Class Material vs Cultural factors for class underachievement Housing Working Class pupils are more likely to experience

ce overcrowding in their households. They may have to share a room for example meaning they will have lack a quiet space to do homework or reading. Those in temporary accommodation also suffer in seeing their education disrupted through consistent moving. Resources Parents are likely to lack to resources which middle class parents will be able to provide; revision guides, textbooks or a tutor. Marxist Ball pointed out the high cost of free school for uniforms, trips, transport, computers, calculators and other essential tools for education which Working Class pupils may have to do without. Language Functionalist Bernstein points out Working Class pupils are likely to be perceived as unintelligent as their language does not reflect the middle class norm. Where as MC children are more likely to elaborate and articulate, elaborated code, WE pupils are likely to use much simper and restrictive language, restricted code. Values WC pupils, through their socialisation, are likely to lack the values which are needed for educational achievement. Hyman calls this the WCs self imposed barrierciting things such as fatalistic attitudes, believing that nothing can be done to change their lot, and immediate gratification as reasons for failure. Feinstein also cites lack of parental interest as largest factor for WC. Schools Gewirtz points out that those Cultural Capital Marxist Bordieu from materially deprived backgrounds argues that WC socialisation lacks the lacking the financial resources of MC values, attitudes and knowledge of MC parents are more likely to send their socialisation, such as an interest in children to the local comprehensive. classical music and current affairs, Materially deprived areas account for giving them a greater intellectual understanding of abstract ideas. Sullivan 90% of all failing schools in the UK. tested Bordieus ideas and found that MC pupils who had more CC did better at GCSE than those who did not. Oxbridge- 40% Private intake but only Culture Keddie argues that there is nothing wrong with the WC but the 7% of children going to private schools. education system is biased towards the middle classes as the dominant culture and isnt flexible enough to incorporate WC values. Thus cultural explanations blame the victim Solution New Right and Functionalists favour to deal with cultural deprivation the creation of compensatory education services such as SureStart being set up in socially deprived areas. They work with young children to help improve their intellectual development to try and avoid inequality. This is essential as WC children are seen as 1.5 years behind MC when they enter the education system.

Class Internal vs External factors Ideal As Becker found working class pupils are likely to be discriminated from the outset due to not matching what she found as the ideal pupil which tended to be MC. Resources and Housing Those from WC backgrounds are likely to live in overcrowded accommodation and lack a quiet space to do educational work. Ball also points out the cost of free school citing computers, calculators, trips and even uniforms which put a massive financial strain on the WC and some have to do without. Schools Materially deprived areas currently house 90% of all failing schools. Gewirtz argued that due to a lack of economic capital those from WC areas are likely to go to the local comprehensive. MC parents who hold more economic capital can transport their children to a school further away or even move in a concept known as selection by mortgage Bordieu Marxist Bordieu argued that WC pupils are likely to lack the attitudes, knowledge and values which the MC pupils have such as an interest in classical music and knowledge of current affairs because of their parents interests and encouragement. This gives Middle Class pupils an advantage in the education system as they will be more able to deal with abstract intellectual ideas. Language WC pupils are more likely to suffer from material deprivation. Functionalist Bernstein argues WC language is unlikely to reflect the middle class norm of the education system and thus they will be perceived as dim and will fail. MC pupils are more likely to elaborate and articulate in their use of language. Bernstein called this the elaborated and restricted code of language. Values Hyman argues that values are the self imposed barrier for WC underachievement. She cites fatalistic attitudes and immediate gratification as reasons. Feinstein cites lack of parental interest, due to their own bad

Exam entry This then goes further to MC pupils being seen as bright and WC lazy or dim based on the behaviour and appearance. This then becomes a self fulfilling prophecy, when a label is placed on a pupil they do not challenge it but believe and reinforce it, as Cicourel and Kitsue found that labels decide level of course pupils were placed on in an American High School. Streaming Because of these labels antischool subcultures are likely to arise which also reinforce underachievement. As Hargreeves found due to failure those in the lower streams would be not take their work seriously and be disruptive in order to gain prestige from other pupils which they failed to achieve through their academic work. Thus time is taken up dealing with them thus those who want to learn fail. Removed Marxist Ball found that when school streams are removed antischool subcultures quickly die out and classes become more focused and beneficial. However, since the 1988 Education Reform Act streaming has taken a larger role in education.

