a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree) This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree) The term bigger is comparative version of the term big. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative) This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive) The term more beautiful is comparative version of the term beautiful. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative) He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term more intelligent is comparative version of the term intelligent. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative) He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive) The term taller is comparative version of the term tall.

Both these sentences convey the same meaning. The third one in the Degrees of Comparison is...
3.Superlative degree:

When we compare more than two persons or things with one another, We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees. Examples:

a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative) This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative) No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive) The term biggest is the superlative version of the term big. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative) This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative) No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative) The term most beautiful is the superlative version of the term beautiful. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative) He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative) No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term most intelligent is superlative version of the term intelligent. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative) He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative) No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive)

The term tallest is superlative version of the term tall. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

*Degrees of Comparison are applicable only to Adjectives and Adverbs* *Nouns and verbs do not have degrees of comparisons*

He is the tallest student in the class. The term tallest is an adjective. Among the members of the group, Mr. Clinton speaks most effectively. The term effectively is an adverb. All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs. We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison. Let us see their models. Model -1: The best: Examples: i. This is the best hotel in this area. No other hotel is as better as this on in this area. No other hotel is as good as this one in this area. ii. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country. Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country. No other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment. Model-2: One of the best: Examples: i. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India. Calcutta is large than most other cities in India. Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta. ii. Satin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world.

Satin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world. No other batman in the world is as good as Satin Tendulkar. Model-3: Not the best: Examples: i. This is not the best solution to the problem. ii. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem. iii. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one. ii. New York is not the largest city in America. New York is not bigger than many other cities in America. Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York. Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting more before them. And their superlative terms, by getting most before them. Examples: Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful Effective.more effectivemost effective Effectivelymore effectively.most effectively Enjoyable.more enjoyable.most enjoyable Useful.more useful..most useful Different..more differentmost different Honest..more honest..most honest Qualifiedmore qualifiedmost qualified Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting er after them and their superlative terms, by getting est after them. Examples: Hard..harder..hardest Big.bigger.biggest

Tall..tallertallest Longlongerlongest Short..shorter.shortest Costlycostliercostliest Simple.simpler.simplest Degrees of Comparison add beauty and varieties to the sentences.

Interjection

An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotions. Examples: Hello! What are you doing here? Alas! He is dead. Hurrah! We have own the game. Ah! Have they gone? Oh! I got such a fright. Hush! Do not make a noise. Mt child is sleeping. Such words Hello, Alas, Hurrah, Ah, Oh and Hush are used to express the emotions or sudden feelings. The words of Interjection may be used to express joy, grief, surprise or approval. In case of Joy the following words are used. Hurrah, Huzza etc In case of Grief, the following words are used. Alas, Oh my god etc In case of Surprise, the following words are used. Ha, What etc In case of Approval, the following words are used. Bravo, Your goodness etc

These words are used only to express the sudden feelings. They will be noticed that they are not grammatically related to the other parts of the sentence. Few other groups of words are also used to express the sudden feelings. Ah me, for shame, Well done, Good gracious etc
MOOD is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the verb is represented. We usually use a verb to make a statement of fact or ask a question. Examples: I write a letter to my parents every month. May I know your name, please? But a verb can be used to express a command. Examples: Stand up. Come here. Pay your fees. At the same time, a verb can be used to express a supposition. Examples: If I were the Prime Minister of this country, I would reduce the income-tax ceiling. If you were I, you would do the same thing. These different modes or manners in which a verb can be used to express an action are called MOODS.This word comes from the Latin word modus which means manner. There are three moods in English. 1. Indicative mood. 2. Imperative mood. 3. Subjunctive mood. 1. Indicative mood: This type is used just to indicate the fact or to raise a question as follows. i. To make a statement of fact.

Examples: We purchase the news-paper daily. My daughter goes to school by train. This university has more than 20,000 students. Your letter was posted yesterday. You are great. He is an intelligent student. Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. This road has been blocked due to repairing works. Our tour program stands cancelled. I could not move out of my office today due to heavy work. All are welcome. ii. To ask a question. Examples: Where do you purchase your news-paper? How are you? Where is your brother? What did happen to your car? Who is your music master? Why can not you come with us now? Is this your pen? iii. To express a supposition that is assumed as a fact. Examples: If he is the leader of this group, he deserves to be rewarded. (Assuming as a fact that he is the leader) If my brother goes to Japan, he will get me this ROBOT. (Assuming as a fact that my brother goes to Japan) If you come to this university for your higher education, you will reach the top level. (Assuming as a fact that you come to this University). A verb which makes a statement of fact or asks a question or expresses a supposition which is assumed as fact is in the indicative mood. 2. Imperative mood: This type is used to express

i. A command: Examples: Get up. Go out. Come here. Wait for your boss. Close the doors. Kneel down. Follow him. Read quickly. ii. An exhortation. Examples: Take care of your health. Be aware of pick-pockets. Try your level best to score the maximum marks. Take this test once. iii. An entreaty or prayer. Examples: Bless us. Have mercy upon us. Forgive me. A verb which expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty or prayer is in the Imperative Mood. 3.Subjunctive mood: This occurs in two occassions. a.Present Subjunctive Mood. b.Past Subjunctive Mood. a. The Present Subjunctive Mood occurs i. In few traditional phrases where it expresses a wish or a hope. Examples: God blesses you. God saves the king.

