JBR-07337; No of Pages 8

Journal of Business Research xxx (2011) xx xxxx

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDire ct

Journal of Business Research

Cross-cultural examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germany, and the United States
Rachel Smith
d, 5
a b c d

a,

, George Deitz

a, 1

, Marla B. Royne

a, 2

, John D. Hansen

b, 3

, Marko Grnhagen

c, 4

, Carl Witte

Department of Marketing and Supply Chain Management, Fogelman College of Business & Economics, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA School of Business, University of Alabama-Bi rmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA School of Business, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 61920, USA W alter E. Heller College of Business Administration, Roosevelt University, Chicago, IL 60605, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
While the rise of the commercial Internet has promoted many brands to a globally ubiquitous status, convergent demand for certain goods and services masks many culture-b ound differences in consumer shopping behaviors. Adopting the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this research examines the role of culture in inuencing online shopping use, comparing differences across three countries: Germany, Norway, and the United States. The roles of cognitive and affective involvement in dri ving technology percepti ons and usage are also examined. After assuring measurement equivalence for study constructs, the study assesses differences in structural patterns across the countries. Findings show that the full TAM model does not hold for the European samples. In addition, cognitive involvement inuences perceived usefulne ss and perceived ease of use in all countries, but the relationship between affective involvement and beha vioral intention does not hold in Germany. Published by Elsevier Inc.

Article history: Received 1 March 2010 Received in revised form 1 July 2011 Accepted 1 August 2011 Available online xxxx Keywords: Culture Technology Accept ance Model (TAM) Cognitive involvement Affective involvement

1. Introducti on Several scholar s note grow ing similar ities in cross-na tional customer demand preferences and shopping behavior s, attributing these similarities to such factors as increased power of global brands and more univers al access to goods and services (Alden, Steenk amp, and Batra, 1999; Clevelan d, Laroche, and Papado poulos, 2009; Farley and Lehmann, 1994; Steenka mp, Batra, and Alden, 2003; Whitelock and Fastoso, 200 7). The development of the worldwi de web has accel erated this trend. Recent reports show th at a majority of consume rs in developed markets as well as more and more from emerging markets now use the Internet to transact goods and services on a regular basis (Achille, 200 8). In the United States (U.S.) alone, Internet shopping sales have exploded from about $40 billion in 2002 to over $130 billion in 2008 (U.S. Census Bureau, 200 9). While the phenomen al rise in online purchasi ng worldwide is well documen ted, the academic literature investiga ting online consumer behavior is relatively underdevel oped (Forsythe, Liu, Shannon, and

Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 901 678 2667. E-mail addresses: rsmith2@memphis.edu (R. Smith), gdeitz@memphis.edu (G. Deitz), mstaffr d@memphis.edu (M.B. Royne), jdhansen@uab.edu (J.D. Hansen), mgrunhagen@eiu.edu (M. Grnhagen), cwitte@roosevelt.edu (C. W itte). 1 Tel.: + 1 901 678 2098. 2 Tel.: + 1 901 678 2499. 3 Tel.: + 1 205 934 4648. 4 Tel.: + 1 217 581 6906. 5 Tel.: + 1 847 619 4852.

Please cite this article as: Smith R, et al, Cross-cultu ral examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germ any, and the United States, J Bus Res (2011), doi: 10.1016/j.j busres.2011.0 8.013

Gardner, 2006 ) and dominated by Western perspecti ves utilizing U.S. based samples (Cayla and Arnould, 200 8). The global spread of online purchas ing requires a more systematic understan ding of the aspects of online and ofine consumer behavior: both aspects that are univers al and aspects that differ by culture or individu al (Barnes, Bauer, Neumann, and Huber, 2007 ). This research examines differences in online shopping behavior among consume rs from three countries: the U.S., Germa ny and Norway. Although these count ries share many ma croeconomic characteri stics and possess relatively well-develo ped e-com merce industries, they represent distinct cultures in terms of commonly examined frameworks. The study's concept ual model is grounded in the technology accepta nce model (TAM) (Davis, 1989 ), the most widely accepted framework for explai ning user decisio ns to adopt
0148-2963/$ see front matter. doi :10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.08.013 Published by Elsevier Inc.

and use information technology. In additi on, this research addres ses calls in the literature for better understan ding of motivation al anteceden ts to TAM variables (e.g., Ruth, 2000; Venkatesh and Davis, 200 0) by exam ining t he differential inuences of cognitive and affective involveme nt upon online shopping behaviors and intentions. Key differences in structu ral relationshi ps across cultures are hypoth e- sized, with theoret ical support from multi ple cultural framewor ks. In sum, research objectives include: 1) Examine applied cultures: 2) Examine cultures the measure ment equivalence of TAM constructs as to online shopping across three different national Germa ny, Norway and the US. differences in TAM relationships across these three within the online shopping environ ment.