Marketisation . The introduction of open enrolment and the encouragement for schools to compete for pupils, through open days and league tables, has left many WC pupils forced to attend schools that get poor

results as good schools are more likely to be selective or cream skimming as Bartlett put it.

experiences, as the reason for WC failure.

Ethnicity School factors vs Outside Expectations Teachers are more likely to have racialised expectations of pupils through labelling. Gillborn found that male black pupils are more likely to be disciplined as bad behaviour is expected. Wright also found that Asian pupils are thought to be less intelligent then English pupils have a poor grasp of English and girls are ignored from class discussion. Yet many Indian pupils do very well in the education system and Bangladeshi and Pakistani pupils are improving at a rapid rate. Self fulfilling prophecy This is likely to lead to Self fulfilling prophecy where pupils will accept their label and thus fail in the education system. Sewell argues this leads black boys to take up a black macho lad stereotype in antischool subcultures and thus fail. However, Fuller found studying black girls reject negative labels and have anti-school attitudes in having friends with those who reject school values a not contributing in lessons and still achieve. Ethno-Centric Ball argues that ethnic students are marginalised by being forced to learn about British culture and find their own ignored. History for example he claims promotes an attitude of little England focusing on military victories. Coard argues that by teaching of colonisation and of Britain civilising countries it creates poor self esteem in Ethnic pupils. But Indian and Chinese pupils outperform whites in the education system. Marketisation Gilborn argues that ethnic minorities give a school a rough and negative reputation thus the introduction of open enrolment has led to good schools turning down ethnic pupils to protect their reputation and ensure an intake of white middle class pupils. Material Pakistani and Bangladeshi are 3 times more likely to be in poverty than any other group ethnic group in society bring up Balls idea of the cost of free school for resources. 15% of ethnic minorities also live in overcrowed accommodation meaning they may lack a quiet place to perform school work.

Language Those who have English as a second language are likely to be disadvantaged in the education system. Bowker argues this is the biggest barrier to ethnic progress. To counter this services such as SureStart and FE colleges have encouraged free classes to teach English to minorities. Mirza argues that Indians still achieve speaking Indian at home. Family structure Murray argues that high amount of ethnic minorities are lone parent families, 50% in AfroCaribbean community, which means a lack of male role models and thus failure for them. Other New Right sociologists argue the failure to embrace British culture. Lupton states that Indian families do well because of strong adult authority which is similar to that of schools. Racism in society - society still discriminates against those from ethnic backgrounds and are less willing to offer support to them. Noon sent identical letters to top 100 companies asking for job opportunities under the names Patel and Evans. Evans got more replies.

Ethnicity How is school ethnocentric? Ball Ignores other cultures and instead focuss on English achievements portraying an image of little Englishism. English Literature focuss only on English authors and History only tells of British military victories. Hatcher Argues that disagreements between ethnic pupils and racist events In schools are given low priority by school officials. Whereas MC pupils tended to get involved with school officials to discuss their child this rarely happens between officials and ethnic minority families due to language barriers and lack of awareness. Coard Argues that by teaching in Keddie The curriculum and the whole education system only reflects the History that colonisation civilised countries, such as Jamaica and India, it dominant Middle Class culture and is affects the self esteem of ethnic not flexible enough to allow other minority pupils. Stone argues this does cultures to succeed within. not affect Black pupils. Indian pupils do well in the education system. Explain that. Ethnicity Change in policy to help ethnic minorities? Multiculturalism Other the 80s and 90s the curriculum has been changed to focus on other cultures. Poetry in English, for example, now focuses on works from other cultures. History tells of other countries plights and the inequality they have faced from the British such as in India. Compensatory Education Initiatives such as SureStart in socially deprived areas have provided support for ethnic minorities such as homework clubs. Literacy and Numeracy Hours have also been introduced in Primary Schools which is useful for ethnic minorities where English is not the first language. Results Ethnic Minority groups now see their results grouped and monitored to ensure that any worrying trends can be seen and dealt with. EMA Many cite that material reasons such as poverty is the reason for ethnic failure. The introduction, under New Labour, of Educational Maintenance Allowance gave financial support to ethnic minorities and incentives to stay on in education. Faith Schools Another introduction of New Labour was the growth of Faith Schools meaning that parents could send their pupils to schools which are focused more towards their culture such as a Jewish or Muslim school.

