Fraction Word Problems

Here are some examples of fraction word problems. The first example is a one-step word problem. The second example shows how blocks can be used to help illustrate the problem. The third example is a two-step word problem. Example 1:

Martha spent left? Solution:

of her allowance on food and shopping. What fraction of her allowance had she

She had

of her allowance left.

Example 2:

of a group of children were girls. If there were 24 girls, how many children were there in the group? Solution:

3 units = 24 1 unit = 24 3 = 8 5 units = 5 8 = 40 There were 40 children in the group.

Proportion Word Problems

Proportion problems are word problems where the items in the question are proportional to each other. They are two main types of proportional problems: Directly Proportional Problems and Inversely Proportional Problems. Directly Proportional Problems The question usually will not tell you that the items are directly proportional. Instead, it will give you the value of two items which are related and then asks you to figure out what will be the value of one of the item if the value of the other item changes. Proportion problems are usually of the form: If x then y. If x is changed to a then what will be the value of y? For example, If two pencils cost $1.50, how many pencils can you buy with $9.00? The main difficulty with this type of question is to figure out which values to divide and which values to multiply. The following method is helpful: Change the word problem into the form: If x then y. If x is changed to a then what will be the value of y? which can then be represented as:

For example, You can think of the sentence: If two pencils cost $1.50, how many pencils can you buy with $9.00?as If $1.50 then two pencils. If $9.00 then how many pencils? Write the proportional relationship:

Inversely Proportional Problems Inversely Proportional questions are similar to directly proportional problems, but the difference is that when x increase y will decrease and vice versa - which is the inverse proportion relationship. The most common example of inverse proportion problems would be the more men on a job the less time taken for the job to complete Again, the technique is to change the proportion problems into the form: If x then y. If x is changed to a then what will be the value of y? and then write the inverse relationship (take note of the "inverse" form):

Example: It takes 4 men 6 hours to repair a road. How long will it take 7 men to do the job if they work at the same rate? Step 1: Think of the word problem as: If 4 then 6. If 7 then how many? Step 2: Write out the inverse relationship:

Answer: They will take

hours.

Percentage word problems

Before you learn about percentage word problems, review Formula for percentage or you can use the approach that I use here.

Example #1:

A test has 20 questions. If peter gets 80% correct, how many questions did peter missed? The number of correct answers is 80% of 20 or 80/100 20 80/100 20 = 0.80 20 = 16 Recall that 16 is called the percentage. It is the answer you get when you take the percent of a number Since the test has 20 questions and he got 16 correct answers, the number of questions he missed is 20 16 = 4 Peter missed 4 questions

Example #2: In a school, 25 % of the teachers teach basic math. If there are 50 basic math teachers, how many teachers are there in the school? I shall help you reason the problem out: When we say that 25 % of the teachers teach basic math, we mean 25% of all teachers in the school equal number of teachers teaching basic math Since we don't know how many teachers there are in the school, we replace this with x or a blank However, we know that the number of teachers teaching basic or the percentage = 50 Putting it all together, we get the following equation: 25% of ____ = 50 or 25% ___ = 50 or 0.25 ____ = 50 Thus, the question is 0.25 times what gives me 50 A simple division of 50 by 0.25 will get you the answer 50/0.25 = 200 Therefore, we have 200 teachers in the school In fact, 0.25 200 = 50

Number Problem involving one unknown

There are several problems which involve relations among known and unknown numbers and can be put in the form of equations. The equations are generally stated in words and it is for this reason we refer to these problems as word problems. With the help of equations in one variable, we have already practiced equations to solve some real life problems.

Step-by-step application of linear equations to solve practical word problems:

1. The sum of two numbers is 25. One of the numbers exceeds the other by 9. Find the numbers. Solution: Then the other number = x + 9 Let the number be x. Sum of two numbers = 25 According to question, x + x + 9 = 25 2x + 9 = 25 2x = 25 - 9 (transposing 9 to the R.H.S changes to -9) 2x = 16 2x/2 = 16/2 (divide by 2 on both the sides) x=8 Therefore, x + 9 = 8 + 9 = 17 Therefore, the two numbers are 9 and 16.

2.The difference between the two numbers is 48. The ratio of the two numbers is 7:3. What are the two numbers? Solution: Let the common ratio be x. Let the common ratio be x. Their difference = 48 According to the question, 7x - 3x = 48 4x = 48 x = 48/4 x = 12 Therefore, 7x = 7 12 = 84 3x = 3 12 = 36

Consecutive Integer Problems

Consecutive integer problems are word problems that involve consecutive integers. Consecutive integers are integers that follow in sequence, each number being 1 more than the previous number, represented by n, n +1, n + 2, n + 3, ..., where n is any integer. For example: 23, 24, 25, The following are common examples of consecutive integer problems. Example #1: Find four consecutive even integers such that the sum of the second and fourth integers is one and a half times the sum of the first and third integers. Solution #1: Consecutive Even Integers: n, n + 2, n + 4, n + 6 for even integer n Sum of Second and Fourth Integers: (n + 2) + (n + 6) = 2n + 8 Sum of First and Third Integers: n + (n + 4) = 2n + 4 Since sum of the second and fourth integers is twice than the sum of the first and third integers, it follows that: 2n + 8 = 1.5(2n + 4) 2n + 8 = 3n + 6 3n 2n = 8 6 n=2 Four consecutive even integers are 2, 4, 6, and 8 Example #2: Find three consecutive odd integers such that the sum of the second and third integers is four times the first. Solution #2: Consecutive Even Integers: n, n + 2, n + 4 for odd integer n Sum of Second and Third Integers: (n + 2) + (n + 4) = 2n + 6 Since sum of the second and third integers equals four times the first integer, it follows that: 2n + 6 = 4n 4n 2n = 6 2n = 6 n=3 Three consecutive odd integers are 3, 5 and 7

Age Word Problems

Age problems are algebra word problems that deal with the ages of people currently, in the past or in the future. If the problem involves a single person, then it is similar to an Integer Problem. Read the problem carefully to determine the relationship between the numbers. This is shown in the example involving a single person. If the age problem involves the ages of two or more people then using a table would be a good idea. A table will help you to organize the information and to write the equations. This is shown in the age problems: examples involving more than one person.

Age Problems Involving A Single Person

Example 1: Five years ago, Johns age was half of the age he will be in 8 years. How old is he now? Solution: Step 1: Let x be Johns age now. Look at the question and put the relevant expressions above it.

Step 2: Write out the equation.

Isolate variable x

Answer: John is now 18 years old.

Age Problems Involving More Than One Person

Example 2: John is twice as old as his friend Peter. Peter is 5 years older than Alice. In 5 years, John will be three times as old as Alice. How old is Peter now? Solution: Step 1: Set up a table. age now John Peter Alice Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question. John is twice as old as his friend Peter. Peter is 5 years older than Alice. In 5 years, John will be three times as old as Alice. How old is Peter now? Let x be Peters age now. Add 5 to get the ages in 5 yrs. age now 2x x x5 age in 5 yrs 2x + 5 x+5 x5+5 age in 5 yrs

John Peter Alice

Write the new relationship in an equation using the ages in 5 yrs. In 5 years, John will be three times as old as Alice. 2x + 5 = 3(x 5 + 5) 2x + 5 = 3x Isolate variable x x=5 Answer: Peter is now 5 years old.

Average Word Problems

There are three main types of algebra average word problems commonly encountered in school or in tests like the SAT: Average (Arithmetic Mean), Weighted Average and Average Speed.

Average (Arithmetic Mean)

The average (arithmetic mean) uses the formula:

The formula can also be written as

Example: The average (arithmetic mean) of a list of 6 numbers is 20. If we remove one of the numbers, the average of the remaining numbers is 15. What is the number that was removed? Solution: Step 1: The removed number could be obtained by difference between the sum of original 6 numbers and the sum of remaining 5 numbers i.e. sum of original 6 numbers sum of remaining 5 numbers Step 2: Using the formula

sum of original 6 numbers = 20 6 = 120 sum of remaining 5 numbers = 15 5 = 75 Step 3: Using the formula from step 1 Number removed = sum of original 6 numbers sum of remaining 5 numbers 120 75 = 45 Answer: The number removed is 45.

Weighted Mean Word Problem

Another type of average problem involves the weighted average - which is the average of two or more terms that do not all have the same number of members. To find the weighted term, multiply each term by its weighting factor, which is the number of times each term occurs. The formula for weighted average is:

Example: A class of 25 students took a science test. 10 students had an average (arithmetic mean) score of 80. The other students had an average score of 60. What is the average score of the whole class? Solution: Step 1: To get the sum of weighted terms, multiply each average by the number of students that had that average and then sum them up. 80 10 + 60 15 = 800 + 900 = 1700 Step 2: Total number of terms = Total number of students = 25 Step 3: Using the formula

Answer: The average score of the whole class is 68. Be careful! You will get the wrong answer if you add the two average scores and divide the answer by two.

Mixture Word Problems

Mixture problems are word problems where items or quantities of different values are mixed together. Sometimes different liquids are mixed together changing the concentration of the mixture as shown in example 1, example 2 and example 3. Sometimes quantities of different costs are mixed together as shown in example 4. We recommend using a table to organize your information for mixture problems. Using a table allows you to think of one number at a time instead of trying to handle the whole mixture problem at once. We will show you how it is done by the following examples of mixture problems: Adding to the Solution Removing from the Solution Replacing the Solution Mixing Quantities of Different Costs
Adding To The Solution

Mixture Problems: Example 1: John has 20 ounces of a 20% of salt solution, How much salt should he add to make it a 25% solution? Solution: Step 1: Set up a table for salt. original concentration amount added result

Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question. John has 20 ounces of a 20% of salt solution. How much salt should he add to make it a 25% solution? The salt added is 100% salt, which is 1 in decimal. Change all the percent to decimals Let x = amount of salt added. The result would be 20 + x.

concentration amount

original 0.2 20

added 1 x

result 0.25 20 + x

Step 3: Multiply down each column. original 0.2 20 0.2 20 added 1 x 1x result 0.25 20 + x 0.25(20 + x)

concentration amount multiply

Step 4: original + added = result 0.2 20 + 1 x = 0.25(20 + x) 4 + x = 5 + 0.25x Isolate variable x x 0.25x = 5 4 0.75x = 1

Answer: He should add

ounces of salt.

Removing From The Solution

Mixture Problems: Example 2: John has 20 ounces of a 20% of salt solution. How much water should he evaporate to make it a 30% solution? Solution: Step 1: Set up a table for water. The water is removed from the original. original concentration amount removed result

Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question.

John has 20 ounces of a 20% of salt solution. How much water should he evaporate to make it a 30% solution? The original concentration of water is 100% 20% = 80% The resulted concentration of water is 100% 30% = 70% The water evaporated is 100% water, which is 1 in decimal. Change all the percent to decimals. Let x = amount of water evaporated. The result would be 20 x. original 0.8 20 removed 1 x result 0.7 20 x

concentration amount

Step 3: Multiply down each column. original 0.8 20 0.8 20 removed 1 x 1x result 0.7 20 x 0.70(20 x)

concentration amount multiply

Step 4: Since the water is removed, we need to subtract original removed = result 0.8 20 1 x = 0.70(20 x) 16 x = 14 0.7x Isolate variable x x 0.7x = 16 14 0.3x = 2

Answer: He should evaporate 6.67 ounces of water.

Replacing the Solution Mixture Problems: Example 3: A tank has a capacity of 10 gallons. When it is full, it contains 15% alcohol. How many gallons must be replaced by an 80% alcohol solution to give 10 gallons of 70% solution?

Solution:

Step 1: Set up a table for alcohol. The alcohol is replaced i.e. removed and added. original concentration amount removed added result

Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question. A tank has a capacity of 10 gallons. When it is full, it contains 15% alcohol. How many gallons must be replaced by an 80% alcohol solution to give 10 gallons of 70% solution? Change all the percent to decimals. Let x = amount of alcohol solution replaced. original 0.15 10 removed 0.15 x added 0.8 x result 0.7 10

concentration amount

Step 3: Multiply down each column. original 0.15 10 0.15 10 removed 0.15 x 0.15 x added 0.8 x 0.8 x result 0.7 10 0.7 10

concentration amount multiply

Step 4: Since the alcohol solution is replaced, we need to subtract and add. original removed + added = result 0.15 10 0.15 x + 0.8 x = 0.7 10 1.5 0.15x + 0.8x = 7 Isolate variable x 0.8x 0.15x = 7 1.5 0.65x = 5.5

Answer: 8.46 gallons of alcohol solution needs to be replaced.

Algebra Motion Problems

In this lesson, we will learn how to solve algebra word problems that involve motion. Motion problems are based on the formula d = rt where d = distance, r = rate and t = time. When solving motion problems, a sketch is often helpful and a table can be used for organizing information. Example: John and Philip who live 14 miles apart start at noon to walk toward each other at rates of 3 mph and 4 mph respectively. In how many hours will they meet? Solution: Let x = time walked. r 3 4 t x x d 3x 4x down river up river Example: In still water, Peters boat goes 4 times as fast as the current in the river. He takes a 15mile trip up the river and returns in 4 hours. Find the rate of the current. Solution: Let x = rate of the current. r 4x + x 4x - x t 15 / 5x 15 / 3x d 15 15

John Philip

3x + 4x = 14 7x = 14 x=2 The rate of the current is 2 mph. They will meet in 2 hours.

Interest Word Problems

Interest Problems are word problems that use the formula for Simple Interest. There is also another type of interest called Compound Interest but we will not be discussing that in this lesson. The formula for Simple Interest is: i = prt i is the interest generated. p is the principal amount that is either invested or owed r is the rate at which the interest is paid t is the time that the principal amount is either invested or owed This type of word problem is not difficult. Just remember the formula and make sure you plug in the right values. The rate is usually given in percent, which you will need to change to a decimal value.

Example 1: John wants to have an interest income of $3,000 a year. How much must he invest for one year at 8%? Solution:

Example 2: Jane owes the bank some money at 4% per year. After half a year, she paid $45 as interest. How much money does she owe the bank? Solution:

Step 1: Write down the formula Step 1: Write down the formula i = prt i = prt Step 2: Plug in the values Step 2: Plug in the values 3000 = p 0.08 1 3000 = 0.08p p = 37,500 Answer: He must invest $37,500 45 = 0.02p p = 2250 Answer: She owes $2,250

Work Word Problems

Work Problems are word problems that involve different people doing work together but at different rates. If the people were working at the same rate then we would use the Inversely Proportional Method instead. In this lesson, we will learn

how to solve work problems that involve two persons how to solve work problems that involve more than two persons how to solve work problems that involve pipes filling up a tank The formula for Work Problems that involve two persons is

This formula can be extended for more than two persons. It can also be used in problems that involve pipes filling up a tank.
"Work" Problems: Two Persons

Example 1: Peter can mow the lawn in 40 minutes and John can mow the lawn in 60 minutes. How long will it take for them to mow the lawn together? Solution: Step 1: Assign variables: Let x = time to mow lawn together Step 2: Use the formula:

Step 3: Solve the equation The LCM of 40 and 60 is 120 Multiply both sides with 120

Answer: The time taken for both of them to mow the lawn together is 24 minutes.