Please cite this article as: Smith R, et al, Cross-cultu ral examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germ any, and the United States, J Bus Res (2011), doi: 10.1016/j.j busres.2011.0 8.013

R. Smith et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2011) xxxxxx

3) Understand the relative inuences of cognitive and affective involvement as antecedents to TAM variables across these three cultures. 2. National culture and consu mer behavior Several recent a rticles in the Journal of Business Research (Baack and Singh, 2007; Soares, Farhangmehr, and Shoham, 2007; Zhang, Beatty, and Walsh, 2008) e xamine cross-cultural approaches in consumer behavior research. Scholars generally conclude that no single theoretical approach fully captures the richness of cultural differences. In advocating the complementary nature of leading frameworks, Zhang et al. (2008) urge investigators to go beyond Hofstede (p. 219), advocating the use of multi-framework approaches in cross-cultural research. Accordingly, the theoretical model and hypotheses introduced in this paper incorporate the work of Hofstede (1991), Hall (1976), and Schwartz (1994). 2.1. Hofstede's cultural values Based upon extensive organization al behavioral work with IBM in the 1970s and early 1980s, Hofstede ( 1991) distinguishes ve universal dimensions of culture: power-distance, individualism, masculinity , unc ertaint y avoi danc e and long ter m orientation. Power distance is the extent to which less powerful members of institutions within a country expect and accept t hat power is distributed unequally (Hofstede, 199 4). Individuali sm describes the prevalent relationship between the individual and major societal groups (e.g., family, workpl ace) within a given culture. Masculini ty focuses on the degree to which so-called masculine values, such as competi tiveness and wealth accumul ation, are valued over feminine trait s, like relat ionship build ing and qual ity of life. Uncertainty avoidan ce relates to the tolerance of uncertainty and ambigui ty within a society. Finally, long-term orientation focuses on the degree the society embraces long-term devoti on to traditional values. Over the years, Hofsted e's cultural values framew ork has emerged as the most widely adopted framework among marketing and management scholars in examining cultural differences. Though Hofsted e's ascribed dimens ions were original ly developed based upon employees of one global rm, subsequent research has found that Hofstede's work well represen ts broad differences in national culture. Despite valid criticisms relating to their application, the dimensi ons help researche rs understand how members of various societies behave in given situations. 2.2. Hall's cultural factors: context and time The central premise of Hall's work is that people communi cate through a whole range of behaviors, which are often taken for granted and frequently take place outside of conscious awaren ess. Hall (1976) isolates two dimensi ons of culture: context and time. He posits that meaning is a function of inform ation within a context. As cultures have evolved in adaptation to their highly specialized environment s, the proportion of meaning commonly conveyed by context may vary considerab ly. Thus, when people from two different cultures meet, they may share a common background of information but not share contexts. As a result, understan ding of what is happening will differ for each. Some cultures rely more heavily upon context than others, which a ffects not only the way people communicate but also the way they think (Hall, 1990). Low context communication occ urs primarily through explicit statements in text or speech. Thus, most of the information must be embedded wi thin the transmitted message to make up for what is missing in context. Conversely, meaning in high- context cultures is conveyed more implicitly through the use of non-

spoken cues, such as body language, eye movement, and silence (Wurtz, 2005). Hall also categorizes cultures b ased on how their members perceive and ma nage time. Monoch ronic cultur es see time as linear and segmented into xed elements: sequential blocks that can be quantied and scheduled (Hall, 1976). In monochromic cultures, time is tangible people more often speak of time as being saved, spent, wasted, made up, or running out. In addition, societal members are more prone to focus on performing a single task during a specied time period until it is nished. Conversely, polychronic time systems are characterized by many things happening at once (Hall, 1976). Time is viewed as being continuous and wi thout structure. Pol ychronic cultures place greater emphasis on people and on completing transactions than maintaining a preset schedule. As a result, last minute changes to important plans are common. 2.3. Schwartz' Human values More recently, Shalom Schwa rtz and his colleagues have proposed an alternative cultural framew ork based upon his seminal work on human values. In his program matic piece, Schwartz (1994) identi es three basic societal issues: relations between individu al and group, assuring responsi ble social behavior, and the role of humankind in the natural and social world. Cultural adaptations to resolve each of these issues constitute his framewor k, which is dened by seven distinct national-c ultural domain s: conservati sm, intel lectua l autonomy, affective autono my, hierarchy, egalitari anism, mastery and harmony. Conservatism describes c ultures in which the person is considered an entity embedded in the collectivity. Conservatism emphasizes maintenance of the status quo, propriety, and restraint of actions that might disrupt the solidarity of the existing order. Schwartz distinguishes two types of autonomy: intellectual and affective. Focused on ideas and thoughts, intellectual a utonomy refers to the right of individuals to follow their own intellectual directions. Focused on feelings and emotions, affective autonomy refers to the right of individuals to pursue their own affectively positive experiences. Within hierarchical societies, differential allocation of xed roles and resources is viewed as the most legitimate way to regulate interdependencies. People are socialized to comply w ith obligations and rules and are sanctioned if they do not. Egalitarianism portrays individuals as moral equals who share basic interests and who are socialized to transcend selsh interests. Mastery cultures believe that individuals should control and change the social and natural environment through assertive action in order to further personal or group interests. Within harmony-oriented cultures, the wo rld is accepted as it is. The following section introduces a series of hypotheses relating to online shopping behavio rs that will be tested using data from three countries: Germany, Norway, and the United States. Although these countries share similar Internet usage rates and comparable economic development levels, cultural differences help explain drivers of cross- nat ional differences in online shopping ad option and usage. For instance, in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, consumers' discomfort with ambiguity may inuence p erceptions of the ease of use or usefulness of online shopping. 3. Hypoth eses developme nt The Technology Adoption Model (TAM) provides the grounds for an investi gation of intercul tural differences in the determi nants and usage of online shopping. Based on the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 198 5), the TAM's simplicity belies its predictive power. Over the past two decades, the model has emerged as the most widely recognized framework for examini ng technol ogy adopt ion. Within the Internet context alone, the TAM has been utilized to examine technology