Criticisms Keddie says there is nothing wrong with ethnic minorities it is the biased school system. Mirza says they do not go far enough and should focus on cultural and material reasons.

Gender Changes in achievement due to changes in education system Equal ops Changes in the education system such as the introduction of the National Curriculum In 1988 with core subjects for Boys and Girls as well as initiatives such as GIST to get girls into science have accounted for achievement for girls. Boaler states that the creation of a more meritoric education system is the key reason. Expectations Due to the spread of feminist ideas and the greater position of women in society girls expectations and aspirations of education have changed. Sue Sharpe did two studies; one in the 70s which found girls wanting to get married and become homemakers before a career. When she repeated it in the 90s she found careers were now aspired above all else. Role Models Greater influx of female Family Family types have changed. teachers has inspired girls in giving them The rise of Lone Parent families in the a female role model of someone that has United Kingdom, 1 in 4 90% headed by achieved. Sewell, however, argues that women, provide a positive role model for this has been negative for boys and has girls seeing their mother have to support her family and go out to work. However, led to education having a female emphasis. the lack of a role model for boys has had a negative effect. Murray discusses how this leads ethnic minority pupils to form anti-school subcultures. Coursework It is argued that the Literacy There is a mass gender gap surrounding male and female literacy. introduction of coursework has This is thought to be because during benefitted girls as it plays to the typically female strengths of socialisation girls are more likely to be organisation and planning which it is read stories by their mothers. Boys, argued is taught in socialisation. Boys, however, are not. Thus they associate however, are taught more to take risks the activity with women. Boys are also and as such tend to perform better in expected to spent leisure time outside exam conditions. Because of girls or on computers where as girls are advantage coursework is being removed expected to stay at home reading or from many subjects. talk with friends which will enhance their intellectual skills. Selection Marketisation policies such as Industry Especially for the Working open enrolment have allowed good Class males. The decline of traditional schools to be pickier in their intakes. industry and the less need for manual Jackson argues this has meant boys skills has led to less boys having an have been left out as they give schools a incentive in school. If they know they do rough reputation and can cost more for not have a job to go to whats the point? behaviour issues. Thus schools appeal to girls. Class Is a crucial factor. Although all boys vs all girls leads to girls doing better it shouldnt be forgotten that on the most part middle class boys and girls achieve equally in the education system as McVeigh points out.