Work Problems: More than Two Persons

Example 1: Jane, Paul and Peter can finish painting the fence in 2 hours. If Jane does the job alone she can finish it in 5 hours. If Paul does the job alone he can finish it in 6 hours. How long will it take for Peter to finish the job alone? Solution: Step 1: Assign variables: Let x = time taken by Peter Step 2: Use the formula:

Step 3: Solve the equation Multiply both sides with 30x

Answer: The time taken for Peter to paint the fence alone is

hours.

Work Problems: Pipes Filling up a Tank

Example 1: A tank can be filled by pipe A in 3 hours and by pipe B in 5 hours. When the tank is full, it can be drained by pipe C in 4 hours. if the tank is initially empty and all three pipes are open, how many hours will it take to fill up the tank? Solution: Step 1: Assign variables: Let x = time taken to fill up the tank Step 2: Use the formula: Since pipe C drains the water it is subtracted.

Step 3: Solve the equation The LCM of 3, 4 and 5 is 60 Multiply both sides with 60

Answer: The time taken to fill the tank is

hours.

Andres Soriano College Mangagoy, Bislig City

Andres Soriano College Mangagoy, Bislig City

OPERATIONS OF REAL NUMBERS

Operations refer to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

ADDITION/SUBTRACTION OF REAL NUMBERS a) Two real numbers with the same signs, add and use the common sign b) Two real numbers with different signs, subtract and use the sign of the larger number EXAMPLES: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) -5 + (-3) = -8 (same signs, add and use the common sign) 3 + (-7) = -4 (different signs, subtract and use the sign of larger number) -14 + 23 = 9 (different signs, subtract and use the sign of larger number) 28 + (-12) = 16 (different signs, subtract and use the sign of larger number) -42 - 21 = -43 (same signs, add and use the common sign) can also be written as -42 + (-21) = -43 6) -3/5 + 2/5 = -1/5 (different signs, subtract and use the sign of larger number) 7) -4.5 + (-3.6) + (-1.1) = -9.2 (same signs, add and use the common sign) 8) -12 - 13 + 42 - 11 + 16 + (-12) + 15 (-12-13-11-12) + (42+16+15) (group the neg numbers and pos numbers) -48 + 73 25 NOTE: when there are grouping symbols such as the absolute value and opposites, you must simplify those first and then add/subtract. 9) 8 - (-6) 8 + 6 = 14 (first take the opposite of -6, then add/subtract)

10) 4.5 + (-6.0) - (-2.3) - 12 + 2.6 - (-2.1) 4.5 + (-6.0) + 2.3 - 12 + 2.6 + 2.1 (simplify the opposites) (4.5 + 2.3 + 2.6 + 2.1) + (-6.0 -12) (group like terms) 11.5 + (-18) -6.5 11) |-2| + (-6) + 12 - (-3) 2 + (-6) + 12 + 3 11 12) -(-6) - 26 - |-14| + 34 6 - 26 - 14 + 34 (6 + 34) + (-26 - 14) 40 + (-40) 0

(simplify absolute value and opposites) (simplify absolute value and opposites) (note: - |-14| 14)

MULTIPLICATION/DIVISION OF REAL NUMBERS a) do the indicated operation b) two positive numbers or two negative numbers, then answer is a positive positive number and a negative number, then answer is a negative EXAMPLES: 1) 2) 3) 4) -12 5 = -60 (5)(-4)(-7) = 140 -1/2(-2/3)(-1) = -1/3 (4/5) (-3/10) = -6/25

(recall how to multiply fractions) (recall how to divide fractions)

5) (-3)(-7)|-10| (this expression reads as -3 times -7 times the absolute value of -10) (-3)(-8)(10) = 240 (simplify the absolute value, then multiply) MORE EXAMPLES The following examples will include all four operations. Evaluate each expression: 1) -5 + (-3) - 6 2) -5(-3)(-6) 3) -16 |-10| 4) 15/32 -4/5

5) (-2/5)(-1/3)(5)(-1/2) 7) |-7/9| - (-5/6) + 1/3 Answers:

6) -2/5 + 1/3 - 5 + 1/2 8) |-11|(-2)|-10|

1) -5 + (-3) - 6 = -14 (add/subtract) 2) -5(-3)(-6) 3) -16 |-10| -16 10 4) 15/32 -4/5 = -90 (multiply) (simplify absolute value) (divide)

= -8/5 or -1 3/5 or -1.6 = -3/8 or -0.375

(multiply) (multiply)

5) (-2/5)(-1/3)(-5)(-1/2) = 1/3 or 0.33

6) -2/5 + 1/3 - 5 + 1/2 = -4 17/30 or -137/30 or - 4.5667 (add/subtract) 7) |-7/9| - (-5/6) + 1/3 (simplify absolute value and opposites) 7/9 + 5/6 + 1/3 = 1 17/18 or 35/18 or 1.944 (add/subtract) 8) |-11|(-2)|-10| 11 (-2) 10 = -220 (simplify absolute value) (multiply)

Even and odd numbers

Even and odd numbers are straightforward concepts. I will start easy, but I will try to challenge the topic a little bit. Even numbers An even number is any number that can be divided by 2.For example, 12 can be divided by 2, so 12 is even. We saw in divisibility rules that a number is divisible by 2 if its last digit is 0,2,4,6,or 8. Therefore, any number whose last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 is an even number Other examples of even numbers are 58, 44884, 998632, 98, 48, and 10000000 Formal definition of an even number: A number n is even if there exist a number k, such that n = 2k where k is an integer This is formal way of saying that if n is divided by 2, we always get a quotient k with no remainder Having no remainder means that n can in fact be divided by 2 Odd numbers An odd number is any number that cannot be divided by 2.For example, 25 cannot be divided by 2, so 25 is odd. We saw in divisibility rules that a number is divisible by 2 if its last digit is 0,2,4,6,or 8. Therefore, any number whose last digit is not 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 is an odd number Other examples of odd numbers are 53, 881, 238637, 99, 45, and 100000023 Formal definition of an odd number: A number n is odd if there exist a number k, such that n = 2k + 1 where k is an integer This is formal way of saying that if n is divided by 2, we always get a quotient k with a remainder of 1 Having a remainder of 1 means that n cannot in fact be divided by 2 Basic operations with even and odd numbers Addition even + even = even 4+2=6 even + odd = odd 6+3=9 odd + odd = even 13 + 13 = 26 Multiplication even even = even 2 6 = 12 even odd = even 8 3 = 24 odd odd = odd 3 5 = 15 Subtraction even even = even 84=4 even odd = odd 63=3 odd odd = even 13 3 = 10

Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers

A Prime Number can be divided evenly only by 1 or itself. And it must be a whole number greater than 1.

Example: 7 can only be divided evenly by 1 or 7, so it is a prime number.

But 6 can be divided evenly by 1, 2, 3 and 6 so it is NOT a prime number (it is a composite number). Let me explain ... Some whole numbers can be divided up evenly, and some can't!

Example:
6 can be divided evenly by 2, or by 3: 6=23 Like this:

or divided into 2 groups But 7 cannot be divided up evenly: divided into 3 groups

And we give them names:

When a number can be divided up evenly it is a Composite Number When a number can not be divided up evenly it is a Prime Number So 6 is Composite, but 7 is Prime.

Not Into Fractions

We are only dealing with whole numbers here! We are not going to cut things into halves or quarters.

Not Into Groups of 1

OK, we could have divided 7 into seven 1s (or one 7) like this:

7=1x7 But we could do that for any whole number! So we should also say we are not interested in dividing by 1, or by the number itself. It is a Prime Number when it can't be divided evenly by any number (except 1 or itself). Example: is 7 a Prime Number or Composite Number?

You cannot divide 7 evenly by 2 (you would get 2 lots of 3, with one left over) You cannot divide 7 evenly by 3 (you would get 3 lots of 2, with one left over) You cannot divide 7 evenly by 4, or 5, or 6.

You can only divide 7 into one group of 7 (or seven groups of 1):

7=1x7 So 7 can only be divided evenly by 1 or itself: So 7 is a Prime Number And also: It is a Composite Number when it can be divided evenly by numbers other than 1 or itself. Like this: Example: is 6 a Prime Number or Composite Number?

6 can be divided evenly by 2, or by 3, as well as by 1 or 6: 6=16 6=23 So 6 is a Composite Number Sometimes a number can be divided evenly many ways: Example: 12 can be divided evenly by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12: 1 12 = 12 2 6 = 12 3 4 = 12 So 12 is a Composite Number And note this: Any whole number greater than 1 is either Prime or Composite

What About 1?
Years ago 1 was included as a Prime, but now it is not: 1 is neither Prime nor Composite.

Factors
You can make the same definitions using Factors.

"Factors" are the numbers you multiply together to get another number. So here is just a different way of saying the same thing from above: When the only two factors of a number are 1 and the number, then it is a Prime Number And remember this is only about Whole Numbers (1, 2, 3, ... etc), not fractions or negative numbers. So don't say "I could multiply times 6 to get 3" OK? Examples:

3=13 (the only factors are 1 and 3) 6 = 1 6 or 6 = 2 3 (the factors are 1,2,3 and 6)

Prime

Composite

Examples From 1 to 14
I have highlighted any factors other than 1 or the number itself: Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ... Can be Evenly Prime, or Divided By Composite? (1 is not considered prime or composite) 1, 2 Prime 1, 3 Prime 1, 2, 4 Composite 1, 5 Prime 1, 2, 3, 6 Composite 1, 7 Prime 1, 2, 4, 8 Composite 1, 3, 9 Composite 1, 2, 5, 10 Composite 1, 11 Prime 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 Composite 1, 13 Prime 1, 2, 7, 14 Composite ... ...

So when there are more factors than 1 or the number itself, the number is Composite. A question for you: is 15 Prime or Composite?

Prime Factorization
Prime Numbers
A Prime Number can be divided evenly only by 1 or itself. And it must be a whole number greater than 1. The first few prime numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17 ..., and we have a prime number chart if you need more.

Factors
"Factors" are the numbers you multiply together to get another number:

Prime Factorization
"Prime Factorization" is finding which prime numbers multiply together to make the original number. Here are some examples:
Example 1: What are the prime factors of 12 ?

It is best to start working from the smallest prime number, which is 2, so let's check: 12 2 = 6 Yes, it divided evenly by 2. We have taken the first step! But 6 is not a prime number, so we need to go further. Let's try 2 again: 62=3 Yes, that worked also. And 3 is a prime number, so we have the answer: 12 = 2 2 3 As you can see, every factor is a prime number, so the answer must be right. Note: 12 = 2 2 3 can also be written using exponents as 12 = 22 3

Example 2: What is the prime factorization of 147 ?

Can we divide 147 evenly by 2? No, so we should try the next prime number, 3: 147 3 = 49 Then we try factoring 49, and find that 7 is the smallest prime number that works: 49 7 = 7 And that is as far as we need to go, because all the factors are prime numbers. 147 = 3 7 7 (or 147 = 3 72 using exponents)
Example 3: What is the prime factorization of 17 ?

Hang on ... 17 is a Prime Number. So that is as far as we can go. 17 = 17

Another Method
We showed you how to do the factorization by starting at the smallest prime and working upwards. But sometimes it is easier to break a number down into any factors you can ... then work those factor down to primes.
Example: What are the prime factors of 90 ?

Break 90 into 9 10

The prime factors of 9 are 3 and 3 The prime factors of 10 are 2 and 5

So the prime factors of 90 are 3, 3, 2 and 5

Why?
A prime number can only be divided by 1 or itself, so it cannot be factored any further! Every other whole number can be broken down into prime number factors.

It is like the Prime Numbers are the basic building blocks of all numbers.

This can be very useful when working with big numbers, such as in Cryptography.

Cryptography
Cryptography is the study of secret codes. Prime Factorization is very important to people who try to make (or break) secret codes based on numbers. That is because factoring very large numbers is very hard, and can take computers a long time to do. If you want to know more, the subject is "encryption" or "cryptography".

Unique
And here is another thing: There is only one (unique!) set of prime factors for any number. Example The prime factors of 330 are 2, 3, 5 and 11: 330 = 2 3 5 11 There is no other possible set of prime numbers that can be multiplied to make 330. In fact this idea is so important it is called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Prime Factorization Tool

OK, we have one more method ... use our Prime Factorization Tool that can work out the prime factors for numbers up to 4,294,967,296.

Greatest Common Factor

The highest number that divides exactly into two or more numbers. It is the "greatest" thing for simplifying fractions!

Let's start with an Example ...

Greatest Common Factor of 12 and 16

1. Find all the Factors of each number, 2. Circle the Common factors, 3. Choose the Greatest of those

So ... what is a "Factor" ?

Factors are the numbers you multiply together to get another number:

A number can have many factors: Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 ... ... because 2 6 = 12, or 4 3 = 12, or 1 12 = 12. (Read how to find All the Factors of a Number. In our case we don't need the negative ones.)

What is a "Common Factor" ?

Let us say you have worked out the factors of two numbers:
Example: Factors of 12 and 30 Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 Factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30

Then the common factors are those that are found in both lists:

Notice that 1, 2, 3 and 6 appear in both lists? So, the common factors of 12 and 30 are: 1, 2, 3 and 6

It is a common factor when it is a factor of two or more numbers. (It is then "common to" those numbers.) Here is another example with three numbers:
Example: The common factors of 15, 30 and 105 Factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, and 15 Factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30 Factors of 105 are 1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 35 and 105

The factors that are common to all three numbers are 1, 3, 5 and 15 In other words, the common factors of 15, 30 and 105 are 1, 3, 5 and 15

What is the "Greatest Common Factor" ?

It is simply the largest of the common factors. In our previous example, the largest of the common factors is 15, so the Greatest Common Factor of 15, 30 and 105 is 15 The "Greatest Common Factor" is the largest of the common factors (of two or more numbers)

Why is this Useful?

One of the most useful things is when we want to simplify a fraction: Example: How could we simplify 12/30 ? Earlier we found that the Common Factors of 12 and 30 were 1, 2, 3 and 6, and so the Greatest Common Factor is 6.So the largest number we can divide both 12 and 30 evenly by is 6, like this:
6

12 = 30

2 5

The Greatest Common Factor of 12 and 30 is 6. And so 12/30 can be simplified to 2/5

Finding the Greatest Common Factor 1. You can:

find all factors of both numbers (I have an All Factors Calculator to help you), then select the ones that are common to both, and then choose the greatest.