R. Smith et al. / Journal of Business Research xxx (2011) xxxxxx

adoption across numerous settings, including mobile Internet services

(Jiang, 200 9), online auctions (Stern, Royne, Stafford, and Bienstock, 200 8), online trading (Lee, 200 9) online games (Hsu and Lu, 2004 ), instant messaging servic es ( Wang, Hsu, and Fang, 200 4), email (McCoy, Everard, and Jones, 2005 ), and online banking (Gounaris and Koritos, 200 8). The TAM model's original constructs include perceived useful ness (PU), which is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system wo uld enhance his or her job performance, perceived ease of use (PEOU), or the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort, and behavioral intention (BI) as a self-pr ediction of behavior (Davis, 1989, p. 320). TAM's underlying rationale is that individuals will use new information technology based largely on the extent to which they perceive that the technology will improve performanc e. All else being equal, easier-to-use technologies are perceived as more useful because they require less of a learning curve. Since the TAM's introdu ction, the model has been tested across numerous technol ogies, using stud ent and non-stu dent samples draw n from a variet y of countries. In addition, by embraci ng explana tory anteceden ts as well as various moderators and outcomes, subsequent researche rs have extended the origin al model in a variety of compelling ways. Recent meta-an alyses of these studies demonstrate considerab le regularities, providing broad support for the TAM's theoretical underpinnin gs (King and He, 2006; Schepers and Wetzels, 200 7). PU and PEOU are the most importa nt predicto rs of an individua l's behavioral intention (BI) to use a technology, with the meta-analy tic results showing that PU is the more inuential of the two constru cts (PU BI: = .3849; PEOU BI: = .1236). While evidence sugge sts consid erable consisten cy in the signi cance of relationships advanced within the TAM, the literature is replete with ndings that suggest the strengths of these paths may be deeply affected by conte xtual factor s. For instance, Venka tesh and Morris (2000) nd that women are more inuenced by PEOU, while men are more strongly inuenced by PU. van der Heijden's (2004) study sugge sts that indivi duals using technolo gy for entertain ment reasons are mor e str ongly inue nced by PEOU considerations. Research by Bienstock, Royne, Sherrell, and Stafford (2008) provides evidence of approxi mately equal relatio nships between these two constructs and intentions to use informa tion technology tools (p. 205). Over the following sections, we advance sub-hy potheses in those instances where relevant culture theory suggests differences in the relative strength of causal pathways.