Gender How is the education system geared towards girls? Feminised - Sewell argues that education has become feminised. He feels that boys traits such as competitiveness and risk taking which are still encouraged in socialisation are discouraged in the education system whereas girls traits such as systematic learning, planning and tidiness are rewarded and encouraged. Coursework Socialisation within the home encourages girls tidiness and planning skills (as discussed) thus they tend to do better in coursework. Boys, however, are encouraged to take greater risk perform better under exam conditions. This has been recognised and is being removed from many subjects. Role Models The lack of male primary school teachers means that from a young age boys lack appropriate educational role models. This can mean that boys see education as feminine and reject its values. Marketisation Jackson argues that the policy of open enrolment has allowed good school to become selective and discriminate against boys who portray a rough reputation and cost more in behavioural costs. Subjects Thomas argues that education is still discouraging girls. Her research found that girls are put off studying the sciences as they feel it will challenge their gender identity. According to Thomas women feel they can either be women or physicist and not both. Male Gaze Feminists argue that through the male gaze where men objectify female pupils as sexual objects they are disadvantaged. This puts girls off studying male subjects, such as computing, as they feel that being in the minority will increase this. Peer pressure The fear of being teased in certain subjects such as PE puts girls off doing subjects which are not considered female. Dewar found that girls risked being called dykes if they had an open interest in sport. In allgirls schools girls are more likely to do traditionally male subjects. Class McVeigh argues that class and home factors dictate how a pupil experiences the education system and are the overriding factor in achievement.

To what extent are different genders likely to pick different subjects? Hidden curriculum Oakley argues that subject choice comes down to early gender socialisation. Whereas girls are more likely to be read to when they are young this creates a gender association thus girls are more likely to study English than boys. Boys on the other hand are more likely to be encouraged to take risks and experiment and are thus more likely to choose the sciences. Gender identity Thomas argues that this gender division means that girls feel that by taking the sciences, which are seen as male, this questions their gender identity. Thomas states they women feel they can either by a physicist or woman and not both. Peer pressure Subject choice is also determined by peer pressure. Dewer found that girls are put off doing subjects associated with sports as they will end up being labelled dykes. However, this does not occur in all-girls schools. Similarly, boys may be put off studying subjects such as Health and Social Care or Theatre studies at the risk of being branded gay. Gendered careers Especially true of vocational education courses which are focused on the students planned career path. Whereas plumbing and building is gendered to men hairdressing and nursing is gendered to girls. Liberal Feminists Cite that girls do better in all subjects at GCSE including Maths and Computing. There are also more women at universities in the United Kingdom.

Francis asking girls about their career aspirations and found many had high aspirations and most girls wished to do not traditionally female jobs such as being scientists. This links with Sue Sharpes study of changing aspirations. Parsons Argues that education is meritoric and allows a pupils gender, ethnic background and class to be left at home as it does not matter once a pupil enters the school gates. Thus gender differences in education subject are purely down to the individual.

Policy Effect of Marketisation Choice the 1988 Education Reform Act created, as David puts it, Parentocracy putting parents in control of choosing how their child gets educated and not the state this led to a diverse selection of schools such as grammar schools and grant maintained schools, outside of local authority control, which were able to select and teach in any manner they wished. Open enrolment also put the parent at the forefront. Pupils were no longer forced to go to their local comprehensive and were able to shop around for the best school that suits their needs. This forced schools to produce prospectuss and open days in order to encourage the best pupils to apply to them. Choice? - Many grammar schools and GMS required pupils to pass entrance exams in order to gain admission. A system which had been eradicated in 1965 with the introduction of the comprehensive system was returned. Ball cites this as the myth of meritocracy.

League Tables The publication of school league tables meant that parents could tell which schools were good schools and which schools were bad schools this promoted efficiency as it forced those schools doing badly to either improve or suffer from a lower intake or less desirable pupils.

League Tables By making the public aware of good and bad schools it allowed MC parents with the economic and cultural capital to make greater efforts to make sure their children went to the best school, either by transport or moving to the catchment area of a good school known as selection by mortgage, whereas those with less economic and cultural capital are stuck with the cream-skimmed, according to Bartlett, comprehensive system. Formula Funding Rewarding schools who do well does not promote efficiency. It only widens the gap of inequality. Whereas good schools, typically in MC areas, did well each year and made more and more money bad schools had more and more funding losses every year meaning they cannot afford to improve their results like the good schools, which are already doing well!, can.

Formula Funding worked by paying schools a set amount for each pupil they take. This applied rules of the business market to schools; good schools, who received the most applications, were able to profit and provide high quality resources whereas bad schools had to work harder to drive up results.