Example:
Two Numbers Factors 9: 1,3,9 12: 1,2,3,4,6,12 Common Factors Greatest Example Simplified Common Factor Fraction 3
9

9 and 12

1,3

/12 = 3/4

And another example:

Two Numbers Factors 6: 1,2,3,6 18: 1,2,3,6,9,18 Common Factors Greatest Example Simplified Common Factor Fraction 6
6

6 and 18

1,2,3,6

/18 = 1/3

2. You can find the prime factors and combine the common ones together:
Two Numbers Thinking ... 2 2 2 3 = 24, and 2 2 3 3 3 = 108 Greatest Example Simplified Common Factor Fraction 2 2 3 = 12
24

24 and 108

/108 = 2/9

Least Common Multiple

The smallest (non-zero) number that is a multiple of two or more numbers. Least Common Multiple is made up of the words Least, Common and Multiple:

What is a "Multiple" ?
The multiples of a number are what you get when you multiply it by other numbers (such as if you multiply it by 1,2,3,4,5, etc). Just like the multiplication table. Here are some examples:
The multiples of 3 are: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, etc ... The multiples of 12 are: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, etc...

What is a "Common Multiple" ?

When you list the multiples of two (or more) numbers, and find the same value in both lists, then that is a common multiple of those numbers. For example, when you write down the multiples of 4 and 5, the common multiples are those that are found in both lists:
The multiples of 4 are: 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44,... The multiples of 5 are: 5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,...

Notice that 20 and 40 appear in both lists? So, the common multiples of 4 and 5 are: 20, 40, (and 60, 80, etc ..., too)

What is the "Least Common Multiple" ?

It is simply the smallest of the common multiples.

In our previous example, the smallest of the common multiples is 20 ... ... so the Least Common Multiple of 4 and 5 is 20.

Finding the Least Common Multiple

It is a really easy thing to do. Just start listing the multiples of the numbers until you get a match.

Example: Find the least common multiple for 3 and 5:

The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ..., and the multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20, ..., like this:

As you can see on this number line, the first time the multiples match up is 15. Answer: 15

More than 2 Numbers

You can also find the least common multiple of 3 (or more) numbers.
Example: Find the least common multiple for 4, 6, and 8

Multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, ... Multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ... Multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, .... So, 24 is the least common multiple (I can't find a smaller one !) Hint: You can have smaller lists for the bigger numbers.

Operations on Integers
There are three appealing ways to understand how to add integers. We can use movement, temperature and money. Lastly, we will take a look at the rules for addition.

Movement You are probably familiar with a number line (see Figure 1). Traditionally, zero is placed in the center. Positive numbers extend to the right of zero and negative numbers extend to the left of zero. In order to add positive and negative integers, we will imagine that we are moving along a number line. Figure 1

ex 1: If asked to add 4 and 3, we would start by moving to the number 4 on the number line -- exactly four units to the right of zero. Then we would move three units to the right. Since we landed up seven units to the right of zero as a result of these movements, the answer must be 7. ex 2: If asked to add 8 and -2, we would start by moving eight units to the right of zero. Then we would move two units left from there because negative numbers make us move to the left side of the number line. Since our last position is six units to the right of zero, the answer is 6. ex 3: If asked to add -13 and 4, we start by moving thirteen units to the left of zero. Then we move four units to the right. Since we land up nine units to the left of zero, the answer is -9. ex 4: If asked to add -6 and -5, first move six units to the left of zero. Then move five units further left. Since we are a total of eleven units left of zero, the answer is -11.

Temperature The temperature model for adding integers is exactly the same as the movement model because most thermometers are really number lines that stand upright. The numbers can be thought of as temperature changes. Positive numbers make the temperature indicator rise. Negative numbers make the temperature indicator fall. Adding two positive temperatures will result in a positive temperature, similar to example 1 above. Adding two negative temperatures will result in a negative temperature, similar to example 4 above.

Examples 2 and 3 can be understood in a different way by imagining a battle between two temperatures. When we added 8 and -2 in example 2, there was more positive temperature than negative temperature which would explain the result -- positive 6. In example 3 there was more negative temperature than positive. That will explain why the answer is negative.

Money It can be helpful to think of money when doing integer addition. The positive numbers represent income while the negative numbers represent debt. When adding two incomes, like example 1 above, the answer has to be a bigger income and the result is a positive number. When adding two debts, like example 4 above, the answer has to be another debt. In fact, accountants would call it 'falling deeper in debt.' Similar to our temperature battle between warm temperatures and cold temperatures, adding positive and negative numbers is like comparing income to debt. If there is more income than debt the answer will be positive, like example 2. If there is more debt than income the answer will be negative, like example 3.

Rules for Addition Below is a table to help condense the rules for addition. Note the second and third rows of the body of the table. Those answers are dependant upon the original values. Rules for Addition Positive + Positive Positive + Negative Negative + Positive

Positive Depends Depends

Subtraction Instead of coming up with a new method for explaining how to subtract integers, let us borrow from the explanation above under the addition of integers. We will learn how to transform subtraction problems into addition problems. The technique for changing subtraction problems into addition problems is extremely mechanical. There are two steps: 1. Change the subtraction sign into an addition sign. 2. Take the opposite of the number that immediately follows the newly placed addition sign. Let's take a look at the problem 3 - 4. According to step #1, we have to change the subtraction sign to an addition sign. According to step #2, we have to take the opposite of 4, which is -4. Therefore the problem becomes 3 + (-4). Using the rules for addition, the answer is -1. Here is another problem: -2 - 8. Switching the problem to an addition problem, it becomes -2 + (8), which is equal to -10.

6 - (-20) is equal to 6 + 20, which is 26. -7 - (-1) is the same as -7 + 1, which is -6.

Quizmaster: Subtracting Integers

Multiplication The best place to start with multiplication, is with the rules: Rules for Multiplication Positive x Positive Positive Positive x Negative Negative Negative x Positive Negative Negative x Negative Positive Now we have to understand the rules. The first rule is the easiest to remember because we learned it so long ago. Working with positive numbers under multiplication always yeilds positive answers. However, the last three rules are a bit more challenging to understand. The second and third steps can be explained simultaneously. This is because numbers can be multiplied in any order. -3 x 7 has the same answer as 7 x -3, which is always true for all integers. [This property has a special name in mathematics. It is called the commutative property.] For us, this means the second and third rules are equivalent. One reason why mathematics has so much value is because its usefulness is derived from its consistency. It behaves with strict regularity. This is no accident, mind you. This is quite purposeful. Keeping this in mind, let's take a look at Figure 2 below. There is a definite pattern to the problems in the table. The first number in each row remains constant but the second number is decreasing by one, each step down the table. Consequently, the answer is changing. The answers have a definite pattern as we go down the table too. It should be relatively easy to determine the two missing answers. If you understand the pattern, you will see that the first unanswered problem is -2 and the second unanswered problem is -4. This should provide some meaning why a negative number is always the result when multiplying two numbers of opposite sign. Likewise, lets turn our attention to Figure 3 below. This table has a pattern similar to the one in Figure 1. However, this table begins with a negative number. As we scan the list of answers, we can see that the last two problems remain unanswered. With a little concentration, we can see that the two unanswered questions must have positive answers to maintain mathematical consistency. This should help us understand why a positive number is always the result of multiplying two numbers of the same sign.

Exponents
The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in a multiplication. In 82 the "2" says to use 8 twice in a multiplication, so 82 = 8 8 = 64 Exponents are also called Powers or Indices.

In words: 82 could be called "8 to the power 2" or "8 to the second power", or simply "8 squared"

Some more examples:

Example: 53 = 5 5 5 = 125

In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3" or simply "5 cubed"

Example: 24 = 2 2 2 2 = 16

In words: 24 could be called "2 to the fourth power" or "2 to the power 4" or simply "2 to the 4th"

Exponents make it easier to write and use many multiplications Example: 96 is easier to write and read than 9 9 9 9 9 9 You can multiply any number by itself as many times as you want using exponents. Try here:

In General
So, in general: an tells you to multiply a by itself, so there are n of those a's:

Other Way of Writing It

Sometimes people use the ^ symbol (just above the 6 on your keyboard), because it is easy to type. Example: 2^4 is the same as 24

2^4 = 2 2 2 2 = 16

Negative Exponents
Negative? What could be the opposite of multiplying? Dividing! A negative exponent means how many times to divide one by the number. Example: 8-1 = 1 8 = 0.125 You can have many divides: Example: 5-3 = 1 5 5 5 = 0.008 But that can be done an easier way: 5-3 could also be calculated like: 1 (5 5 5) = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

In General
That last example showed an easier way to handle negative exponents:

Calculate the positive exponent (an) Then take the Reciprocal (i.e. 1/an)

More Examples: Negative Exponent 4-2 10-3 (-2)-3 Reciprocal of Positive Exponent 1 / 42 1 / 103 1 / (-2)3 Answer 1/16 = 0.0625 1/1,000 = 0.001 1/(-8) = -0.125

= = =

= = =

What if the Exponent is 1, or 0?

1 If the exponent is 1, then you just have the number itself (example 91 = 9) 0 If the exponent is 0, then you get 1 (example 90 = 1) But what about 00 ? It could be either 1 or 0, and so people say it is "indeterminate".

It All Makes Sense

My favorite method is to start with "1" and then multiply or divide as many times as the exponent says, then you will get the right answer, for example: Example: Powers of 5 .. etc.. 25 155 5 15 1 1 0.2 15 0.04 155 .. etc..

52 51 50 5-1 5-2

If you look at that table, you will see that positive, zero or negative exponents are really part of the same (fairly simple) pattern.

Be Careful About Grouping

To avoid confusion, use parentheses () in cases like this: With () : Without () : With () : Without () : (-2)2 = (-2) (-2) = 4 -22 = -(22) = - (2 2) = -4 (ab)2 = ab ab ab2 = a (b)2 = a b b

Fractions
Types of Fractions

An Improper fraction has a top number larger than (or equal to) the bottom number, It is "top-heavy" /4 (seven-fourths or seven-quarters)
7

Examples
3

/2

/4

16

/15

15

/15

99

/5

See how the top number is bigger than (or equal to) the bottom number? That makes it an Improper Fraction, (but there is nothing wrong about Improper Fractions).

Three Types of Fractions

There are three types of fraction:

Fractions
A Fraction (such as 7/4) has two numbers: Numerator Denominator The top number is the Numerator, it is the number of parts you have. The bottom number is the Denominator, it is the number of parts the whole is divided into. Example: 7/4 means:

We have 7 parts Each part is a quarter (1/4) of a whole

So we can define the three types of fractions like this: Proper Fractions: The numerator is less than the denominator Examples: 1/3, 3/4, 2/7 Improper Fractions: The numerator is greater than (or equal to) the denominator Examples: 4/3, 11/4, 7/7 Mixed Fractions: A whole number and proper fraction together Examples: 1 1/3, 2 1/4, 16 2/5

Improper Fraction
So, an improper fraction is just a fraction where the top number (numerator) is greater than or equal to the bottom number (denominator). In other words, it is top-heavy.

Can be Equal
What about when the numerator is equal to the denominator? For example 4/4 ?
4

/4

Well, it is obviously the same as a whole, but it is written as a fraction, so most people agree it is a type of improper fraction.

Improper Fractions or Mixed Fractions

You can use either an improper fraction or a mixed fraction to show the same amount. For example 1 3/4 = 7/4, shown here: 1 3/4
7

/4

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Fractions

To convert an improper fraction to a mixed fraction, follow these steps:

Divide the numerator by the denominator. Write down the whole number answer Then write down any remainder above the denominator.

Example: Convert 11/4 to a mixed fraction.

Divide: 11 4 = 2 with a remainder of 3 Write down the 2 and then write down the remainder (3) above the denominator (4), like this: 2 3 4

Converting Mixed Fractions to Improper Fractions

To convert a mixed fraction to an improper fraction, follow these steps:

Multiply the whole number part by the fraction's denominator. Add that to the numerator Then write the result on top of the denominator.

Example: Convert 3 2/5 to an improper fraction.

Multiply the whole number by the denominator: 3 5 = 15 Add the numerator to that: 15 + 2 = 17 Then write that down above the denominator, like this: 17 5

Fraction Operations
To add (or subtract) two fractions: 1) Find the least common denominator. 2) Write both original fractions as equivalent fractions with the least common denominator. 3) Add (or subtract) the numerators. 4) Write the result with the denominator. Example 1:

Add

The least common denominator is 21.

To multiply two fractions: 1) Multiply the numerator by the numerator. 2) Multiply the denominator by the denominator. For all real numbers a, b, c, d (b 0, d 0)

Example 2:

Multiply

To divide by a fraction, multiply by its reciprocal. For all real numbers a, b, c, d (b 0, c 0, d 0)

Example 3:

Divide

Mixed numbers can be written as an improper fraction and an improper fraction can be written as a mixed number. Example 4:

Write

as an improper fraction.

Example 5:

Write

as a mixed number in simple form.

A fraction is in lowest terms when the numerator and denominator have no common factor other than 1. To write a fraction in lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by the greatest common factor. Example 6:

Write

in lowest terms.

45 and 75 have a common factor of 15.

Decimal Numbers
Any number can be written in "decimal form". There are three different types of decimal number: exact, recurring and other decimals. An exact or terminating decimal is one which does not go on forever, so you can write down all its digits. For example: 0.125 A recurring decimal is a decimal number which does go on forever, but where some of the digits are repeated over and over again. For example: 0.1252525252525252525... is a recurring decimal, where '25' is repeated forever. Sometimes recurring decimals are written with a bar over the digits which are repeated, or with dots over the first and last digits that are repeated. For example: Other decimals are those which go on forever and don't have digits which repeat. For example pi = 3.141592653589793238462643...

Relationship with Fractions

In decimal form, a rational number (fraction) is either an exact or a recurring decimal. The reverse is also true: exact and recurring decimals can be written as fractions. For example, 0.175 =175/1000 = 7/40. Also, 0.2222222222... is rational since it is a recurring decimal = 2/9. You can tell if a fraction will be an exact or a recurring decimal as follows: fractions with denominators that have only prime factors of 2 and 5 will be exact decimals. Others will be recurring decimals. This means that when you write the denominator of a fraction in its prime factor decomposition, if there are only 2's and 5's you will get an exact decimal. For example, 1/8. The denominator is 8, which is 2 2 2. There are only 2's in the prime factor decomposition so the decimal will be exact (and it is 0.125). On the other hand, 2/9 has denominator 9 = 3 3 and 3 isn't a 2 or a 5 so we have a recurring decimal (0.222222....).