to use are likely to be value d mor e highly in the U.S. than in countries lower on in this dimension. Hence: H1. Perceived ease of use will be positively associated wi th behavioral intent to use online shopping sites for U.S., German and Norwegian consumers. H1a. The strength of the relationship between percei ved ease of use and behavioral intent to use online shopping sites will be stronger for U.S. consume rs relative to those from Norway and Germa ny. 3.2. Perceived usefulness and cross-cult ural online shopping behavior People choose to utilize a given technology to the extent they believe the technology will help them perform a job better or more efciently (Davis, 1989 ). This relationship has been shown to be quite stable over a variety of technologie s, including the acceptan ce of online technologie s. In accordance with Hall's (1976) framewo rk, each of the three cultures examined in this study is typically considered to be monochronic and low-conte xt. In such cultures, people strive to reach decisions as quickly and efciently as possible, focusing on econo mic goals and taking an impersonal approach to negotiatio n. Such cultures are more literal, engenderi ng a much greater reliance upon the spoken or written word as well as presented facts and gures in order to establish meaning. As a result, consumers are likely to view online shopping as saving time, and providing more extensive and easily access ed informati on related to prices and features of desired goods and services. Thus, the PU BI relationship should be sign icant within each sample. The strengt h of thi s assoc iation , however , may vary accordin g to difference s in nationa l culture . Schwart z (1994) characterizes Norweg ian and Ger man cultu res as highly egalitari an. Wit hin thes e cultures , online shoppin g provide s gre ater transparen cy for consumer s and retailers, parti cularly in terms of price. Thus, consumers may percei ve online shoppin g as a useful tool that levels the playing eld, leadi ng to fair outco mes for all parties . Conversely , becaus e Americ an consumer s are mor e individ ualisti c (Hofs tede , 1994), they may admire uniquel y great deals foun d throug h greate r effort or supe rior kno wledg e of produc t and servic e categories . To the exte nt that online shoppin g make s it easie r for lazy or uni nforme d shopper s to get the same value, the inuenc e of PU on online shoppin g intent ion s shoul d be rel ativel y lowe r. In sum: H2. Perceived usefulness will be positively associated with behavioral intent to use online shopping sites for U.S., German and Norwegian consume rs. H2a. The strength of the relationship between perceived usefulness and intention to use online shopping will be we aker for U.S. consumers relative to those from Norway and Germany. 3.3. Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness All things equal, technologies that are perceived as easy to use should also be perceived as more useful. A number of prior investigations of web-based shopping (Ha and Stoel, 2009) and customer service applications (McKechnie, Winklhofer, and Ennew, 2006) conrm this relationship. Given the strongly monochronic nature of all three cultures, PEOU should positively inuence PU for all three groups. H3. Perceived ease of use will be positively associated with perceived usefulness of online shoppi ng sites for U.S., German and Norwegian consume rs. 3.4. Cognitive and affective involvement The consumer invol veme nt cons truct proves useful across a

3.1. Perceived ease of use and cross-c ultural online shopping behavior PEOU relates to an individu al's perception that using, or learning to use, a technology will be free of effort. Previo us research nds consistent supp ort for a positive relatio nship between PEOU and BI across a multitude of contexts. For instance, a recent study of the inuence of online store layout nds PEOU to be the primary driver in purchase intent (Grifth, 200 5). Likewise, Wang et al. (2004) nd a signicant relationsh ip between PEOU and BI for instant messaging services. Prior research shows that consumers from low context cultures such as Germany, Norway and the U.S. desire convenie nce when using an Internet site (Ko, Roberts, and Cho, 200 6), sugge sting a positive relationship between PEOU and BI for all three countries. Meta-a nalytic results , however , sugges t tha t the stre ngt h of the PEOU! BI relatio nship varies greatl y acros s context s (King and He, 2006). A sign icant amoun t of this varia bility may be explaine d by cultura l differences . For examp le, con sumer s from more individualistic culture s ten d to have stro nger desire s for pers onal convenience . Of the thre e countr ies in this study' s sample , the United State s is the most indivi dualisti c (Hofstede, 1994 ). Simil arly, Schwart z (199 4) characterize s U.S. cultur e mos t stro ngly in terms of its master y orientatio n. As such, tec hnologie s perce ived as easier

Please cite this article as: Smith R, et al, Cross-cultu ral examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germ any, and the United States, J Bus Res (2011), doi: 10.1016/j.j busres.2011.0 8.013

variety of contexts. Most researchers

agree that a person is highly

Please cite this article as: Smith R, et al, Cross-cultu ral examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germ any, and the United States, J Bus Res (2011), doi: 10.1016/j.j busres.2011.0 8.013

involved when s/he pe rce ives tha t a stimulu s holds personal relevance or importance in ach ieving personal goals (Mitchell, 198 1). Much of the pioneering work within social psycho logy links involveme nt closely with self-attit udes (e.g., Sherif and Cantril, 1947 ). Later applications within consumer research examine the inuence of various advertising media (e.g., Krugm an, 196 5), advertisi ng sources and messages (e.g., Chaffee and McLeod, 197 3), product categories (Rothsc hild, 197 9), and situatio ns (e.g., Lastovicka and Gardner, 197 8) upon involvement levels. More recent advanc es go beyond understa nding the effects of involveme nt to more clearly distingui shing various types of involvement. Park and Young (1983, 1986) characteri ze high cognitive involveme nt as being based upon a high degree of relevan ce of message content s, issues and situations. High affecti ve involve ment, in turn, relates to value expressive motives and the need for selfconcept management. Zaichko wsky (1994) later denes cognitive involveme nt as personal relevance based on the functional, utilitarian perform ance of the stimuli and affective involve ment as person al relevance based on feelings, emotions and moods evoked by the stimuli. Thus, cognitive involve ment enco mpasses reasoning, factual evidenc e, and inform ation, whereas, affective involvement covers the personal relevance trigged by emotion, feelings and esthetics. When online shoppers use a website to gather information to make better decisions, they likely exhibit greater cognitive involvement. Shoppers who frequent websites seeking fun, entertainment, and enjoyment will likely be more affecti vely involved.