Policy New Labour reduced inequality and increased diversity NEETS Encouraged young people to remain in education through the introduction of EMA which paid up to 30 a week to fund the Working Classes in education post 16.They also put in proposals to changed the school leaving age up to 18 by 2015 to target youth unemployment. New Deal was set up for those under 24 in long term unemployment to get them in to work or training. Inner Cities Set up SureStart and Excellence in Cities centres in socially deprived areas to target those suffering from material deprivation, which is meant to be WC 1.5 years behind MC when they start school, and offered classes to intellectual stimulate very young children, homework clubs, Saturday schools and Easter revision courses. They also offered English lessons for those with English as a second language. Numlit Introduced Numeracy and Literacy Hours in to the Primary School curriculum which benefitted those who were not being intellectual engaged at home and particularly those who do not have English as their first language. Diversity Encouraged diversity through the growth of Faith Schools, specialist schools and academies in failing areas. This allowed for greater choice for different types of education in the Post Modernist ideology, as Kenneth argues, not one size fits all education. Whitty Whitty argues that New Labours policies were ascetic and in reality promoted inequality and not equality. EMA may have been introduced but so were tuition fees. In Labours defence the Torries have just shot up tuition fees and cut EMA and thus even greater increasing inequality.

Grammar//Private New Labour maintained the existence of Grammar Schools which use entrance exams and continue to maintain inequality. Private Schools also encourage inequality as although the fees can be paid by upper and middle class parents they are out of reach of the working class parents.

Curriculum Although Labour promoted diversity in some areas they encouraged and fully supported the National Curriculum which is restrictive to schools in the subjects they teach. Formula Funding They maintained Formula Funding which rewards schools filled with middle class pupils whilst punishing schools for catering for the socially deprived and thus increasing inequality.

Perspectives on education Functionalist influence Solidarity Durkeim argues that one of the key roles education performs in to install a sense of social solidarity in to young people in order to commit them to wider society. It achieves this via teaching the countrys heritage through history. School also achieves this by acting as a microcosm of society in forcing co-operation with many different groups. Meritoric Parsons argues that school provides meritocracy by offering equal opportunities and allows pupils to leave their class, gender and ethnicity at home. He argues this as achieved as all students are judged in the same way through examination thus everyone has an equal chance of achievement. Myth Marxist Bowls and Gintis argue that the idea of meritocracy is a myth in stating that everyone has an equal chance of achieving in the education system. They argue this ignores class inequalities and is used to justify Working Class Failure as seen in their Poor Are Dumb Theory. Brainwashes Marxist Althussier argues that Social Solidarity is part of the ideological state apparatus to project the ideology of the ruling class and forcing the working class to accept their exploitation. In History by teaching of British elite like Henry the 8th without focusing on the social inequality experienced by the regular people in the past. In doing this WC are expected to accepted their position in society. Radical Feminist Argue that the education system prepares women for their future exploitation from men. Instead of preparing them for work from the hidden curriculum they are encouraged for their future domestic roles as Lobban found studying childrens books where most women were subordinate The education system is also far from meritoric as girls are forced out of studying certain subjects which are seen as male, such as physics, as it questions their gender identity, as Thomas found, and even if they overcome that as they will be in the minority victims of the Male Gaze where men objectify women as sexual objects.

Prepares for Work Davis and Moore argue that education through examinations performs a function of role allocation to make sure that everyone takes up a role that they are suited to. Inequality is thus essential so that the most appropriate people fill the top positions in society. If it didnt exist then someone who should be at McDonalds could be a pilot!