Converting a Recurring Decimal to a Fraction

We know that recurring decimals can be written as fractions. The trick is to use a little algebra. Example Convert 0.142857142857... into a fraction. Let x = 0.142857142857... We want to move the decimal point to the right, so that the first "block" of repeated digits

appears before the decimal point. Remember that multiplying by 10 moves the decimal point 1 position to the right. So in this example, we need to move the decimal point 6 places to the right (so we multiply both sides by 1 000 000): 1000000x = 142857.142857142857... Now we can subtract our original number, x, from both sides to get rid of everything after the decimal point on the right: 1000000x - x = 142857 So 999999x = 142857 x = 142857/999999 = 1/7 (cancelling)

Rounding Numbers
If the answer to a question was 0.00256023164, you would not usually write this down. Instead, you would 'round off' the answer to save space and time. There are two ways to do this: you can round off to a certain number of decimal places or a certain number of significant figures. 0.00256023164, rounded off to 5 decimal places (d.p.) is 0.00256 . You write down the 5 numbers after the decimal point. To round the number to 5 significant figures, you write down 5 numbers. However, you do not count any zeros at the beginning. So to 5 s.f. (significant figures), the number is 0.0025602 (5 numbers after the first non-zero number appears). From what I have just said, if you rounded 4.909 to 2 decimal places, the answer would be 4.90 . However, the number is closer to 4.91 than 4.90, because the next number is a 9. Therefore, the rule is: if the number after the place you stop is 5 or above, you add one to the last number you write. So 3.486 to 3s.f. is 3.49 0.0096 to 3d.p. is 0.010 (This is because you add 1 to the 9, making it 10. When rounding to a number of decimal places, always write any zeros at the end of the number).

Ratios and Proportions

Knowing how to work with ratios and proportions is very handy in chemistry classes, especially when working with different units of measurement. Let's start with some dictionary definitions: Ratio: The relative size of two quantities expressed as the quotient of one divided by the other; the ratio of a to b is written as a:b or a/b. Proportion: An equality between two ratios. So what are these things really? Consider the following situation. In 1995, 78 women were enrolled in chemistry at a certain high school while 162 men were enrolled. What was the ratio of women to men? Men to women? Let's answer the questions using the definition of ratio. Filling in what we know: women : men is 78:162 or 78/162 men : women is 162:78 or 162/78 We could have reduced the fractions (cancelling out a factor of 6) or used our calculators to get a decimal equivalent for these fractions using the divide key: women : men is 78 162 or 13 27 or 0.481481481 men : women is 162 78 or 27 13 or 2.07692308 By writing the answer in these ways we have lost information, namely the specific number of men and women. Be careful! When given a ratio such as 13:27, the fractions may have been reduced so the original quantities could have been larger. This brings us to the idea of proportion. Ratios are said to be in proportion when their corresponding fractions are equal. What we really did above was notice that the fraction 78/162 was equal to the fraction 13/27 - because we could divide both numbers in the first ratio by six (6) to get the second ratio - so the ratios are equal as well, i.e., 78/162 = 13/27, or using the colon form 78 : 162 = 13 : 27. These two (2) equalities are examples of proportions (equal ratios); it is as simple as that. How are proportions used? Let's add another question to our problem: In 1996 the number of men enrolled was 193 while the ratio of women to men enrolled in chemistry stayed the about same as in 1995. How many women were enrolled in chemistry in 1996? To answer this, we build a proportion equating the ratio of women to men in the two (2) years:

78 : 162 = ?? : 193 These are easiest to solve when written in fraction form. Notice that we've used x for the unknown number of women since it is common in algebra to use the letter x as the variable. 78 = 162 We can then use the "cross-multiply" technique: 78 * 193 = 162 x multiply on our calculator: 15054 = 162 x and then divide on our calculator: 92.9259259 = x So the number of women enrolled in 1996 was 92.9259259??? Use your common sense! There are no fractions of women walking around, so we will report 93 (rounding 92.9259259 correctly). It is probably wise to say "There are about 93 women enrolled in chemistry in 1996" since we were told the proportions were about the same. The issue of when to round will come up in chemistry, too. Often the objects being counted will be atoms or atomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons; only whole number answers make sense in this case. Sometimes, however, we're measuring amounts (such as masses) which can be fractional. Then you should use the rules for correct rounding and significant figures reviewed in Session 1. 193 x

Angles
An angle measures the amount of turn

Names of Angles
As the Angle Increases, the Name Changes
Type of Angle Description Acute Angle an angle that is less than 90 Right Angle an angle that is 90 exactly an angle that is greater than 90 but less than Obtuse Angle 180 Straight Angle an angle that is 180 exactly Reflex Angle an angle that is greater than 180

Try It Yourself!

View Larger

In One Diagram
This diagram might make it easier to remember: Also: Acute, Obtuse and Reflex are in alphabetical order.

Be Careful What You Measure

This is an Obtuse Angle.

And this is a Reflex Angle.

But the lines are the same ... so when naming the angles make sure that you know which angle is being asked for!

Parts of an Angle
The corner point of an angle is called the vertex And the two straight sides are called arms The angle is the amount of turn between each arm.

Labelling Angles

There are two main ways to label angles: 1. by giving the angle a name, usually a lower-case letter like a or b, or sometimes a Greek letter like (alpha) or (theta) 2. or by the three letters on the shape that define the angle, with the middle letter being where the angle actually is (its vertex). Example angle "a" is "BAC", and angle "" is "BCD"

Polygons
A polygon is a plane shape with straight sides.

Is it a Polygon?
Polygons are 2-dimensional shapes. They are made of straight lines, and the shape is "closed" (all the lines connect up).

Polygon (straight sides)

Not a Polygon (has a curve)

Not a Polygon (open, not closed)

Polygon comes from Greek. Poly- means "many" and -gon means "angle".

Types of Polygons
Simple or Complex
A simple polygon has only one boundary, and it doesn't cross over itself. A complex polygon intersects itself! Many rules about polygons don't work when it is complex.

Simple Polygon (this one's a Pentagon)

Complex Polygon (also a Pentagon)

Concave or Convex
A convex polygon has no angles pointing inwards. More precisely, no internal angles can be more than 180. If there are any internal angles greater than 180 then it is concave. (Think: concave has a "cave" in it)

Convex

Concave

Regular or Irregular
If all angles are equal and all sides are equal, then it is regular, otherwise it is irregular

Regular

Irregular

More Examples

Complex Polygon (a "star polygon", in this case, a pentagram)

Concave Octagon

Irregular Hexagon

Play With Them!

Try Interactive Polygons ... make them concave, complex or regular.

Names of Polygons
Name Triangle (or Trigon) Quadrilateral (or Tetragon) Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon (or Septagon) Octagon Nonagon (or Enneagon) Decagon Hendecagon (or Undecagon) Dodecagon Triskaidecagon Tetrakaidecagon Pentadecagon Hexakaidecagon Heptadecagon Octakaidecagon Enneadecagon Icosagon Triacontagon Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 30 If it is a Regular Polygon... Shape Interior Angle 60 90 108 120 128.571 135 140 144 147.273 150 152.308 154.286 156 157.5 158.824 160 161.053 162 168

Tetracontagon Pentacontagon Hexacontagon Heptacontagon Octacontagon Enneacontagon Hectagon Chiliagon Myriagon Megagon Googolgon n-gon

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1,000 10,000 1,000,000 10100 n

171 172.8 174 174.857 175.5 176 176.4 179.64 179.964 ~180 ~180 (n-2) 180 / n

For polygons with 13 or more sides, it is OK (and easier) to write "13-gon", "14-gon" ... "100-gon", etc.

Andres Soriano College Mangagoy, Bislig City

Mathematical Symbols
Below, find a comprehensive list of most basic mathematical symbols used in basic math Symbols < > = + A m S.A. L.A B Meaning square root less than greater than not equal equal equivalent approximately smaller or equal bigger or equal division multiplication addition subtraction angle degree pi (3.14) area slope of a line surface area lateral area area of base Symbols % GCF LCM | a:b an || | | () b h p or P l w C -a d b1, b2 Meaning fraction bar right angle sign percent sign plus or minus sign greatest common factor least common multiple divides ratio a to the nth power parallel lines sign for absolute value parentheses for grouping base length height perimeter Length or slant height width circumference opposite of a diameter or distance base lengths of a trapezoid

V ABC

volume perpendicular triangle ABC

r ABC mABC

rate or radius angle ABC refers to the measure of angle ABC

Linear Equation in One Variable

Basic Algebra > Linear Equation in One Variable Linear Equation in One Variable 1. Definition of an Equation: What is an equation? A statement of equality of two algebraic expressions in or more variables is called an equation. Examples: 1. x + 1 = 2 and 2. 2y + 3 = 5 In 1 above, x + 1 is an algebraic expression in the variable x. we read it as x plus 1 is equal to 2. x is some number, called variable. In 2 above, 2y + 3 is an algebraic expression in the variable y, we read it as 2 times y or 2y plus 3 is equal to 5. y is some number, called variable 2. The three components of an equation Every equation has a Left hand side, the equality sign = and the Right hand side. the three components in the equation x + 1 = 2 are :

L.H.S = Left Hand Side R.H.S = Right Hand Side 3. Solution/Root of an Equation:

the value of x, i.e. some number for x, which makes the equation a true statement is called solution or root of the equation. In simple words, if the L.H.S. and R.H.S become equal for some number plugged in for x, then the number, also called value, is the solution or root of the equation. In x + 1 = 2, what should be plugged in for x so that L.H.S. becomes equal to R.H.S? It is 1, i.e. if 1 is plugged in for x, the two sides become equal. This number or value 1 for x is called root or solution of the equation. Transposition Rule: Transposition Rule 1. The transposition rule applies on addition and subtraction. Transposition Rule Terms can be transposed (shifted) between either sides of the equality symbol = with a change in sign of the transposed terms

Example: x + 1 = 2. 1 can be transposed to right side by inversing its sign i.e. x = -1 + 2 so that we have x = 1 transposition conforms with the rule: same numbers can be added on both sides of an equation So, in x + 1 = 2, to find x, we need to get rid of 1 on the left hand side, to do this add -1 on both sides of the equation. x +1-1 = -1 + 2, x=1 Application of Linear Equations or Word Problems on Linear Equations in one Variable Problem 1: The sum of two consecutive numbers is 25. Find the numbers. Solution: Let the two consecutive numbers be x andx+1. So we can set up the following linear equation: Given that x + x+1= 25, 2x = 24, {from transposition rule, inverse sign of 1 on taking it to right side} x = 24/2 = 12, {multiplication changes to division}

So the other number is x + 1 = 12 + 1 = 13 Therefore, the two numbers are 12 and 13 Problem 2: John is 15 years now. He is 10 years older than his brother Tom. How old is Tom 10 years from now? Solution: Let Tom be x years old now. So, we set up the linear equation: x + 10 = 15, x = 5. {from transposition rule, inverse sign of 10 on taking it to right side} So, tom is 5 years old now. 10 years from now, tom will be 10 + 5 = 15 Problem 3: 20 years from now, Nancy will become three times as old as he is now. Find her age now. Solution: Let Nancy be x years old now. 20 years from now, she will be x +20 But 20 years from now, she we thrice her present age, x i.e. 3x So, x + 20 = 3x, or 3x = x + 20, 3x x = 20, {from transposition rule} 2x = 20, x = 20/2 = 10

Linear Inequality
Definition of Linear Inequality

A Linear Inequality involves a linear expression in two variables by using any of the relational symbols such as <, >, or

More about Linear Inequality

A linear inequality divides a plane into two parts. If the boundary line is solid, then the linear inequality must be either or . If the boundary line is dotted, then the linear inequality must be either > or <.

Example of Linear Inequality

As the boundary line in the above graph is a solid line, the inequality must be either or . Since the region below the line is shaded, the inequality should be . We can notice that the line y = - 2x + 4 is included in the graph; therefore, the inequality is y - 2x + 4. Any point in the shaded plane is a solution and even the points that fall on the line are also solutions to the inequality. 4x + 6y 12, x + 6 14, 2x - 6y < 12 + 2x, 9y < 12 + 2x are the examples of linear inequalities.

Solved Example on Linear Inequality Which of the graphs best suits the inequality y < x - 4?

Choices: A. Graph 1 B. Graph 2 C. Graph 3

D. Graph 4 Correct Answer: A Solution: Step 1: Since the inequality involves less than (<), use dashed boundary line to graph the inequality y < x - 4 as in the below shown graph.

Step 2: Test a point, which is not on the boundary line. Test (0, 0) in the inequality. y < x 4 [Substitute.] 0<04 0 < - 4 [False.] Step 3: Since the inequality is false for (0, 0), shade the region that does not contain (0, 0).

Step 4: Therefore, Graph 1 best suit the inequality y < x - 4.

Rectangular Coordinate System

The rectangular coordinate system is also called as Cartesian coordinate system or the x-y coordinate system. The rectangular coordinate system is a set of 2intersecting lines and perpendicular axis is forming a x, y line or plane. The horizontal axis is commonly labeled the xaxis and the vertical axis is commonly labeled the y-axis. The 2 x and y axes are divide the line into 4 parts is called the quadrants. In any points on the line is corresponds to an ordered pair (x, y). Here the x and y are real numbers. Where the x is the x coordinate or horizontal axis or abscissa and y is the y coordinate or vertical axis or ordinate. Help of rectangular coordinate system consists of four quadrants, a horizontal axis (x), a vertical axis (y), and the origin coordinates (0, 0). The origin is the point where the 2 axes x and y cross. Order pair notation is called an ordered pair.

Rectangular coordinate system: The position of the point P in a line in the rectangular coordinate system is defined as follows: Draw the lines PA and PB perpendicular is to X and Y The segment OA = a measures of the distance of the x-axis (the x-coordinate) and the perpendicular distance of the AP = OB = b measures the y-coordinate. The point P coordinates are (a, b). It is may be positive or negative depending upon the directions of segment OA and OB. The 'a' is called as the abscissa of the point and the 'b' is called the ordinate of the point. The point P has abscissa x = 4, and the ordinate y = 5 (scale unit is 1cm = 1 unit). This is written as P (4, 5). Usually the notation P (a, b) means that the point P has abscissa x = a, the ordinate y = b.

Solve Rectangular Coordinates

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Here is an example of solving rectangular coordinates:

Example:

The lines PX and PY perpendicular is to X and Y axis.The segment OX = a measures of the distance of the x-axis (the x - coordinate) and the perpendicular distance of the XP = OY = b measures the y-coordinate. The point P co - ordinate are (a, b). It is may be positive or negative depending upon the directions of segment OX and OY. The 'a' is called as the abscissa point and the 'b' is called the ordinate point.

How to Find Rectangular Coordinates

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Below are example problems based on rectangular coordinate system: Problems 1: Solve the which quadrant of the rectangular coordinate system Points are A (2, -3) and B (-1, 4): Answer: If a point A is (2, -3), then its abscissa is 2 and ordinate is -3. If a point B is (-1, 4), then its abscissa is -1 and ordinate is 4.

Point A is IVth quadrant and Point B is IInd quadrant. Problems 2: Solve the which quadrant of the rectangular coordinate system points are A (-4, -3) and B (2, 3): Answer:

If a point A is (-4, -3) then its abscissa is -4 and ordinate is -3. If a point B is (2, 4) then its abscissa is 2 and ordinate is 4.