inuences

3.5. Inuence of cognitive involvem ent upon online shopping perceptions Many consumers become cognitively involved with an online shopping site to better achieve u tilitarian goals. Consumers who are m ore engaged with t he online shopping will more likely commit sufcient time and attention in order to navigate the we bsite effectively (Celsi and Olson, 1988). Such shoppers will less likely abandon the site due to frustration wi th navigational features or because they cannot immediate ly nd what they are looking for. As a result, higher levels of cognitive involvement should promote greater PEOU. In addition, this involvement state should lead the consumer to do such things as search for product information and compare prices. Cognitively-involved consumers will also more likely explore the e-commerce site and take notice of advanc ed featu res that enhanc e the online shopping experience, such as user ratings and chat-based customer service. Thus: H4. Cognitive involvement will be positively associated w ith perceived ease of use of online shopping sites for U.S., German and Norwegian consumers. H5. Cognitive involvement will be positively associated w ith perceived usefulness of online shopping sites for U.S., German and Norwegian consumers.

3.6. Inuence of affective involvement on behavi oral intent Affective involvement represen ts the emotional, hedonic link between the person and the phenome non. Affect- based decisions are most likely to occur when the underlying reason to engage in the behavior is intrinsic ally rewarding to the individual (Hawkins, Best, and Coney, 200 3), which is often the case in the online environ ment. In prior related research, Compeau and Higgins (1995) examine the role of affect and nd a signicant relationship between liking the computer and subsequent related behavior. Researchers have also found that affective involve ment signicantly inuences intentions to purchase online, implying that the decision to shop online is made with emotio n (Bosnjak, Galesic, and Tuten, 2007, p. 603). Stafford and Stern (2002) nd that generalized involvement

behavioral intention to use auction sites. Given previou sly noted similarities between the countries studied here: H6. Affective involvement will be positively associated w ith behavioral intentions to engage in online shopping across U.S. German, and Norwegian consum ers. 4. Methods 4.1. Research design and data collection Zaichkows ky and Sood (1988) sugge st that cross-cultural research should be conducted wit hin a tight theoreti cal framewor k so that equiv alent people are stu died and compared. To provid e greater cross- cultural control, a convenience sample of undergraduate business students from three separate countrie s Norway, Ger many and the U.S. was selected (Kassarjian and Robertson, 1981). While e-commerce in each country is welldevelope d, these countries represe nt disti nct national cultures. The U.S. and Norwegi an survey s were administered in English. The Ger man surve y was translated into Ger man and then back- translated to ensure equivalent meaning. Our nal sample included 137 U.S. respondents (54% female), 149 Ger man respondents (51% female), and 484 Norwegi an respondents (30% female). Students were conside red an appropri ate sample given the aims of the research and the fact that student populations are highly familiar with the phenomena of interest (Steve nson, Bruner, and Kumar, 200 0). Calder, Phillips, and Tybout (1981) sugge st that student samples are appropriate for theory building and testing. More recently, Bello, Leung, Radebaugh, Tung, and van Wittelo ostuijn (2009) note that when sophisticated predictio ns based on solid theory are supp orted with a student sample, the results are likely generali zable. All measur es were drawn from prior research and adapted to the Internet shopping conte xt. Items from the TAM question naire (e.g., Davis, 1986, 1989; Venkatesh and Davis, 1996, 200 0) were selected to assess responden t's beliefs, attitudes and intentions toward Internet shopping, specically p erceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), and behavioral intent (BI). The twodim ension, affective- cognitive involve ment construct (Bienstock and Stafford, 2006; Zaichkowsky, 1994) was based on a 10-item, ve-point semant ic differe ntia l scale used in pre viou s Internet resea rch (Stafford and Stern, 200 2). CFA results are presented in Table 1, providing overall model t for the measure ment model as well as composi te reliabilit y, average variance extrac ted and factor loadings for study constructs and items. 4.2. Measure ment invariance Since the vast majori ty of empiric al TAM resear ch has been conducted within the U.S., our rst step was to assure the crosscultural equivalence of the measures across the three countries using multi- group CFA (MGCFA). Without such tests, researchers are unable to reliably assess the extent to which responses from different countries are meaningful. Violations of measurement equivalence assumptions are as threatening to substantive interpretations as an inability to demonstrate adequate reliability and validity. Measurement invariance is typically assessed through a multi-step process wi th the number of s teps employed being a function of study aims (Vandenberg and Lance, 2000). Congural invariance assesses whether the number of factors and observed variables associated with each factor are the same across groups (Horn and McArdle, 1992). Congural invariance is a necessary but not sufcient c ondi tion for establ ishing equ ivalen ce. Met ric invariance assesses whether the strength of the relationship between the observed variables and their underlying

constructs is equivalent across groups (i.e., whether the construct holds the same meaning across groups). If full metric invariance is not satised, partial metric