Perspectives on education Purpose of Education is Social Solidarity Durkeim Argues that by teaching the countries heritage through history it gives pupils a sense of shared commitment to their wider society. Functionalists Argue that other essential roles are provided by the education system. David and Moore argue that through putting pupils through examinations a process of role allocation takes place to ensure that pupils get jobs most suited to their abilities. Marxists Also argue that a process of role allocation occurs. However, they do not take the positive view the Functionalists do. Bowls and Gintis argue that education corresponds work for WC pupils by forcing them to perform mundane tasks such as dictation and sums and demanding respect for adult authority without question that they will face from their bosses in the future. Marxists Argue in Bowls and Gintis Poor Are Dumb theory that by portraying that education is meritoric and ignoring class inequalities it justifies working class failure by making individuals believe that failure is their own fault. Feminists Argue that education maintains patriarchy through the hidden curriculum. Lobban found that books promote women in domestic roles and Thomas found that girls are put off doing sciences as they feel it questions their gender identity.

Durkeim Also argues that by forcing pupils to co-operate with others who may not be friends or family they are further being prepared for life in greater society.

Parsons Argues that education works as a half way house between the family and wider society and teaches the essential norms and values needed in order to survive in society. He argues that this is taught the same to everyone as education is meritoric so everyone has a chance to shape their future society. Marxist Althusser argues that social solidarity does happen in education but it is done in order to maintain the ruling class ideology. By teaching history of the elite and not focusing on the inequality to the regular people of the past the WC are forced to accept that the system is fair. Althusser argues that this is part of the Ideological State Apparatus.

Perspectives on education Prepares for Work Role Allocation Davis and Moore argue that education performs a process of role allocation through holding examinations and ensures that everyone ends up doing the job that they are most suited to. Inequality is good because it means the most capable are at the top of society. Meritoric Parsons argues that as education allows pupils to leave their class, ethnicity and gender at home it means that everyone has equal chance get allocated a top role in society in their working life. It also makes sure that no one is left out. Marxist Bowls and Gintis argue that by forcing WC pupils to do mundane tasks such as sums and dictation education corresponds to the mundane manual labour they will be expected to perform in future. They also argue that in being forced to respect adult authority without question they are prepared for future exploitation from their bosses. Solidarity Durkeim argues that education functions as social solidarity. By teaching pupils of a shared cultural heritage in subjects like History it commits pupils to the wider society.

Althusser Argues that this does take place but only to support the Ideological State Apparatus. By teaching history pupils learn of Kings and Queens and not the suffering of the WC and thus accept their position as fair. Marxist Bowls and Gintis argue that education portrays a myth of meritocracy which allows it to blame WC failure on the individual in their Poor are Dumb theory. In doing so people accept exploitation and dont question the ruling classes.

Feminists Through the hidden curriculum education works to make sure women dont want to work. Lobban states that books show women as domestic. Thomas states that as sciences are gendered women are put off doing them.

Perspectives on education Marxism influence Althusser Argues that education is essential to the Ideological State Apparatus. By teaching of Kings and Queens it teaches WC pupils that the system is fair and their position is unquestionable. Willis Argues that WC rebel against the Ruling Class System in his study of The Lads. They would play-up and not cooperate with teachers as they knew their fate supporting the capitalist system and instead of rejecting it they championed manual work and saw academic work as boring, sissy and undesirable. Here we can see how Marxists have conflicting views on education Bowls and Gintis Argue that education Feminists like McDonald argue that prepares the working class for their education supports patriarchy and boring jobs support the ruling classes. Marxism fails to recognise this Dictation and sums mirror the manual inequality. This can be seen in the Male labour they will have to perform. Respect Gaze. for adult authority without question also mirrors what they will have to do to their future bosses. Justifies Bowls and Gintis also argue Post Modernists Argue that Marxism is OUTDATED and reflects a Fordist world that education works to justify WC where manual work was the norm for the failure by stating that education is meritoric and ignoring class factors WC WC. Now we live in a Post-Fordist pupils accept their failure and dont work which needs specific skills such as question the ruling system. ICT and communication skills and the education system reflects that. However, one could argue that Tesco and McDonalds is manual work? Parsons Argues that education is meritoric. Davis and Moore argue that role allocation is essential to make sure the right people do the right jobs.