Point A is IIIrd quadrant and Point B is Ist quadrant.

a circle

Definition: A circle is the locus of all points equidistant from a central point. Definitions Related to Circles
arc: a curved line that is part of the circumference of a circle chord: a line segment within a circle that touches 2 points on the circle. circumference: the distance around the circle. diameter: the longest distance from one end of a circle to the other. origin: the center of the circle pi ( ): A number, 3.141592..., equal to (the circumference) / (the diameter) of any circle. radius: distance from center of circle to any point on it. sector: is like a slice of pie (a circle wedge). tangent of circle: a line perpendicular to the radius that touches ONLY one point on the circle. diameter = 2 x radius of circle

Circumference of Circle = PI x diameter = 2 PI x radius

where PI = = 3.141592...

Area of Circle:
area = PI r2

Length of a Circular Arc: (with central

angle ) if the angle is in degrees, then length = x (PI/180) x r if the angle is in radians, then length = r
x

Area of Circle Sector: (with central angle

) if the angle /360) PI r2 if the angle /2) r2 is in degrees, then area = ( is in radians, then area = (

Equation of Circle: (cartesian coordinates)

for a circle with center (j, k) and radius (r): (x-j)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

Equation of Circle: (polar coordinates)

for a circle with center (0, 0): r( ) = radius for a circle with center with polar coordinates: (c, r2 - 2cr cos( - ) + c2 = a2 ) and radius a:

Equation of a Circle: (parametric coordinates)

for a circle with origin (j, k) and radius r: x(t) = r cos(t) + j y(t) = r sin(t) + k

Central Angles and Arcs

There are several different angles associated with circles. Perhaps the one that most immediately comes to mind is the central angle. It is the central angle's ability to sweep through an arc of 360 degrees that determines the number of degrees usually thought of as being contained by a circle.

Central angles
Central angles are angles formed by any two radii in a circle. The vertex is the center of the circle. In Figure 1 , AOB is a central angle.

Figure 1A central angle of a circle.

Arcs
An arc of a circle is a continuous portion of the circle. It consists of two endpoints and all the points on the circle between these endpoints. The symbol is used to denote an arc. This symbol is written over the endpoints that form the arc. There are three types of arcs:

Semicircle: an arc whose endpoints are the endpoints of a diameter. It is named using three points. The first and third points are the endpoints of the diameter, and the middle point is any point of the arc between the endpoints. Minor arc: an arc that is less than a semicircle. A minor arc is named by using only the two endpoints of the arc. Major arc: an arc that is more than a semicircle. It is named by three points. The first and third are the endpoints, and the middle point is any point on the arc between the endpoints. is a semicircle.

In Figure 2 , AC is a diameter.

Figure 2A diameter of a circle and a semicircle. In Figure 3 , is a minor arc of circle P.

Figure 3A minor arc of a circle. In Figure 4 , is a major arc of circle Q.

Figure 4A major arc of a circle. Arcs are measured in three different ways. They are measured in degrees and in unit length as follows:

Degree measure of a semicircle: This is 180. Its unit length is half of the circumference of the circle. Degree measure of a minor arc: Defined as the same as the measure of its corresponding central angle. Its unit length is a portion of the circumference. Its length is always less than half of the circumference. Degree measure of a major arc: This is 360 minus the degree measure of the minor arc that has the same endpoints as the major arc. Its unit length is a portion of the circumference and is always more than half of the circumference. indicates the length of arc

In these examples, m indicates the degree measure of arc AB, l AB, and indicates the arc itself.

Example 1: In Figure 5 , circle O, with diameter AB has OB = 6 inches. Find (a) m l .

and (b)

Figure 5Degree measure and arc length of a semicircle. a. is a semicircle. m = 180. b. Since is a semicircle, its length is half of the circumference.

Postulate 18 (Arc Addition Postulate): If B is a point on Example 2: Use Figure 6 to find m (m = 60, m

, then m = 150).

+m

=m

Figure 6Using the Arc Addition Postulate. Example 3: Use Figure 7 of circle P with diameter QS to answer the following. a. b. c. d. Find m Find m Find m Find m

Figure 7Finding degree measures of arcs. a. m (The degree measure of a minor arc equals the measure of its corresponding central angle.) b. = 180 ( is a semicircle.) c. m = 130

d. m = 310 ( is a major arc.) The degree measure of a major arc is 360 minus the degree measure of the minor arc that has the same endpoints as the major arc.

The following theorems about arcs and central angles are easily proven. Theorem 68: In a circle, if two central angles have equal measures, then their corresponding minor arcs have equal measures. Theorem 69: In a circle, if two minor arcs have equal measures, then their corresponding central angles have equal measures. Example 4: Figure 8 shows circle O with diameters AC and BD. If m 1 = 40, find each of the following.

Figure 8A circle with two diameters and a (nondiameter) chord.

a. m = 40 (The measure of a minor arc equals the measure of its corresponding central angle.)

b. m = 40 (Since vertical angles have equal measures, m 1 = m 2. Then the measure of a minor arc equals the measure of its corresponding central angle.) c. m = 140 (By Postulate 18, m +m =m is a semicircle, so m + 40 = 180, or m = 140.) d. m DOA = 140 (The measure of a central angle equals the measure of its corresponding minor arc.) e. m 3 = 20 (Since radii of a circle are equal, OD = OA. Since, if two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite these sides are equal, m 3 = m 4. Since the sum of the angles of any triangle equals 180, m 3 + m 4 + m DOA = 180. By replacing m 4 with m 3 and m DOA with 140,

Inscribed and Central Angles in Circles

Definitions and theorems related to inscribed and central angles in circles are discussed using examples. See also interactive tutorial on central and inscribed angles.

Definitions
1 - A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is located at the center of the circle. Angle BOC in the figure below. 2 - An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose sides each intersect the circle at another point. Angle CAB in the figure below.

Theorem
1 - An inscribed angle is half the measure of the central angle intercepting the same arc. angle BAC = (1 / 2) angle BOC angle BDC = (1 / 2) angle BOC

2 - Two or more inscribed angles intercepting the same arc are equal. angle BAC = angle BDC

Tangents and Circles

A tangent to a circle is a line in the plane of the circle that intersects the circle
in exactly one point.

If you spin an object in a circular orbit and release it, it will travel on a path that is tangent to the circular orbit.

Theorem:

If a line is tangent to a circle, it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.

Theorem:

Tangent segments to a circle from the same external point are congruent.
(You may think of this as the "Hat" Theorem because the diagram looks like a circle wearing a pointed hat.)

This theorem can be proven using congruent triangles and the previous theorem. The triangles shown below are congruent by the Hypotenuse Leg Postulate for Right Triangles. The radii

(legs) are congruent and the hypotenuse is shared by both triangles. By using Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent, this theorem is proven true.

Common Tangents: 4 Common Tangents

(2 completely separate circles)

Common tangents are lines or segments that are tangent to more than one circle at the same time.

3 Common Tangents
(2 externally tangent circles)

2 Common Tangents
(2 overlapping circles)

2 external tangents (blue) 2 internal tangents (black)

2 external tangents (blue) 1 internal tangent (black)

2 external tangents (blue) 0 internal tangents

1 Common Tangent
(2 internally tangent circles)

0 Common Tangents
(2 concentric circles)
Concentric circles are circles with the same center.

(one circle floating inside the other, without touching)

1 external tangent (blue) 0 internal tangents

0 external tangents 0 internal tangents

0 external tangents 0 internal tangents

Circular Functions
The graph of the equation x2 + y2 = 1 is a circle in the rectangular coordinate system. This graph is called the unit circle and has its center at the origin and has a radius of 1 unit. Trigonometric functions are defined so that their domains are sets of angles and their ranges are sets of real numbers. Circular functions are defined such that their domains are sets of numbers that correspond to the measures (in radian units) of the angles of analogous trigonometric functions. The ranges of these circular functions, like their analogous trigonometric functions, are sets of real numbers. These functions are called circular functions because radian measures of angles are determined by the lengths of arcs of circles. In particular, trigonometric functions defined using the unit circle lead directly to these circular functions. Begin with the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1 shown in Figure 1 . Point A (1,0) is located at the intersection of the unit circle and the x-axis. Let q be any real number. Start at point A and measure | q| units along the unit circle in a counterclockwise direction if q > 0 and in a clockwise direction if q < 0, ending up at point P( x, y). Define the sine and cosine of q as the coordinates of point P. The other circular functions (the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant) can be defined in terms of the sine and cosine.

Figure 1Unit circle reference.

Sin q and cos q exist for each real number q because (cos q, sin q) are the coordinates of point P located on the unit circle, that corresponds to an arc length of | q |. Because this arc length can be positive (counterclockwise) or negative (clockwise), the domain of each of these circular functions is the set of real numbers. The range is more restricted. The cosine and sine are the abscissa and ordinate of a point that moves around the unit circle, and they vary between 1 and 1. Therefore, the range of each of these functions is a set of real numbers z such that 1 z 1 (see Figure 2 ).

Figure 2Range of values of trig functions. Example 1: What value(s) x in the domain of the sine function between 2 and 2 have a range value of 1 (Figure 3 )?

Figure 3Drawing for Example 1. The range value of sin x is 1 when point P when x = /2 and x = 3/2. has coordinates of (0, 1). This occurs

Example 2: What value(s) x in the domain of the cosine function between 2 and 2 have a range value of 1 (Figure 4 )?

Figure 4Drawing for Example 2. The range value of cos x is 1 when point P(cos x, sin x) has coordinates of (1, 0). This occurs when x = and x = . Example 3: The point P is on the unit circle. The length of the arc from point A(1,0) to point P is q units. What are the values of the six circular functions of q? The values of the sine and cosine follow from the definitions and are the coordinates of point P. The other four functions are derived using the sine and cosine.

The sign of each of the six circular functions (see Table 1 ) is dependent upon the length of the arc q. Note that the four intervals for q correspond directly to the four quadrants for trigonometric functions. TABLE 1 Signs of Trig Functions in Various Quadrants Function sin q, csc q cos q, sec q tan q, cot q + + + + + +

The Graph of Sine and Cosine Function A sine wave, or sinusoid, is the graph of the sine function in trigonometry.
A sinusoid is the name given to any curve that can be written in the form (A and B are positive). Sinusoids are considered to be the general form of the sine function. In addition to mathematics, sinusoidal functions occur in other fields of study such as science and engineering. This function also occurs in nature as seen in ocean waves, sound waves and light waves. Even average daily temperatures for each day of the year resemble this function. The term sinusoid was first use by Scotsman Stuart Kenny in 1789 while observing the growth and harvest of soybeans.

Sinusoidal Function:
The general form of the cosine function can also be . since the cosine function is identical to the sine function (except for a horizontal shifted to the left of 90 or radians). Any cosine function can be written as a sine function. |A| = amplitude B = cycles from 0 to period = D = vertical shift (or displacement) C = horizontal shift
(sometimes called "phase shift" when B = 1)

Let's start with an investigation of the simpler graphs of y = A sin(Bx) and y = A cos(Bx).

What affect does the value A have on the graph? y = A sin(Bx) or y = A cos(Bx)

A number in front of sine or cosine changes the height of the graph.

The value A affects the amplitude. The amplitude (half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of the function) will be |A|, since distance is always positive. Increasing or decreasing the value of A will vertically stretch or shrink the graph. Consider these examples:

Notice: These graphs change "height" but do not change horizontal width. The graphs are still drawn from 0 to .

What affect does the value B have on the graph? y = A sin(Bx) or y = A cos(Bx)

B is the number of cycles you see in a 0 to (360) interval.

The value B is the number of cycles it completes in an interval of from 0 to

or

360. The value B affects the period. The period of sine and cosine is . When 0 < B < 1, the period of the function will be greater than and the graph will be a horizontal stretching. When B > 1, the period of the function will be less than and the graph will be a horizontal shrinking. Consider these examples:

Notice: These graphs change horizontal "width" but do not change height. The two red graphs only show us a portion (in this example "half") of the original graphs in their 0 to windows. We would need to "stretch" the domain window to to see entire cycles of those two graphs. Whereas the two blue graphs show us two complete cycles of the graphs in their 0 to windows, which would allow us to "shrink" the domain window and still see complete cycles of the graphs.

Examples:

1.
This problem is a combination of dealing with the values of A and B. The A value of 3 tells us that the graph will have a vertical stretch and the amplitude will be 3. The B value of 1/2 tells us that a complete cycle of the graph will require more than the standard domain of 0 to (there will be a horizontal stretch).

The period of this new graph will be

(or 720).

2.
This problem is also a combination of dealing with the values of A and B. The A value of 1/2 tells us that the graph will have a vertical shrink and an amplitude of 1/2. The B value of 3 tells us that 3 complete cycles of the graph will be seen in the standard domain of 0 to (there will be a horizontal shrink). The period of this new graph will be (or 120).

3.
Look out for this problem. The amplitude is 2 (a positive value representing distance). The problem may be more clearly thought of as y = 2(-sin x). This graph is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph y = 2 sin x. The amplitude of 2 tells us that the graph will have a vertical stretch.

Probability
How Likely
In the real world events can not be predicted with total certainty. The best we can do is say how likely they are to happen, using the idea of probability.
Tossing a Coin

When a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes:

heads (H) or tails (T)

We say that the probability of the coin landing H is 1/2. Similarly, the probability of the coin landing T is 1/2.

Throwing Dice

When a single die is thrown, there are six possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The probability of throwing any one of these numbers is 1/6.

Probability
In general:
Number of ways it can happen Probability of an event happening = Total number of outcomes

Example: the chances of rolling a "4" with a die Number of ways it can happen: 1 (there is only 1 face with a "4" on it) Total number of outcomes: 6 (there are 6 faces altogether)

1 So the probability = 6

Example: there are 5 marbles in a bag: 4 are blue, and 1 is red. What is the probability that a blue marble will be picked? Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 blues) Total number of outcomes: 5 (there are 5 marbles in total)
4 So the probability = 5 = 0.8

Probability Line
You can show probability on a Probability Line:

The probability is always between 0 and 1

Probability is Just a Guide

Probability does not tell us exactly what will happen, it is just a guide Example: toss a coin 100 times, how many Heads will come up? Probability says that heads have a 1/2 chance, so we would expect 50 Heads. But when you actually try it out you might get 48 heads, or 55 heads ... or anything really, but in most cases it will be a number near 50.

Combinations and Permutations

What's the Difference?
In English we use the word "combination" loosely, without thinking if the order of things is important. In other words: "My fruit salad is a combination of apples, grapes and bananas" We don't care what order the fruits are in, they could also be "bananas, grapes and apples" or "grapes, apples and bananas", its the same fruit salad. "The combination to the safe was 472". Now we do care about the order. "724" would not work, nor would "247". It has to be exactly 4-7-2. So, in Mathematics we use more precise language: If the order doesn't matter, it is a Combination. If the order does matter it is a Permutation.

