Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Numeracy
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Topic
Set Theory, Venn Diagrams
Functions & Relations
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Representation of Sets
Sets are usually described into two ways.
(i) Tabular form or roster form, in this form, all the elements of the set are
separated by commas and enclosed between the bracket { }.
For example
(a) The set of vowels of English Alphabet as
A = {a, e, i, o, u)
(b) The set of numbers on a clock face is written as
B = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
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(ii) Set builder from: We define a set by stating properties which its
elements must satisfy. For example the set of all even integers.
Then, we use the letters usually x, and we write
A = {x | x is an even integer}
This is to be read as A is a set of numbers x such that x is an even
integer. The vertical line | to be read as such that some times
we use x in place of vertical line.
A = {x : x is an even integer}
eg,
C = {1,w, w2} = {x | x3 1 = 0}
If an object x is an element of a set A, we write x A which is read
as x belong to A and if an object x is not a member of A we write
x A and read as x does not belong to A.
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(ii) Singleton set A set containing only one element is called a singleton for
example, {1}, {4} are singleton sets.
(iii) Equality of sets. The sets A and B are equal if they have same
members that is if every elements of A is an element of B and every
element of B is an element of A, then A = B
eg, if A = { l, 3,5,7} and B = {7, 3, 1, 5}, then A = B
If the two sets are not equal we write A B
Important Formulae
1. A set does not change if its elements, are repeated.
2. A set does not change even if the order of its elements is different.
(iv) Finite and Infinite set. The set which contains a definite number of
elements is called a finite set. The set which contains an infinite number
of elements is called an infinite set.
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(ix)
Power set: Set of all the subsets of a set is called the power set
eg, A = {a, b, c} subsets of A are f, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c,a}, {a, b, c}
Hence, P(A) = [f, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}]
If n is the number of elements of a set A, then the number of subset of A ie,
the number of elements of P (A) = 2n.
(x)
Universal set: If all the sets under consideration are the subsets
of a fixed set U, then U is called the Universal set.
Union of sets
Union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belongs to A or B
(or to both) and is written as
A B (ie, A union B)
The same is defined in set builder form as
A B = {x|x A or x B}
If A
Then,
AB
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= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}
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Then
AB
= {4, 6}
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Venn Diagrams
A simple way of explaining the relation between sets is by a diagram
which is called Venn diagram. In this a set is generally
represented by a circle and its elements by points in the circle.
Case I: A U and B U and A B f
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A B = f and A B = A and B A = B
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A B = B, A B = A and A B = f
Some results from the Venn diagram
(i) n(A B) = n (a) + n(B) n(A B)
(ii) n(A B) = n (a)
+ n(B), when A B = f
(iii) n(A B) + n (A B) = n(A)
(iv) n(B A) + n (A B) = n(A)
(v) n(A B) + n (A B) + n (B A) = n (A B)
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Solution. Suppose E is the set of students who took part in English, His
the set of students who took part in
Hindi, then E n H gives the set of students who took part in both English
and Hindi.
(a)
The number of students who took part in English but not in Hindi
= n(E) = n(E H) = 45 15 = 30
(b)
The number of students who took part in Hindi but not in English
= n(H) n(E H) = 35 15 = 20
(c)The number of students who took part either in English or in Hindi is
n(E H) = n(E) + n(H) n(E H) = 45 + 35 15 = 65
(d) The number of students who took part neither in English nor in Hindi
= n (S) n (T H) = 80 65 = 15
Ordered Pair
If a, b be any two objects, then the pair (a, b) is called the ordered pair.
The object a is called the first coordinate (or first number) and b is
called the second coordinate (or second number) of the ordered pair (a,
b).
1. The ordered pair (a, b) (b, a)
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are said to be equal, if and only if a = c
and b = d.
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Types of Relations
(i) Reflexive: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive for every x
A
(x, x) R
(ii) Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric
if x R y y R x
(x, y) R = (y,x) R
eg, Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2),(1, 3),(3,1)}
Clearly, R is a symmetric relation.
(iii) Transitive Relation: A relation R in a set A is called transitive if x
R y and y R z x R z
eg, Let R be a relation in the real number defined by x less than y then
x < y and y < z = x < z
(iv) Equivalence Relation A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive is a equivalence relation.
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Functions
If each element of a set A is associated with exactly one element in the
set B, then this association is called a function from A to B.
The set A is called the domain and the set B is called the co-domain of
the function.
Consider : A = {1, 2}, and B = (3, 4, 5, 6), then {(1, 4),(2, 5)) is a function
{(1, 4),(2, 5),(2, 6)} is not a function since element 2 in the set A have
two images 5 and 6 in the set B
1. Each element of A must be associated with exactly one element in
the set B.
2. All the elements of the set B need not have the association.
3. The set of elements of B which are associated with the elements of
the set A is called the range of the function.
4. The range is the subset of the co-domain.
Types of Functions
(i) One-one Function (injection): A function f : A B is said to
be a one-one function elements of A have different images in
B ie,
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f(x)
= z x, x {1, 2, 3}
f = {(1, 2),(2, 4),(3, 6)}
(ii)
Many-one Function: A function f : A B is said to be a manyone function if two are n of A have the same images in B.
(iii)
Onto Function: A function f : A B is called an onto function
if every element of B is an image of some elements of A ie, if co-domain
= range.
eg, Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {1, 2, 3}
f = {(a, 3),(b, 2),(c, 2),(d, 1))
(iv)
Into Function: A function f: A B is called an into function if
co-domain range.
Example 3: A is set of prime numbers less than 20, write A in Roster
form.
Solution. Prime numbers Less than 20 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11; 13, 17, 19 set A
in Roster form.
A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
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(a)
aA
(b)
aA
(c)
{a} A (d)
{a} A
Solution.
(a) a A, correct.
(b) Incorrect. The symbol must connect two set it indicates that one
set a subset of other. Therefore,
a A is incorrect since a is a member of A, not a subset.
(c)Incorrect. The symbol a connects an objects to a set. It indicates that
object is a member of the set. Therefore, {a} A is incorrect since {a}
is a subset of A.
(d) Correct.
Example 8: If S be the universal set of English alphabet and let A = {a,
b, c}, then complement of A is
Solution. AC = {d, e, f x, y, z}
Example 9: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, find A B, B A and A
D B.
Solution. A B = {1, 3},
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