BIOL 2041 Handout 2012 ODonovan PROTOZOA (Chap.

12)

Fall

Protozoa are non-photosynthetic, unicellular eukaryotes. They are known to cause devastating human diseases including malaria (infection of RBCs), leishmaniasis (infection of WBCs) and African sleeping sickness (infection of the nervous system).

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Protozoa are the champions when it comes to unicellular differentiation. Refer to Fig. 12.14 and Table 12.6 in our text. Note Fig 12.15, 12.16, 12.17. They have elaborate organelles such as a cytosome (mouth), cilia (sweep food into mouth; move cell), food vacuoles (digest food), cytoproct (anus-like structure through which undigested food expelled), contractile vacuole (osm. pr. regulator), micronucleus (2N nucleus required for meiosis), macronucleus (polyploid with many sets of chromosomes) and a pellicle (stiff layer of protein fibers or calcium-like or silica-like structures). No cell wall. Protozoa reproduce asexually by fission and budding. Some protozoa, notably Plasmodium, reproduce by schizogony or multiple fission. Each nucleus divides repeatedly and then some cytoplasm gathers around each nucleus to form daughter cells. At times, a giant cell undergoes many fissions without growth, producing many small cells. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation, the fusion of two vegetative cells or by fusion of two specialized cells, call gametocytes. During their life cycle, some protozoa produce cysts which are highly resistant, nongrowing units. Polysaccharide capsules surround the cysts. Protozoa are classified into four groups based on their motility.

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I.

The flagellate protozoa or Mastigophorans move by flagella. [Those who study algae, as we will see, claim that Mastigophora are algae that have lost the ability to photosynthesize]. Most have two flagella, one or both can be anterior (pulling the cell) or posterior (driving the cell). They are covered by an expanded membrane called an undulating membrane that propels the cell by undulating as the flagellum inside moves. Members include Trypanosoma brucei (sleeping sickness), T. cruzi (Chagas disease), Giardia lamblia (dysentery) Trichomonas vaginalis (vaginal and urethral infections) , and Trichonympha (lives in the gut of termites).

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II.

The amoeboid protozoa or Sarcodinas move by pseudopodia (false feet). They are found in marine and fresh waters and in the soil. They are a huge group with all members having the ability to produce pseudopodia at some stage of the life cycle. Pseudopods are organelles of locomotion and feeding. They produce actin, a protein related to muscle protein in animals which aggregates to form microtubules. These microtubules push against the cell membrane causing bulges into which the cytoplasm can stream thereby forming a pseudopod. Members include Entamoeba, Amoeba, Dientamoeba, Iodamoeba, Endolimax (all causing amoeboid dysentery), Naegleria fowleri (a rare fatal form of encephalitis from swimming in infected waters). D. fragilis is found in the human intestine in 4% of humans. It causes a mild diarrhea.

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(c) Giardia lamblia. The trophozoite of this intestinal parasite has eight flagella and two prominent nuclei, giving it a distinctive appearance. (d) The G. lamblia cyst provides protection from the environment before it is ingested by a new host. Drawings of Some Representative Protozoa. (a) Structure of the flagellate. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. (b) The structure of the ameboid protist. Amoeba proteus. (c) Structure of an apicomplexan sporozoite. (d) Structure of the ciliate Paramecium caudatum.

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The foraminiferans and radiolarians are also members of this group. The former are marine amoebae that live on the ocean floor. They produce a loose fitting shell or test to protect themselves [Arcella]. The radiolarians, live in the open sea and also produce fascinating skeletal structures. Of the 40,000 described species of foraminiferans, 90% are fossil. These contributed greatly to massive shell accumulations during the Tertiary period which became limestone beds in Europe, Asia and Africa. The best known foraminiferans are those of the White Cliffs of Dover and the pyramids of Egypt.