So, we should really call this a "Permutation Lock"!

In other words: A Permutation is an ordered Combination.

To help you to remember, think "Permutation ... Position"

Permutations
There are basically two types of permutation: 1. Repetition is Allowed: such as the lock above. It could be "333". 2. No Repetition: for example the first three people in a running race. You can't be first and second.

1. Permutations with Repetition

These are the easiest to calculate. When you have n things to choose from ... you have n choices each time! When choosing r of them, the permutations are: n n ... (r times) (In other words, there are n possibilities for the first choice, THEN there are n possibilites for the second choice, and so on, multplying each time.) Which is easier to write down using an exponent of r: n n ... (r times) = nr Example: in the lock above, there are 10 numbers to choose from (0,1,..9) and you choose 3 of them: 10 10 ... (3 times) = 103 = 1,000 permutations So, the formula is simply: nr where n is the number of things to choose from, and you choose r of them (Repetition allowed, order matters)

2. Permutations without Repetition

In this case, you have to reduce the number of available choices each time. For example, what order could 16 pool balls be in? After choosing, say, number "14" you can't choose it again. So, your first choice would have 16 possibilites, and your next choice would then have 15 possibilities, then 14, 13, etc. And the total permutations would be: 16 15 14 13 ... = 20,922,789,888,000 But maybe you don't want to choose them all, just 3 of them, so that would be only:

16 15 14 = 3,360 In other words, there are 3,360 different ways that 3 pool balls could be selected out of 16 balls. But how do we write that mathematically? Answer: we use the "factorial function" The factorial function (symbol: !) just means to multiply a series of descending natural numbers. Examples:

4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24 7! = 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 5,040 1! = 1

Note: it is generally agreed that 0! = 1. It may seem funny that multiplying no numbers together gets you 1, but it helps simplify a lot of equations. So, if you wanted to select all of the billiard balls the permutations would be: 16! = 20,922,789,888,000 But if you wanted to select just 3, then you have to stop the multiplying after 14. How do you do that? There is a neat trick ... you divide by 13! ... 16 15 14 13 12 ... 13 12 ... Do you see? 16! / 13! = 16 15 14 The formula is written: = 16 15 14 = 3,360

where n is the number of things to choose from, and you choose r of them (No repetition, order matters)

Examples:
Our "order of 3 out of 16 pool balls example" would be: 16! (16-3)! = 16! 13! = 20,922,789,888,000 6,227,020,800 = 3,360

(which is just the same as: 16 15 14 = 3,360)

How many ways can first and second place be awarded to 10 people? 10! (10-2)! = 10! 8! = 3,628,800 40,320 = 90

(which is just the same as: 10 9 = 90)

Notation
Instead of writing the whole formula, people use different notations such as these:

Example: P(10,2) = 90

Combinations
There are also two types of combinations (remember the order does not matter now): 1. Repetition is Allowed: such as coins in your pocket (5,5,5,10,10) 2. No Repetition: such as lottery numbers (2,14,15,27,30,33)

1. Combinations with Repetition

Actually, these are the hardest to explain, so I will come back to this later.

2. Combinations without Repetition

This is how lotteries work. The numbers are drawn one at a time, and if you have the lucky numbers (no matter what order) you win! The easiest way to explain it is to:

assume that the order does matter (ie permutations), then alter it so the order does not matter.

Going back to our pool ball example, let us say that you just want to know which 3 pool balls were chosen, not the order. We already know that 3 out of 16 gave us 3,360 permutations. But many of those will be the same to us now, because we don't care what order!

For example, let us say balls 1, 2 and 3 were chosen. These are the possibilites: Order does matter 123 132 213 231 312 321 Order doesn't matter

123

So, the permutations will have 6 times as many possibilites. In fact there is an easy way to work out how many ways "1 2 3" could be placed in order, and we have already talked about it. The answer is: 3! = 3 2 1 = 6 (Another example: 4 things can be placed in 4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24 different ways, try it for yourself!) So, all we need to do is adjust our permutations formula to reduce it by how many ways the objects could be in order (because we aren't interested in the order any more):

That formula is so important it is often just written in big parentheses like this:

where n is the number of things to choose from, and you choose r of them (No repetition, order doesn't matter) It is often called "n choose r" (such as "16 choose 3") And is also known as the "Binomial Coefficient"

Notation
As well as the "big parentheses", people also use these notations:

Example
So, our pool ball example (now without order) is: 16! 3!(16-3)! = 16! 3!13! = 20,922,789,888,000 66,227,020,800 = 560

Or you could do it this way: 161514 321 = 3360 6 = 560

So remember, do the permutation, then reduce by a further "r!" ... or better still ... Remember the Formula! It is interesting to also note how this formula is nice and symmetrical:

In other words choosing 3 balls out of 16, or choosing 13 balls out of 16 have the same number of combinations. 16! 3!(16-3)! = 16! 13!(16-13)! = 16! 3!13! = 560

Pascal's Triangle
You can also use Pascal's Triangle to find the values. Go down to row "n" (the top row is 0), and then along "r" places and the value there is your answer. Here is an extract showing row 16:
1 1 1 16 15 120 14 105 560 91 455 364 ... ... ...

1365

1820

4368

Linear Correlation Coefficient

Correlation coefficients measure the strength of association between two variables. The most common correlation coefficient, called the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, measures the strength of the linear association between variables. In this tutorial, when we speak simply of a correlation coefficient, we are referring to the Pearson product-moment correlation. Generally, the correlation coefficient of a sample is denoted by r, and the correlation coefficient of a population is denoted by or R.

How to Interpret a Correlation Coefficient

The sign and the absolute value of a correlation coefficient describe the direction and the magnitude of the relationship between two variables.

The value of a correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and 1. The greater the absolute value of a correlation coefficient, the stronger the linear relationship. The strongest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient of -1 or 1. The weakest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient equal to 0. A positive correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the other variable tends to get bigger. A negative correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the other variable tends to get smaller.

Keep in mind that the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient only measures linear relationships. Therefore, a correlation of 0 does not mean zero relationship between two variables; rather, it means zero linear relationship. (It is possible for two variables to have zero linear relationship and a strong curvilinear relationship at the same time.)

Scatterplots and Correlation Coefficients

The scatterplots below show how different patterns of data produce different degrees of correlation.

Maximum positive correlation (r = 1.0)

Strong positive correlation (r = 0.80)

Zero correlation (r = 0)

Maximum negative correlation (r = -1.0)

Moderate negative correlation (r = -0.43)

Strong correlation & outlier (r = 0.71)

Several points are evident from the scatterplots.

When the slope of the line in the plot is negative, the correlation is negative; and vice versa. The strongest correlations (r = 1.0 and r = -1.0 ) occur when data points fall exactly on a straight line. The correlation becomes weaker as the data points become more scattered. If the data points fall in a random pattern, the correlation is equal to zero. Correlation is affected by outliers. Compare the first scatterplot with the last scatterplot. The single outlier in the last plot greatly reduces the correlation (from 1.00 to 0.71).

How to Calculate a Correlation Coefficient

If you look in different statistics textbooks, you are likely to find different-looking (but equivalent) formulas for computing a correlation coefficient. In this section, we present several formulas that you may encounter. The most common formula for computing a product-moment correlation coefficient (r) is given below. Product-moment correlation coefficient. The correlation r between two variables is: r = (xy) / sqrt [ ( x2 ) * ( y2 ) ] where is the summation symbol, x = xi - x, xi is the x value for observation i, x is the mean x value, y = yi - y, yi is the y value for observation i, and y is the mean y value. The formula below uses population means and population standard deviations to compute a population correlation coefficient () from population data. Population correlation coefficient. The correlation between two variables is: = [ 1 / N ] * { [ (Xi - X) / x ] * [ (Yi - Y) / y ] } where N is the number of observations in the population, is the summation symbol, Xi is the X value for observation i, X is the population mean for variable X, Yi is the Y value for observation i, Y is the population mean for variable Y, x is the population standard deviation of X, and y is the population standard deviation of Y.

The formula below uses sample means and sample standard deviations to compute a correlation coefficient (r) from sample data. Sample correlation coefficient. The correlation r between two variables is: r = [ 1 / (n - 1) ] * { [ (xi - x) / sx ] * [ (yi - y) / sy ] } where n is the number of observations in the sample, is the summation symbol, xi is the x value for observation i, x is the sample mean of x, yi is the y value for observation i, y is the sample mean of y, sx is the sample standard deviation of x, and sy is the sample standard deviation of y. The interpretation of the sample correlation coefficient depends on how the sample data are collected. With a simple random sample, the sample correlation coefficient is an unbiased estimate of the population correlation coefficient. Each of the latter two formulas can be derived from the first formula. Use the first or second formula when you have data from the entire population. Use the third formula when you only have sample data, but want to estimate the correlation in the population. When in doubt, use the first formula. Fortunately, you will rarely have to compute a correlation coefficient by hand. Many software packages (e.g., Excel) and most graphing calculators have a correlation function that will do the job for you.

Test Your Understanding of This Lesson

Problem 1 A national consumer magazine reported the following correlations.

The correlation between car weight and car reliability is -0.30. The correlation between car weight and annual maintenance cost is 0.20.

Which of the following statements are true? I. Heavier cars tend to be less reliable. II. Heavier cars tend to cost more to maintain. III. Car weight is related more strongly to reliability than to maintenance cost. (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only (D) I and II only (E) I, II, and III Solution

The correct answer is (E). The correlation between car weight and reliability is negative. This means that reliability tends to decrease as car weight increases. The correlation between car weight and maintenance cost is positive. This means that maintenance costs tend to increase as car weight increases. The strength of a relationship between two variables is indicated by the absolute value of the correlation coefficient. The correlation between car weight and reliability has an absolute value of 0.30. The correlation between car weight and maintenance cost has an absolute value of 0.20. Therefore, the relationship between car weight and reliability is stronger than the relationship between car weight and maintenance cost.

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS CAN BE CATEGORIZED, and the simplest type is a polynomial function. We will define it below. We begin with vocabulary. 1. When numbers are added or subtracted, they are called terms. This -4x2 + 7x 8 -- is a sum of three terms. (In algebra we speak of a "sum," even though a term may be subtracted.) When numbers are multiplied, they are called factors. This -1. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

-- is a product of three factors. 2. A variable is a symbol that takes on different values. A value is a number. Thus if x is a variable and we give it the value 4, then 5x + 1 has the value 21. 3. A constant is a symbol that has a single value. The symbols '5' and ' ' are numerical constants. When we write y = ax2 + bx + c, then a, b, c are undetermined constants to which we may assign a definite value; for example, y = 5x2 2x + 1. We typically use the beginning letters of the alphabet to denote such constants. We use the letters x, y, z to denote variables.

4. A monomial in x is a single term of the form axn, where a is a real number and n is a whole number. The following are monomials in x: 5x3 6.3x 2

We may say that the number 2 is a monomial in x, because 2 = 2x0 = 2 1. (Lesson 21 of Algebra.)

5. A polynomial in x is a sum of monomials in x. Example 1. 5x3 4x2 + 7x 8. The variable, in this case x, is also called the argument of the polynomial. Here is a polynomial with argument t : t 2 5t + 1. When we write a polynomial, the style is to begin with the highest exponent and go to the lowest. 4, 3, 2, 1. (For the general form of a polynomial, see Problem 6 below.) 6. The degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of all the variables in that term. In functions of a single variable, such as x, the degree of a term is simply the exponent. Example 2. The term 5x3 is of degree 3 in the variable x. Example 3. This term 2xy2z3 is of degree 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 in the variables x, y, and z. Example 4. Here are all possible terms of the 4th degree in the variables x and y: x4, x3y, x2y2, xy3, y4. In each term, the sum of the exponents is 4. As the exponent of x decreases, the exponent of y increases. Problem 1. Write all possible terms of the 5th degree in the variables x and y. To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area. To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload"). x5, x4y, x3y2, x2y3, xy4, y5. 7. The leading term of a polynomial is the term of highest degree.

Example 5. The leading term of this polynomial 5x3 4x2 + 7x 8 is 5x3. 8. The leading coefficient of a polynomial is the coefficient of the leading term. Example 6. The leading coefficient of that polynomial is 5. 9. The degree of a polynomial is the degree of the leading term. Example 7. The degree of this polynomial 5x3 4x2 + 7x 8 is 3. Here is a polynomial of the first degree: x 2. 1 is the highest exponent.

10. The constant term of a polynomial is the term of degree 0; it is the term in which the variable does not appear. Example 8. The constant term of this polynomial 5x3 4x2 + 7x 8 is 8. The constant term of this polynomial -ax3 + bx2 + cx + d -- is d. Problem 2. Which of the following is a polynomial? If an expression is a polynomial, name its degree, and say the variable that the polynomial is in. a) x3 2x2 3x 4 Polynomial of the 3rd degree in x. b) 3y2 + 2y + 1 Polynomial of the 2nd degree in y. is not a

c) x3 + 2 + 1 This is not a polynomial, because whole number power. It is x. d) z + 2 Polynomial of the first degree in z. e) x2 2x + 1 x 1 = x1, which is not a whole x

Not a polynomial, because number power. Problem 3.

Name the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term.

a) f(x) = 6x3 + 7x2 3x + 1 3rd degree. Leading coefficient, 6. Constant term, 1. b) g(x) = x + 2 1st degree. Leading coefficient, 1. Constant term, 2. c) h(x) = 4x5 5th degree. Leading coefficient, 4. Constant term, 0. d) f(h) = h2 7h 5 2nd degree. Leading coefficient, 1. Constant term, 5. Example 9. Name the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term of (5x + 1)(3x 1)(2x + 5)3. If we were to multiply out, then the degree of the product would be the sum of the degrees of each factor: 1 + 1 + 3 = 5. For, (5x + 1)(3x 1)(2x + 5)3 = (5x + 1)(3x 1)(2x + 5)(2x + 5)(2x + 5). The leading coefficient would be the product of all the leading coefficients: 5 3 23 = 15 8 = 120. And the constant term would be the product of all the constant terms: 1 (1) 53 = 1 125 = 125. Problem 4. Name the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term. a) f(x) = (x 1)(x2 + x 6) Degree: 3. Leading coefficient: 1. Constant term: 6. b) g(x) = (x + 2)2(x 3)3(2x + 1)4 Degree: 9. Leading coefficient: 12 13 24 = 16. Constant term: 22 (-3)3 14 = 4 (27) = 108 c) f(x) = (2x + 1)5 Degree: 5. Leading coefficient: 25 = 32. Constant term: 15 = 1. d) h(x) = x(x 2)5(x + 3)2 Degree: 8. Leading coefficient: 1. Constant term: 0.