Table 1 Measurement

model result s . Full Loading t-value 20.38 21.38 19.94 12.00 12.96 24.26 22.28 18.31 21.78 21.78 US Loading 0.78 0.81 0.85 0.75 0.71 0.58 0.70 0.82 0.89 0.78 0.86 0.60 0.85 0.86 0.78 t-value 10.02 10.62 9.19 5.90 7.00 12.08 9.51 6.72 12.30 10.59 Germany Loading 0.74 0.86 0.80 0.85 0.61 0.70 0.79 0.68 0.85 0.76 0.88 0.80 0.86 0.80 0.78 t-value 10.44 9.70 10.23 6.16 6.41 7.49 10.50 9.73 11.25 10.95 Norway Loading 0.70 0.69 0.80 0.67 0.56 0.55 0.64 0.86 0.79 0.78 0.82 0.67 0.78 0.82 0.71 t-value 13.85 15.64 13.48 7.72 8.15 18.86 16.77 14.08 17.93 15.54

PU1 PU2 PU3 PU4 EOU1 EOU2 EOU3 BI1 BI2 AFI1 AFI2 AFI3 CO1 CO2 CO3

0.75 0.75 0.79 0.74 0.61 0.60 0.71 0.83 0.84 0.78 0.84 0.68 0.82 0.76 0.76

Model goodness of t statistics df 80 2 318.19 RMSEA 0.062 SRMR 0.036 NNFI 0.98 CFI 0.98 IFI 0.98
a

80 155.06 0.067 0.050 0.97 0.98 0.98 standardized within group.

80 188.15 0.089 0.058 0.95 0.96 0.96

80 233.73 0.064 0.040 0.97 0.98 0.98

Country-spec ic estimates

should be investigated and loadings that are not invariant should be left unconstrained across countries (Vandenberg and Lance, 2000). If the intent of the study is to investigate theoretical relationships among variables, as in this instance, then partial metric invariance is the minimal required threshold. The factor-ratio test prescribed by Cheung and Rensvold (1999) was used to identify the most appropriate marker variable for each of the ve factor s. For each factor, the loadings of all combin ations of non-marker variables were iteratively constrained equal across all groups. The change in chi-square statistic of the constrained model was compa red to that of a baseline model in which the factor loading of the non-mar ker variable was freely estimat ed across groups. For each factor, the item generati ng the smallest change in chi-square was chosen as the marker variable. Compari sons of altern ative models indicated that items PEOU3, PU4, BI2, CI1 and AI1 were the most appropri ate marker variables for their respective latent factor s; hence, the factor loading for each was xed equal to one in each country. Three sets of two-group models in which factor loadings were free to vary across group s wer e analyze d to determin e congural invariance. For each country pairing, model t statistics suggested that the uncons trained model represen ted a reasonable t to the data. While the chi-square t statistics were all signicant (p b .01), ranging from 391.1 to 421.8 with 240 of freedom, ranges for the other GFI

statistic s provide d ampl e support : ( RMSEA = 0.06 50.079 ; CFI = 0.970.98; IFI = 0.97 0.98; and NNFI = 0.96 0.97). Next, full metric invariance was assessed by constraining all factor loadings to be equal across all country pairings and compari ng resulta nt changes in model t to those from the congural invariance model. Model t did not appear to diminish sign icantly with these restrictio ns for any of the country pairings: ( 2(10) = 18.7 to 27.3, p = .002 to .04; CFI = 0.00 to 0.01; and CAIC = 52.2 to 58.2). These ndings indicate that measure ment equivalence across samples is sufcient to condently test the hypotheses (Table 2). 5. Results Table 3 presents overall goodness of t indices, r values, signicance tests, and standardized path estimates for the nonmoderated structural model. The hypothesized model presents adequate t overall as well as (83 ) 2 wi thin each individual country: = 158.3234.5, RMSEA = 0.062 0.087; CFI = 0.960.98; IFI = 0.960.98; and NNFI = 0.960.97. H1 predicts that the relationsh ip between the perceived ease of use (PEOU) and the behavioral intention (BI) to utilize Internet shopping sites will be signicant across all three samples. Results support this relatio nship in the U.S. sample ( = .35, t = 2.33, p b . 05), but not in the Germ an ( = .11, t = 0.93, p = .46) or Norwegian
2