III. The ciliate protozoa or Ciliophora move by cilia.

Most have two nuclei, the micronucleus (necessary only for sexual reproduction) is diploid, and the macronucleus is polyploid (several copies of its complement of chromosomes) and directs vegetative growth and cell division. Cells without the micronucleus grow normally but reproduce only asexually. Ciliates like most protozoa prey on bacteria, fungi and other protozoa. Predation is very specific. For example, Didinium nostutum attacks only another species of Paramecium which it swallows whole. This swells its cytosome greatly which prevents the little cannibal from eating for another two hours (a lifetime for a protozoan).

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Many ciliates are associated with animals. The rumen of cows and other chewers-of-the-cud abound with ciliates that digest cellulose for the animal. Only one ciliate, Balantidium coli, is a human pathogen (a severe diarrhea infection of the colon). Members include Paramecium, Vorticella Stentor, Terahymena, Didinium, Balantidium, and Blepharisma IV. The Sporozoa are non-motile. All are parasitic so there is less need to move. This group has elaborate life cycles where they exist as different stages. A trophozoite is the active multiplying vegetative stage. When it is infectious to the animal or human host it is call a sporozoite and when it enters and infects RBCs it is a merozoite. Sometimes as in malaria (Plasmodium) more than one host is involved, human and mosquito (Anopheles). Typically, in the life cycle, schizogony of the merozoites occurs causing the characteristic sudden attacks of shaking chills and high fever in malaria. Members include Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. falciparum, Toxoplasma gondii) (found in cats, dogs, cattle, sheep and humans). test or get that is made of Some Free-Living Sarcodines. (a) An illustration of Arcella, showing theHumansshellthe disease (systemic toxoplasmosis) from of the foraminiferan. Elphidium contamination by cat chitinlike material secreted by the protist. (b) The testeating cysts in infected meat or from cristum (x100). (c) feces. A group of siliceous radiolarian shells. light micrograph (x63).
The Importance of Foraminiferans Of over 40,000 described species of foraminiferans, about 90% are fossil. During the Tertiary period (about 230 million years ago), the foraminiferans contributed massive shell accumulations to geologic formations. They were so abundant that they formed thick deposits, which become uplifted over time and exposed as great beds of limestone in Europe, Asia, Africa. The White Cliffs of Dover, the famous landmark of southern England, are made up almost entirely of foraminiferan shells. The Egyptian pyramids of Gizeh, near Cairo, are built of foraminiferan limestone. Currently, foraminiferans are important aids to geologists in identifying and correlating rock layers as they search for oil-bearing strata. The calcareous shells of abundant planktonic foraminiferans are today settling and accumulating over much of the ocean floor as thick deposits called globigerina ooze limestone of the distant future

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Practical Importance of Diatoms Diatoms have both direct and indirect economic significance for humans. Because diatoms make up most of the phytoplankton of the cooler parts of the ocean, they are most important ultimate source of food for fish and other marine animals in these regions. It is not unusual for 1 liter of seawater to contain almost a million diatoms. When diatoms die, their frustules sink to the bottom. Because the siliceous part of the frustule is not affected by the death of the cell, diatom frustules tend to accumulate at the bottom of aquatic environments. These form deposits of material called diatomaceous earth. This material is used as an active ingredient in many commercial preparations, including detergents, fine abrasive polishes, paint removers, decolorizing and deodorizing oils, and fertilizers. Diatomaceous earth also is used extensively as a filtering agent, as a component in insulating (firebrick) and soundproofing products, and as an additive to paint to increase the night visibility of signs and license plates. The use of diatoms as indicators of water quality and of pollution tolerance is becoming increasingly important. Specific tolerances for given species to various environmental parameters (concentrations of salts, pH, nutrients, nitrogen, temperature) have been compiled. Recently a diatomaceous earth product to control insects, called INSECTO, has been introduced. Insects have their soft body parts exposed but covered by a waxy film to prevent dehydration. When they contact the diatoms in

INSECTO, the silica frustules break the waxy film on the insects, causing them to dehydrate and die. INSECTO is a physical control product to

which insects cannot build up resistance. Yet this product can be fed to poultry, livestock, and pets with no ill effects.