11. The general form of a polynomial shows the terms of all possible degree. Here, for example, is the general form of a polynomial of the third degree: ax3 + bx2 + cx + d Notice that there are four constants: a, b, c, d. In the general form, the number of constants, because of the term of degree 0, is always one more than the degree of the polynomial. Now, to indicate a polynomial of the 50th degree, we cannot indicate the constants by resorting to different letters. Instead, we use sub-script notation. We use one letter, such as a, and indicate different constants by means of sub-scripts. Thus, a1 ("a sub-1") will be one constant. a2 ("a sub-2") will be another. And so on. Here, then, is the general form of a polynomial of the 50th degree: a50x50 + a49x49 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0 The constant ak -- for each sub-script k (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 50) -- is the coefficient of xk. Notice that there are 51 constants. The constant term a0 is the 51st. Problem 5. a) Using subscript notation, write the general form of a polynomial of a) the fifth degree in x. a5x5 + a4x4 + a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 b) In that general form, how many constants are there? 6 c) Name the six constants of this fifth degree polynomial: x5 + 6x2 x. a5 = 1. a4 = 0. a3 = 0. a2 = 6. a1 = 1. a0 = 0. Problem 6. a) Indicate the general form of a polynomial in x of degree n. anxn + an1xn1 + . . . + a1x +a0 n is a whole number, the a's are real numbers, and an 0.

b) A polynomial of degree n has how many constants? n + 1 12. A polynomial function has the form

y = A polynomial A polynomial function of the first degree, such as y = 2x + 1, is called a linear function; while a polynomial function of the second degree, such as y = x2 + 3x 2, is called a quadratic. Domain and range The natural domain of any polynomial function is <x< .

x may take on any real value. Consider the graphs of y = x2 , and y = x3. Problem 7. Let f(x) be the function with the given, restricted domain. Describe its range. (If you are not viewing this page with Internet Explorer 6, then your browser may not be able to display the symbol , "is less than or equal to;" or , "is greater than or equal to.") a) f(x) = x2, 3 x 3 0 y 9. y goes from a low of 0 (at x = 0) to a high of 9 (at both 3 and 3). b) f(x) = x3, 3 x 3 27 y 27. y goes from a low of 27 (at x = 3) to a high of 27 (at x = 3). c) f(x) = x4, 2 x 1 0 y 16. y goes from a low of 0, at x = 0, to a high of 16, at x = 2. x4 is very much like x2. The exponent is even. d) f(x) = x5, 2 x 1 32 y 1. y goes from a low of 32, at x = 2, to a high of 1, at x = 1. x5 is very much like x3. The exponent is odd.

Algebraic Expression and Polynomials

An algebraic Expressions is an expression formed from any combination of numbers and variables by using the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation (raising to powers), or extraction of roots.

For instance, , , , , , and are algebraic expressions. By an algebraic expression in certain variables, we mean an expression that contains only those variables, and by a constant, we mean an algebraic expression that contains no variables at all. If numbers are substituted for the variables in an algebraic expression, the resulting number is called the value of the expression for these values of the variables. Example:

Find the value of Solution: Substituting and

when , we obtain

and

. If an algebraic expression consists of parts connected by plus or minus signs, it is called an algebraic sum, and each parts, together with the sign preceding it, is called a term. For instance, in the algebraic sum

, The terms are , , and .

Any part of a term that is multiplied by the remaining part is called a coefficient of the remaining part. For instance, in the term whereas the coefficient of is , the coefficient of . A coefficient such as is ,

, which involves no , which differ

variables, is called a numerical coefficient. Terms such as and only in their numerical coefficients, are called like terms or similar terms.

An algebraic expression such as can be considered an algebraic sum consisting of just one term. Such a one-termed expression is called a monomial. An algebraic sum with two terms is called a binomial, and an algebraic sum with three terms is called a trinomial. For instance, the expression is a binomial, whereas An algebraic sum with two or more terms is called a multinomial. is a trinomial.

A polynomial is an algebraic sum, in which no variables appear in denominators or under radical signs, and all variables that do appear are raised only to positive-integer powers. For instance, the trinomial is not a polynomial; however, the trinomial

is a polynomial in the variables and . A term such as , which contains no variables, is called a constant term of the polynomial. The numerical coefficients of the terms in a polynomial are called the coefficients of the polynomial. The coefficients of the polynomial above are , , and . The degree of a term in a polynomial is the sum of all the exponents of the variables in the term. In adding exponents, you should regard a variable with no exponent as being a first power. For instance, in the polynomial , the term has degree

, the term has degree , and the term has degree . The constant term, if it is zero, is always regarded as having degree . The highest degree of all terms that appear with nonzero coefficients in a polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial. For instance, the polynomial considered above has degree . Although the constant monomial is regarded as a polynomial, this particular polynomial is not assigned a degree. Example: In each case, identify the algebraic expression as a monomial, binomial, trinomial, multinomial, and/or polynomial and specify the variables involved. For any polynomials, gives the degree and coefficients.

(a) (b) (c) Solution: (a) Monomial in and (not a polynomial because of the variable in the denominator). (b) Binomial in and , multinomial (not a polynomial because of the negative exponent on ). (c) Trinomial, multinomial, polynomial in and of degree with coefficients , , and . in a single variable can be written in general form , in which are the numerical coefficients is the constant term. (although any of the

A polynomial of degree

other coefficients can be zero), and

Polynomials: Definitions / Evaluation

By now, you should be familiar with variables and exponents, and you may have dealt with expressions 4 like 3x or 6x. Polynomials are sums of these "variables and exponents" expressions. Each piece of the polynomial, each part that is being added, is called a "term". Polynomial terms have variables which are raised to whole-number exponents (or else the terms are just plain numbers); there are no square roots of variables, no fractional powers, and no variables in the denominator of any fractions. Here are some examples:

6x 2
1

This is NOT a polynomial term... This is NOT a polynomial term... This is NOT a polynomial term... This IS a polynomial term...

...because the variable has a negative exponent. ...because the variable is in the denominator. ...because the variable is inside a radical. ...because it obeys all the rules.

/x2

sqrt(x) 4x2
Here is a typical polynomial:

Notice the exponents on the terms. The first term has an exponent of 2; the second term has an "understood" exponent of 1; and the last term doesn't have any variable at all. Polynomials are usually written this way, with the terms written in "decreasing" order; that is, with the largest exponent first, the next highest next, and so forth, until you get down to the plain old number.
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Any term that doesn't have a variable in it is called a "constant" term because, no matter what value you may put in for the variable x, that constant term will never change. In the picture above, no matter what x might be, 7 will always be just 7. The first term in the polynomial, when it is written in decreasing order, is also the term with the biggest exponent, and is called the "leading term". The exponent on a term tells you the "degree" of the term. For instance, the leading term in the above polynomial is a "second-degree term" or "a term of degree two". The second term is a "first degree" term. The degree of the leading term tells you the degree of the whole polynomial; the polynomial above is a "second-degree polynomial". Here are a couple more examples:

Give the degree of the following polynomial:

2x5 5x3 10x + 9

This polynomial has four terms, including a fifth-degree term, a third-degree term, a first-degree term, and a constant term. This is a fifth-degree polynomial. Give the degree of the following polynomial:

7x4 + 6x2 + x

This polynomial has three terms, including a fourth-degree term, a second-degree term, and a first-degree term. There is no constant term. This is a fourth-degree polynomial.

When a term contains both a number and a variable part, the number part is called the "coefficient". The coefficient on the leading term is called the "leading" coefficient.

In the above example, the coefficient of the leading term is 4; the coefficient of the second term is 3; the constant term doesn't have a coefficient. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved The "poly" in "polynomial" means "many". I suppose, technically, the term "polynomial" should only refer to sums of many terms, but the term is used to refer to anything from one term to the sum of a zillion terms. However, the shorter polynomials do have their own names:

a one-term polynomial, such as 2x or 4x , may also be called a "monomial" ("mono" meaning "one") 2 a two-term polynomial, such as 2x + y or x 4, may also be called a "binomial" ("bi" meaning "two") 4 2 a three-term polynomial, such as 2x + y + z or x + 4x 4, may also be called a "trinomial" ("tri" meaning "three")

I don't know if there are names for polynomials with a greater numbers of terms; I've never heard of any names other than what I've listed.

Polynomials are also sometimes named for their degree: a second-degree polynomial, such as 4x , x 9, or ax + bx + c, is also called a "quadratic" 3 3 a third-degree polynomial, such as 6x or x 27, is also called a "cubic" 4 4 2 a fourth-degree polynomial, such as x or 2x 3x + 9, is sometimes called a "quartic" 5 5 3 a fifth-degree polynomial, such as 2x or x 4x x + 7, is sometimes called a "quintic"
2 2 2

There are names for some of the higher degrees, but I've never heard of any names being used other than the ones I've listed. By the way, yes, "quad" generally refers to "four", as when an ATV is referred to as a "quad bike". For polynomials, however, the "quad" from "quadratic" is derived from the Latin for "making square". As in, if you multiply length by width (of, say, a room) to find the area in "square" units, the units will be raised to 2 the second power. The area of a room that is 6 meters by 8 meters is 48 m . So the "quad" refers to the four corners of a square, from the geometrical origins of parabolas and early polynomials.

Evaluation
"Evaluating" a polynomial is the same as evaluating anything else: you plug in the given value of x, and figure out what y is supposed to be. For instance: Evaluate 2x
3

x2 4x + 2 at x = 3

I need to plug in "3" for the "x", remembering to be careful with my parentheses and the negatives:

2(3)3 (3)2 4(3) + 2 = 2(27) (9) + 12 + 2 = 54 9 + 14 = 63 + 14 = 49

Always remember to be careful with the minus signs!

Operations on Polynomials
Operations on Polynomials 1) Addition of Polynomials: In the following table, the steps for addition of polynomials, the first basic operation on polynomials are clearly laid out: Addition of Polynomials 1. Collect Like terms at one place 2. Add the numerical coefficients of like terms 3. Write the sum in both standard and simplest form Solved Examples: 1. Add the following polynomials: 1. 2a + 3b and -4b + 5a 2. 6x + 2y -3z and 9z + 3y 5x Solution: 1. We know what is meant by like terms. They are terms in which literal coefficients are same. So, to add like terms means to add the numerical coefficients of two or more polynomials which have same literal coefficients. In 2a + 3b and -4b + 5a: 2a and 5a are like terms and 3b and -4b is another pair of like terms. So, add them (the like terms): 2a + 5a = 7a 3b 4b = -b Now, 7a and b are unlike terms which cannot be added like like terms. So, the two unlike terms 7a and b are written and the symbol + is written to indicate the addition operation of polynomials in the given question So, the sum of 2a + 3b and -4b + 5a is 7a b 2. In 6x + 2y -3z and 9z + 3y 5x the like terms are 6x and -5x, 2y and 3y, -3z and 9z So, the sum of like terms is 6x 5x = x 2y + 3y = 5y -3z + 9z = 6z Now write these sums connected by the addition sign + to indicate the sum of the two polynomials in the question (i.e. the addition operation on polynomials) x + 5y + 6z

2) Subtraction of Polynomials: In the table below, the steps for subtraction of polynomials, the second basic operation on polynomials are clearly laid out: Second Basic Operation on Polynomials: Subtraction of Polynomials: 1. Subtract similar terms. To do this, change the algebraic sign of what is to be subtracted and add it to the other. 2. To subtract unlike terms, just write the operation sign before what is to be subtracted 2. Subtract: 1. 9pq from 4pq 2. -4yz from yz Solution: 1. Like in addition, we subtract one like term from another like term. In 1, 9pq and 4pq are like terms. Also, 9pq needs to be subtracted from 4pq. To do this, subtract the numerical coefficients, as the polynomials are like terms. Now note that 9 must be subtracted from 4, as that is what is asked of us. Therefore, write a sign for 9pq and then add the numerical coefficients 4 and -9 So 4pq 9pq = -5pq 2. subtract -4yz from yz Solution: Since -4yz needs to be subtracted, change its sign and add it to yz -yz + 4yz ( on changing sign of -4yz, it becomes 4yz) = 3yz 3. Subtract: 5x2 + 6x from 2xy Solution: 5x2 + 6x and 2xy are two unlike terms. Now, to subtract 5x2 + 6x from 2xy, change the sign of what is to be subtracted i.e. 5x2 + 6x and add it to 2xy 2xy (5x2 + 6x) = -5x2 + 2xy - 6x 3) Multiplication of Polynomials: Multiplication of polynomials is the third important operation on polynomials. Read the table below: Third Operation on Polynomials Multiplication of Polynomials: First multiply numerical coefficients and literal coefficients separately. Next, multiply these two products To multiply two polynomials when each one has more than one term: Multiply each term of one polynomial with each term of the other polynomial and write like terms together. Solved Examples:

Multiply the following polynomials: 1. 5p and 8q Solution: product of numerical coefficients 5 and 8 is 40 and product of literal coefficients p and q is pq. Now, write the product of these two as: 40pq. 2. 4x3 + 2 and 2x2 + 3x Solution: 4x3 +2 and 2x2 + 3x Let us apply the 2nd rule in the above table: (4x3 +2)( 2x2 + 3x ) = 4x3.(2x2 + 3x) + 2(2x2 + 3x) = {Apply exponents rule: xm.xn = xm +n} 8x5 + 12x4 + 4x2 + 6x 1) Division of Polynomials: Division of Polynomials: 1. To divide a monomial by another monomial, divide the numerical coefficients and the literal coefficients separately. 2. To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term in the polynomial by the monomial. Solved Examples: Divide the following polynomials 1. 50p4q6 by 5pq Solution: divide the numerical coefficients and write their quotient i.e, 50/5 = 10 now divide literal coefficients and write their quotient as p4q6 by pq { recall exponents rule: {xm/xn = xm n } p4q6/ pq = p4-1. q6-1 = p3.q5 Now, write the coefficients next to each other to denote their product50 p3.q5 2. Divide 40a5b4 + 55a3b5 + 35a3b4 + 70ab by a2b2 Solution: Divide each in the polynomial 40a5b4 + 55a3b5 + 35a3b4 + 70ab by a2b2 Let us find the quotients separately as follows: (40a5b4)/(a2b2) = 40a5 2 . b4 2 = 40a3b2 (55a3b5)/ (a2b2) = 55ab3 (35a3b4)/ (a2b2) = 35ab2 (70ab)/ (a2b2) = 70/(ab) Now write the above four quotients next to each other, separated by the + sign to indicate their addition 40a3b2 + 55ab3 + 35ab2+ 70/ (ab)

Degree of a polynomial
The degree of a polynomial is a very straightforward concept that is really not hard to understand Definition: The degree is the term with the greatest exponent Recall that for y2, y is the base and 2 is the exponent Example #1: 4x2 + 6x + 5 This polynomial has three terms. The first one is 4x2, the second is 6x, and the third is 5 The exponent of the first term is 2 The exponent of the second term is 1 because 6x = 6x1 The exponent of the third term is 0 because 5 = 5x0 What? 5x0 = 5? Well, anything with an exponent of 0 is always equal to 1 Thus, 5x0 = 5 x0 = 5 1 = 5 Since the highest exponent is 2, the degree of 4x2 + 6x + 5 is 2 Example #2: 2y6 + 1y5 + -3y4 + 7y3 + 9y2 + y + 6 This polynomial has seven terms. The first one is 2y2, the second is 1y5, the third is -3y4, the fourth is 7y3, the fifth is 9y2, the sixth is y, and the seventh is 6 The exponent of the first term is 6 The exponent of the second term is 5 The exponent of the third term is 4

The exponent of the fourth term is 3 The exponent of the fifth term is 2 The exponent of the sixth term is 1 because y = y1 The exponent of the last term is 0 because 6 = 6x0 Since the highest exponent is 6, the degree of 2y6 + 1y5 + -3y4 + 7y3 + 9y2 + y + 6 is 6 Write a polynomial for the following descriptions 1)A binomial in z with a degree of 10 2)A trinomial in c with a degree of 4 3)A binomial in y with a degree of 1 4)A monomial in b with a degree of 3 Anwers: 1) 2z10 4 2) c4 + c2 8 3) y + 4 4) b3

To find the degree of a polynomial or monomial with more than one variable for the same term, just add the exponents for each variable to get the degree Degree of x3y2. Degree of this monomial = 3 + 2 = 5

Graphing Polynomials
Definitions:

Polynomials are expressions involving x raised to a whole number power (exponent).