 Heaven helps us. ii. To express a desire, an intention or a resolution. Examples: I move that Mr. Clinton be appointed the next president of the organization. It is suggested that the Mount road be closed for a week for the maintenance work. They preferred that the annual subscription be increased to $250.00. b. The Past Subjunctive Mood occurs i. After the verb wish to indicate a situation which is unreal or contrary to fact. Examples: I wish I were a millionaire. (The fact is I am not a millionaire) I wish this car belonged to me. (The fact is this car does not belong to me). ii. After if, to express improbability or unreality in the present. Examples: If I were you, I would have got admission into this university. (The fact is I am not you) If we started now, we could reach the town by 11pm. (But the fact is we could not start now) iii. After as if/as though, to express improbability or unreality in the present. Examples: He orders me about as if I were his wife (But I am not) He walks around as though he were drunk. (But he is not)

Sentence

A Sentence is a group of clauses or words, conveying a complete meaning. Examples: 1. Today is not a holiday. 2. What a beauty she is! 3. Sun is only a star. 4. You have to master the language ENGLISH to do e-commerce.

5. We can assemble after 8pm. These are sentences which convey complete meanings. There are four kinds of Sentences. They are: 1. Declarative or Assertive Sentences 2. Interrogative Sentences 3. Imperative Sentences 4. Exclamatory Sentences Let us see one by one. 1.Declarative Sentences: These sentences simply make statements or assertions. Examples: They are my friends. This is not my ball. Tell your friends that you will join them after 6pm. He is not in town now. Her mother is ill. A child is crying in the backyard. We are members of this organization. It belongs to him. 2.Interrogative Sentences: These sentences are used to ask questions. Examples: How are you? Where are you? What do you do? Where is your brother? What did happen to your car? Why can not you become a member of this organization? Where do you live?

3.Imperative Sentences: These Sentences are used to express commands or request or entreaties. Examples:

 Get up. Go out. Come here. Wait for your boss. Close the doors. Kneel down. Follow him. Read quickly. Be aware of pick-pockets. Try your level best to score the maximum marks. Take this test once again. Bless us. Have mercy upon us. Forgive them. Take care of your health. 4.Exclamatory Sentences: These Sentences are used to express strong feelings. Examples: How cold the night is! What a shame! Alas! He is dead. Hurrah! You have come early. These are the only four types of sentences that we come across in our daily lives.

Tense

The tense of a verb indicates the time of an action or event. The word tense comes from Latin word tempus which means time. Read the following sentences. 1.I write the letter now. 2.I wrote the letter yesterday. 3.I shall write the letter tomorrow. The first sentence says that I write the letter at this moment. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is now. This sentence is in present tense. The tense which refers to the present time is said to be in present tense.

The second sentence says that I wrote the letter yesterday. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is yesterday. This sentence is in past tense. The tense which refers to the past time is said to be in past tense.

The third sentence says that I shall write the letter tomorrow. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is tomorrow. This sentence is in future tense. The tense which refers to the future time is said to be in future tense.

There are four forms of tenses in each one of the three tenses. The four forms of present tense are: 1. Simple Present tense. (We write a letter now) 2. Present continuous tense. (We are writing a letter) 3. Present perfect tense. (We have written a letter) 4. Present perfect continuous tense. (We have been writing a letter) The four forms of past tense are: 1. Simple past tense. (We wrote letter) 2. Past continuous tense.(We were writing a letter) 3. Past perfect tense. (We had written a letter) 4. Past perfect continuous tense. (We had been writing a letter) The four forms of future tense are: 1. Simple future tense. (We will write a letter) 2. Future continuous tense. (We will be writing a letter) 3. Future perfect tense. (We will have written a letter) 4. Future perfect continuous tense. (We will have been writing a letter) That means that there are twelve tenses in total. They are: 1. Simple present tense. 2. Simple past tense. 3. Simple future tense. 4. Present continuous tense. 5. Past continuous tense. 6. Future continuous tense.

7. Present perfect tense. 8. Past perfect tense. 9. Future perfect tense. 10. Present continuous tense. 11. Past prefect continuous tense. 12. Future perfect continuous tense. Using the verb write and the pronoun we, let us form all these twelve tenses. The following sentences can be related one by one as per the order mentioned in the above-stated sentences. 1. We write a letter now. 2. We wrote a letter yesterday. 3. We will write a letter tomorrow. 4. We are writing a letter now. 5. We were writing a letter yesterday. 6. We will be writing a letter tomorrow. 7. We have written a letter now. 8. We had written a letter yesterday. 9. We will have written a letter tomorrow. 10. We have been writing a letter. 11. We had been writing a letter yesterday. 12. We will have been writing a letter tomorrow.

12 Tenses
There are 12 Tenses. Here are those tenses. 1.Simple Present Tense : I eat an apple. He eats an apple.

2. Simple Past Tense : I ate an apple. He ate an apple. 3. Simple Future Tense : I shall eat an apple. He will eat an apple. 4. Present Continuous Tense : I am eating an apple. We are eating apple. He was eating an apple. 5. Past Continuous Tense : I was eating an apple. We were eating apple. He was eating an apple. 6. Future Continuous Tense : I shall be eating an apple. He will be eating an apple. 7. Present perfect tense : I have eaten an apple. He has eaten an apple. 8. Past perfect tense : I had eaten an apple. He had eaten an apple. 9. Future perfect tense : I shall have eaten an apple. He will have eaten an apple. 10. Present Perfect Continuous Tense : I have been eating an apple. 11. Past Perfect Continuous Tense : I had been eating an apple.

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense : I shall have been eating an apple.

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