Table 2 Measurement

invariance

results.
2

df 160 170

RMSEA 0.065 0.065

NNFI 0.97 0.97

CFI 0.98 0.98

IFI 0.98 0.98

CAIC 962.47 910.32

df

CFI

CAIC

USNorway Congural invariance Metric invari ance USNorway Congural invariance

391.08 418.41

27.33

10

0.00

0.00

52.15

343.21

160

0.079

0.96

0.97

0.97

843.58

Metric invari ance German yNorway Congural invariance Metric invari ance

361.91

170

0.079

0.96

0.97

0.97

785.38

18.7

10

0.04

0.00

58.20

421.88 441.37

160 170

0.071 0.069

0.97 0.97

0.98 0.97

0.98 0.97

1007.12 949.27

19.49

10

0.03

0.01

57.85

Table 3 Structural

model results. Full Path Estimate 0.10 0.67 0.34 0.59 0.54 0.18 t-value 2.01 11.49 6.42 10.87 10.86 4.48 0.75 0.35 0.63 US Estimate 0.35 0.44 0.40 0.80 0.48 0.25 0.86 0.64 0.71 83 158.27 0.066 0.051 0.97 0.98 0.98 t-value 2.33 3.24 2.33 7.17 3.00 2.71 Germany Estimate 0.11 0.69 0.32 0.58 0.53 0.06 0.64 0.34 0.58 83 189.48 0.087 0.058 0.96 0.96 0.96 t-value 0.93 4.76 2.98 5.07 5.08 0.64 Norway Estimate 0.05 0.74 0.30 0.52 0.59 0.17 0.78 0.27 0.62 83 234.50 0.062 0.040 0.97 0.98 0.98 t-value 0.74 9.72 4.28 7.09 9.13 3.20

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 2 R for BI 2 R for PEOU 2 R for PU df 2 RMSEA SRMR NNFI CFI IFI

EOUBI PUBI EOUPU COIEOU COIPU AFIBI

83 325.61 0.062 0.037 0.98 0.98 0.98

samples ( = .05, t = 0.74, p = .35). Findings supp ort H1a, which suggests that the relationship between PEOU and BI to use Internet shopping sites will be strongest for the U.S. sample ( 4.89, p b .01).
2 (1 )

and the United States. A number of national culture perspectives are used to develop hypotheses, including Hofstede (1991), Hall (1976),

= 4.51 to

and Schwartz (1994 ). In addition, this study is the rst to link the constructs of cognitive and affective involvement to technology adoptio n. As such, this paper makes a number of key contributions to the literatures related to online consumer behavior, cross-cultur al research, and the TAM.

Findings from all three samples support H2, which predicts a positive relationship between perceived usefulness (PU) and BI (US: =.44, t = 3.24, p b .01; Germany: =.69, t = 4.76, p b .01; Norway: =.74, t = 9.72, p b .01). H2a, which predicts that the strength of this path will be weakest for U.S. consumers, is partially supported. The relationship b etween PU and BI was indeed weaker in the U.S. sample than in Norway (2(1) =4.51, p b .05), but no signicant difference could be identied between the U.S. and Germany ((2 =0.00, p = 0.99). (1) While not hypothesized, researchers also investigated differences between German and Norwegian consumers, nding no signicant difference in path strength ((1) = 1.71, p = 0.19). In accordance with the TAM model, H3 suggests that higher PEOU will strengthen PU of Internet shopping sites for respondents in each sample. Results fully support H3 (US: = .40, t = 2.33, p b .05; Germany: = .32, t = 2.98, p b .01; Norway: = .30, t = 4.28, p b .01). H4 and H5 inspect the role of cognitive involve ment as an antecedent to PEOU and PU of Internet shopping sites, respective ly. As expected, results show a signicant positive association between cognitive involvement and PEOU of Internet shopping across all three samples (US: = .80, t = 7.17, p b .01; Germany: = . 58, t = 5.07, p b .01; Norway: = .52, t = 7.09, p b .01). Similarly, cognitive involve- ment is a signicant predictor of PU of Internet shopping sites across all groups (US: = .48, t = 3.00, p b .01; Germa ny: = .63, t = 5.08, p b .01; Norway: = .59, t = 9.13, p b . 01). Thus, H4 and H5 are upheld. Finally, H6 investiga tes the direct effect of affective involve ment on BI. Findings partially support H6, with a signicant positive association between affective involveme nt and BI for the U.S. sample ( = .25, t = 2.71, p b .05) and the Norw egian sample ( = .17, t = 3.20, p b .01), but not for the German group ( = .06, t = 0.64, p = .52). Thus, the impact of affective involveme nt upon BI relating to online shopping, over and above the inuence of the TAM model anteceden ts, appears to be
2

6.1. Contribu tion to theory

First, in accordance with multi-gr oup measur ement best practice, a thorough assessme nt of measur ement equivale nce was conducted prior to assess ing structural path differences across the three groups.

Results show that the metric invariance holds across pairings of these

conditioned in part upon cultural factors. The implic ations of these ndings are discussed in the following section.