Some examples are:

Degree of a polynomial: The highest power (exponent) of x. Leading coefficient: The coefficient of the highest power of x. In the case of it is +3.

Constant term: The number not associated with any power of x. In the case of it is +7.

We shall refer to the degree, leading coefficient, and the constant term frequently in discussing the graphs of polynomials. Graphing polynomials accurately: We will refer to ways that a calculator can assist in graphing as well as which important points to graph accurately. Important points include the x- and y-intercepts, coordinates of maximum and minimum points, and other points plotted using specific values of x and the associated value of the polynomial. Locate the y-intercept by letting x = 0 (the y-intercept is the constant term) and locate the x-intercept(s) by setting the polynomial equal to 0 and solving for x or by using the TI-83 calculator under and the 2.zero function. The intercepts provide accurate points to help in sketching the graphs.

Locate the maximum or minimum points by using the TI-83 calculator under 3.minimum or 4.maximum functions. Graphing polynomials of degree 2:

and the

i.

is a parabola and its graph opens upward from the vertex . The graph is shown below using the WINDOW (-5, 5) X (-2, 16). Note that the leading coefficient

is positive and that is why the parabola opens upward. Notice that the constant term 7 is the yintercept. The y-intercept is the point where x = 0. It is a good practice to plot points near the minimum point which in this case has approximate coordinates (0.17, 6.92). If If . The points (-1, 11) and (2, 17) can be plotted to sketch a more accurate graph.

ii.

is a parabola and its graph opens downward from the vertex (1, 3). The graph is shown below using the WINDOW (-5, 5) (-8, 8). Note that the leading coefficient is negative and that is why the parabola opens down. Notice that the constant term 1 is the yintercept. The maximum point is located at (1, 3). Points near this are (-1, -5) and (2, 1) which can help in sketching the graph.

In general, a parabola (polynomial of degree 2) is given by opens up and if a is negative, the parabola opens down. Polynomials of even degree greater than 2:

. If a is positive, the parabola

Polynomials of even degree open up or down depending on whether the leading coefficient is positive or negative. The end behavior is the same for both the left and right sides of the graph. i. A polynomial of degree higher than 2 may open up or down, but may contain more curves in the graph. Notice in the case of that the graph opens up both on the left and right sides of the graph. The degree of this polynomial is 4 and is even. Thus both the left and right sides of the graph show the same end behavior, opening up. The y-intercept is 4 and the x-intercepts are -2.82 and -1.34 approximately. The minimum is approximately (-2.25, -4.54). Other points in this window which assist in graphing accurately are (-2, -4), (-1, 2), and (1, 8). It might be necessary to plot points for x values of -0.5 and 0.5 for an accurate sketch. These points are (-0.5, 3.6875) and (0.5, 4.4375).

ii.

Let

. We expect the behavior of the graph to be the same on both the

left and right sides of the graph because the degree of is even. Because the leading coefficient is positive, the graph will be going upward. The graph is shown below. The y-intercept is 0 and the x-intercepts are -1.5, 0, and 1. There are two minimum points on the graph at (0.70, -0.65) and (-1.07, -2.04). There is a maximum at (0, 0). Other points on the graph which can help sketch an accurate graph are (-2, 12), (-1, -2), and (1.5, 6.75).

iii.

Let We expect the end behavior of the graph to be the same on both the left and right sides of the graph. Because the leading coefficient is negative, the graph will be going downward. The graph is shown below. The y-intercept is 1 and the x-intercepts are approximately -1.42 and 0.8. There are two maximum points at (-1.11, 2.12) and (0.33, 1.22). There is a minimum at (-0.34, 0.78). Other points on the graph are (-1, 2), and (1, -2).

Polynomials of odd degree greater than 2: Polynomials of odd degree open up or down depending on whether the leading coefficient is positive or negative. However, the end behavior is different for the left and right sides of the graph. If the right side of the graph goes up, the leading coefficient is positive and the left side will go down. If the right side goes down, the leading coefficient is negative and the left side goes up. i. A polynomial of degree higher than 2 may open up or down, but may contain more curves in the graph. Notice in the case of the graph opens up to the right and down to the left. This is because the leading coefficient is positive.

The y-intercept is 4 and is also a minimum point. A maximum is found at (-2, 8). The x-intercept is approximately -3.36. Other points which can assist in sketching this graph accurately are (-3, 4), (-1, 6), and (1, 8).

ii.

If , the graph opens down to the right and up to the left because the leading coefficient is negative. The y-intercept is 0. The x-intercepts are located at 0, 0.5, and 3. Other points on the graph are (-0.5, 3.5), (1, 2), and (1.5, 4.5). There is a minimum at approximately (0.24, -0.34) and a maximum at approximately (2.09, 6.05).

iii.

If , the graph opens up to the right and down to the left because the leading coefficient is positive. The y-intercept is -2, the constant term. The x-intercepts are located at -1, -0.5, 0.5, 1, and 2. Other points which can assist in making an accurate sketch are located at (-0.25, -1.58), (0.25, 1.23), and (1.5, -5).

Exponential Functions
What is an exponential function? An exponential function is a mathematical expression in which a variable represents the exponent of an expression. What does an exponential function look like? Here's a very simple exponential function:

That equation is read as "y equals 2 to the x power." Exponent refresher: Let's remember how exponents work. Suppose we have the equation below:

That equation tells us to multiply x by itself to get y. It's the equivalent of:

If we want to find y when x=3, we can pretty quickly find that y=3*3=9. But, this is actually what's known as a "power function". In fact, it's just a polynomial, and not an exponential function at all. Take a closer look at x2 . This means x squared or x to the second power. What does it mean? We have two parts here: 1) An exponent, which is the number 2. 2) A base, which is the variable x. With exponential functions, the variable will actually be the exponent, with a constant as the base. Exponential Functions Here's what exponential functions look like:

The equation is y equals 2 raised to the x power. This sort of equation represents what we call "exponential growth" or "exponential decay." Other examples of exponential functions include:

The general exponential function looks like this: , where the base b is any positive constant. The base b could be 1, but remember that 1 to any power is just 1, so it's a particularly boring exponential function! Let's try some examples: Example 1 Solve for x: This one is actually pretty simple, so let's just think it through: The problem says we have to multiply x number of two's together to get four. Well, everyone knows that 2*2=4, so the answer is two:

Ok, great, that was an easy example. But you can see where this could get really, hard, right? Look at this: Example 2: Solve for y when x=5:

That means we need to plug-in x=5 and see what we get:

Fortunately all we had to do with this problem was multiply 1.2 times itself a few times to get the answer. What about a word problem example? We can use a formula for exponential growth to model the population of a bacteria. Let's say the bacteria population is defined by where B is the total population and t represents time in hours. While that may look complicated, it really tells us that the bacteria grows by 12 percent every hour. Every time another hour goes by, t goes up by 1, so we have to multiply the population times 1.12 again. The 100 simply sets the initial population at time t=0.

So, how much bacteria remains after 4 hours? What do we know? We have the formula Replace t with 4 hours in the formula above and simplify. and the fact that t=4.

The number actually has a lot of digits after the decimal place. A real problem would usually specify where you should round your answer, but in this case, rounding to the nearest WHOLE number makes sense. Why? Because we're dealing with bacteria here. There can only be a whole number of bacteria, so the answer is 157 after 4 hours of growth.

Graph of Exponential Functions

Graphing and sketching exponential functions: step by step tutorial. The properties such as domain, range, horizontal asymptotes and intercepts of the graphs of these functions are also examined in details. Free graph paper is available.
Review We first start with the properties of the graph of the basic exponential function of base a, f (x) = ax , a > 0 and a not equal to 1. The domain of function f is the set of all real numbers. The range of f is the interval (0 , +infinity). The graph of f has a horizontal asymptote given by y = 0. Function f has a y intercept at (0 , 1). f is an increasing function if a is greater than 1 and a decreasing function if a is smaller than 1 .

You may want to review all the above properties of the exponential function interactively .

Example 1: f is a function given by

f (x) = 2(x - 2) a. b. c. d. Find the domain and range of f. Find the horizontal asymptote of the graph. Find the x and y intercepts of the graph. of f if there are any. Sketch the graph of f.

Answer to Example 1 a. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers. To find the range of f,we start with 2x > 0 Multiply both sides by 2-2 which is positive. 2x2-2 > 0 Use exponential properties 2(x - 2) > 0

This last statement suggests that f(x) > 0. The range of f is (0, +inf). b. As x decreases without bound, f(x) = 2(x - 2) approaches 0. The graph of f has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. c. To find the x intercept we need to solve the equation f(x) = 0

2(x - 2) = 0

This equation does not have a solution, see range above, f(x) > 0. The graph of f does not have an x intercept. The y intercept is given by (0 , f(0)) = (0,2(0 - 2)) = (0 , 1/4).

So far we have the domain, range, y intercept and the horizontal asymptote. We need extra points.

(4 , f(4)) = (4, 2(4 - 2)) = (4 , 22) = (4 , 4)

(-1 , f(-2)) = (-1, 2(-1 - 2)) = (-1 , 2-3) = (-1 , 1/8)

d. Let us now use all the above information to graph f.

Logarithmic Functions
Contents: This page corresponds to 4.2 (p. 330) of the text. Suggested problems from text: p. 337 #1, 3, 6, 12, 13, 17, 19, 21, 27, 29, 37, 41, 47, 59, 65, 73, 78
Definition Graphs The Natural Logarithm

Grapher Calculator Return Help Scatter Plot

Definition
If a is any positive number other than 1, then f(x) = ax, the exponential function with base a, is one-to-one, and hence has an inverse. For a review of these concepts, see the section on inverse functions. We can see that f has an inverse by looking at its graph and noting that it passes the horizontal line test. In other words, no horizontal line hits the graph of f in more than one point. Take another look at the applet from the last section that shows the graphs of exponential functions.

Drag the point that is initially at (1,2) to see graphs of other exponential functions. In all cases except when the base is 1, the graph passes the horizontal line test. Definition The logarithmic function with base a, written loga(x), is the inverse of the exponential function ax. Recall that the inverse of a function just undoes what the functions did, and this idea can be expressed through function composition. The fact that loga(x) is the inverse of ax can be expressed with the following two identities.
logarithmic identity 1 logarithmic identity 2

Inverses of Formulas and Compositions of Inverse Functions

when finding the the inverse of a formula, DO NOT SWITCH THE VARIABLES. The first example models finding the inverse of an existing formula: Symmetric Property of Equality Division Property of Equality Inverse of Square is Square Root Simplify Fraction to Simplest Radical Form I know some readers may not be able to follow the above problem. The same problem, but with the example in the video, the auditory learner can benefit too. The second example models finding the composition of a function and its inverse. This can be written as or . In both cases are equal to the value of x. Performing the composition of a function and its inverse gives the value you started with. You will see in the video, how simple this process is. Find the Domain of a Function and Its Inverse In this post, I have embedded an Algebra 2 Video Math Lesson about the function . Before considering the function, the video defines as f inverse. Filed under: Algebra 2, Graphing an Equation's Inverse, Inverse Relations and Functions | Tagged: Algebra 2, Find the Inverse of a Function, Inverse Functions | Leave a Comment How To Find and Graph the Inverse of a Function
Posted on March 31, 2010 by Mr. Pi

as the inverse of f or

In this video Algebra 2 Math Lesson, I model how to graph a quadratic function and its inverse. The process starts with graphing a parabola in the form . The vertex is given by (0,c). After graphing the parabola with four additional points, I create the inverses graph by moving the points about y = x line. Finally, I find the inverse of the original function. If this video math lesson on finding the inverse of a function and then graphing it helped you, leave a comment. Heck, if it didnt help leave a comment and let me know how to make it better. How to Find the Inverse of a Relation and an Equation This video lesson covers the definition of the inverse of a relation and reviews the concept of how to find the inverse of a relation.

Example 1 covers how to find the inverse of a relation from a table of values and provides a good visual of a relation that is a function and its inverse is not a function. Before example 2, a discussion about how switching the x and the y in the equation is the best method for finding the inverse of a function. Example 2 models how to use the x and y switcheroo to find the inverse of a given function.

Applications of Logarithmic Functions

Before beginning this tutorial, you may wish to review the tutorial on Arithmetic With Numbers In Scientific Notation. Example 1 pH In chemistry, a solutions pH is defined by the logarithmic equation , where t is the hydronium ion concentration in moles per liter. We usually round pH values to the nearest tenth. a. Find the pH of a solution with hydronium ion concentration 4.5 x 10-5 b. Find the hydronium ion concentration of pure water, which has a pH of 7. Solutions 1. If t=4.5 x 10-5, then p(t)= -log10(4.5 x 10-5)= -(log104.5 + log1010-5)= -(log104.5 + (5)(log1010))= -(.6532+-5)= -(-4.3468)=4.3.

1. Since water has a pH of 7, we know 7=-log10t and so 7=log10t-1; thus 107= t-1, and so the hydronium ion concentration of water is t=10-7 moles per liter. Example 2 Measuring decibels of sound The loudness of sound is measured in units called decibels. These units are measured by first assigning an intensity I0 to a very soft sound (which is called the threshold sound). The sound we wish to measure is assigned an intensity I, and we measure the decibel rating d of this sound with the equation .

1. Find the decibel rating of a sound with intensity 5000I0.

1. If a sound has a decibel rating of 85, how much more intense is it than the threshold sound?

Solutions

a. b.

decibels

, where the sound in question is k times as intense as the threshold sound. Thus , and so the sound is

times as intense as the threshold sound.