6. Discussion Cleveland et al. (2009) emphasize the importance of applying constructs and theory developed in the U.S. to other countries. In keeping with this sentim ent, this study's ndings offer insight into online shoppi ng anteceden ts and behavior s, pointing to areas of convergen ce and differences across three cultures: Germa ny, Norway

three countries, indicating that the TAM and cognitive/affec tive involveme nt measur es hold very similar meaning across the three cultures. Thus, future researchers investigating these constructs within these countries can more condently draw from prior research to support new theories and make more meaning ful inferences relating to their study ndings. The study also makes a number of key substan tive contributions to theory. H1, H2 and H3 hypothesized that the standard relationshi ps as dened by the TAM (Davis, 1989) would hold in the conte xt of online shopping across all three cultures. While the expected relationsh ips do hold for the U.S. model (PU BI; PEOU BI, PEOU PU), structural differences are apparent in the German and Norwegian sample s. For the German and Norwegian groups, the expected direct relationship between PEOU and BI is not sign icant. Thus, contrary to prior research, the effect of PEOU on BI in these countries is fully mediated by PU. In addition, support for hypothesi zed differences in the strength of the relationshi ps between PEOU BI and PU BI across cultures is found in the data. These results are particularly compelling in light of the fact that all three samples used in the study draw from Western nations. The study's ndings underline the pervasivene ss of cultural inuences upon consumer behavior, even among shoppers from similar countries and using theore tical contexts as univers ally accepted as the TAM. A third scholar ly contribution rests in linking the constru cts of cognitive and affective involvement to the technology adoption process. In support of H4 and H5, study results uphold signi cant direct relationshi ps between cognitive involve ment and PEOU and PU across all three groups. That is, when consume rs from any of the cultures are motivated by utilitarian motive s, they are more prone to view online shopping as easy and useful. Because affect often acts directly in inuencing behavior, H6 predicts a sign icant relationship

between affecti ve involveme nt and BI across all three countries. While this hypoth esis does hold for the US and Norwegian groups, it does not for the German sample. Thus, for German shopper s, utilitarian motivatio ns appear to domin ate online shopping perceptio ns and intention s. 6.2. Contributi on to practice These results also hold a numb er of interesti ng implications for practitione rs with online retailer operations serving these countries. The most signicant difference in online shopping behavior across the three cultures spawns from the relationship between PEOU and BI. As predicted in H1a, the relationship between PEOU and BI is stronger in the U.S. Surprising ly, results failed to support this relatio nship in the Norwegian and German samples. Over and above the presumpti on that PU will be a stronger predictor than PEOU, this nding suggests that Germans and Norweg ians, in general, do not frequent an online retail website simply because it is easy to use. Instead, Germans and Norwegians appear to base their use of online shopping entirely on perceptions that online shopping enables them to accompli sh tasks that cannot be done as effectively in traditional retail settings. For click-and- brick retailers seeking stronger German and Scandina vian sales, this nding is signicant. Manag ers of such stores might ben et from enhancing PU perceptio ns of their websites through broader product selections, exclusive promotion s, and the availabili ty of features that provide easier access to information such as chat-based customer service, and customer reviews and ratings. This does not mean that such stores should make their websites overly complex; PEOU still has a positive inuence on PU in these countries. On the othe r hand , for retailer s seekin g to enhanc e Ame rica n sales, streamlining website design can improve behavior i ntent both directly and indirectly through greater PU. Online retail managers can become easily overwhel med with the number of options available in terms of online store features. As researche rs nd differences in the manner throu gh which cognitive and affective involveme nt inuence shopper behavior, managers sho uld seek to nd the prope r bal ance of thes e involvement dimensi ons when determi ning which features to offer. Given the strong inuence of cognitive i nvolvement upon PU and PEOU, managers can improve perform ance with online shoppers in all three countries by providing pertine nt product features and pricing in a clear, easy- to-read and understan dable format. Given the direct inuence of affecti ve involvement upon behavior al intentions to use online shopping within Norway and the U.S., online retail managers serving these markets can enhance value-ex pressive motivati ons by incorporati ng new features that appeal emotionally or esthetic ally to the customer. Such changes should be considered in terms of culture as well as whether such features serve to diminish perceptions of PU and PEOU held by cognitive ly involved customers. 6.3. Limitations, future research and conclusion Like any research, ndings must be consid ered in light of key limitatio ns. First, this study used a conven ience sample of studen ts in all three countri es, limiting the generalizabili ty of the ndings. Because studen ts are heavy users of the Internet, however, they are often viewed as a reasonable sample for online research. In additi on, for the cross-cult ural purposes of this study, students comprise an equivalent group of respond ents across the three countries. Nonetheless, future research could bolster this study's ndings by utilizing more broadly r epresentative samples. Further, wh ile our study utilized data from three countries, the data was limited to western countries. Future research can build upon this work by examin ing differences in the proposed model across a more diverse set of

alternativ e conceptu alization s of invol vemen t (e.g., situational, endurin g) in the model. Given the continued growth of online comme rce across cultures, this research provides insight into the use of TAM across cultures within the framew ork of online shopping, as well as the importance of cognitive and affecti ve involvement in three different countries. Hence, the study adds knowle dge to three distin ct bodies of existing literature (TAM, involveme nt and cross-cult ural issues), providing a unique contributi on to the business discipli ne.

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