Perspectives on Education - Labelling Theory most important Ideal Becker found that teachers are more likely to describe their ideal pupil as one that is middle class. This puts labels on MC pupils as bright and more dangerously WC pupils as dumb. Self Fulfilling Prophecy This judgement on behaviour and appearance can go along way. Cicourel and Kitsue found that because of this tutors would decide what level pupils would be able to study. This can mean that pupils may be put in to lower streams of schools and thus perform a self-forfiling prophecy Streaming Hargreeves found that those in lower streams would form anti-school subcultures in order to gain the prestige they lacked from academic achievement. This means a great amount of time is spent to deal with disruptions and those who want to learn simply cant. When removed Ball found that when streams are removed pupils are more likely to behaviour calmly and subcultures quickly disappear with results on the up. But streaming is still here to stay. Not all Fullers study of Black Girls found that even those that are labelled negatively can still achieve. They simply reject and ignore the label they are given. Cultural Capital Bordieu argues that WC pupils are likely to lack the attitudes, values and knowledge of the MC pupils, such as current affairs or classical music, which puts Middle Class pupils at an instant advantage in the education system. Bernstein found that WC pupils are also likely to be let down by their language not fitting in with the MC norm. Attitudes Hyman argues that WC attitudes work as a self imposed barrier to achievement. She cites things such as fatalism and immediate gratification as evidence for this. Material Less likely to have space to do school work, be able to afford resources Balls cost of free school and go to their local comprehensive Gewirtz of which failing schools are 90% in materially deprived areas

Perspectives on Education New Right contribution Autonomy The New Right believe that the state should not be in control of schools and that they need autonomy and the power to teach as they wish efficiently in order to get the best out of their pupils. This was seen in the introduction of GMS and Grammar Schools in 1988 and in 2010 the introduction of free schools. Marketisation Schools funding should rely on the amount of pupils they intake Formula Funding thus they need to be able to attract as many pupils as possible. This is seen through school prospectuses and open days. They argue that the state has a role to play in producing league tables and inspection of school standards eg ofsted. Althusser Argues that cultural heritage in education is done to support the Ideological State Apparatus. History merely shows us the behaviour of Kings and Queens and shows pupils that hierarchy is normal and unchangeable.

Marketisation Gets rid of any meritocracy in education and breeds inequality in, as Bartlett put it, creamskimming the best pupils from comprehensive schools and thus making them worse. They also shift difficult or disabled pupils to comprehensive schools as they are expensive to deal with. Formula Funding rewards only good schools and keeps those who need the funds down. Economy New Right feel that the state Vocationalism Cohen states that New fails to provide workers suited to the Vocationalism only gives the Working genuine needs of the economy. The rise Class low-skilled jobs and careers and of New Vocationalism, under Thatcher, does little to improve their social status. attempted to deal with this by offering Buswell argues that girls are pushed in NVQs in practical trades which were to gender stereotypical roles such as lacking such as Plumbing and Health hairdressing or retail. and Social Care. These exist today as BTECHs and Applied A-Levels. Culture Education should teach pupils a Choice and autonomy Gewirtz argues shared cultural heritage of the countries only benefits MC parents and pupils cultural, military and social achievements who are able to exploit the greater to make sure the next generation are choice. Those who are materially committed to their culture. deprived dont have the economic or cultural capital to navigate the greater choice end up sending their children to the local comprehensive. 90% of failing schools are in materially deprived areas.

Perspectives on Education Post Modernism Post Fordism We no longer live in a society where the WC are forced in to manual work. Work is now more likely to rely on human capital and take place small companies in small markets. Thus education needs to provide skills to suit this such communication and ICT skills. Flexible Education now needs to teach flexible skills as people are no longer staying in one job for life and education has to reflect this. Thus general skills need to be taught which will be appropriate for a number of different tasks. Learning also cannot just end at school and needs to be lifelong to retrain people for society. An example of this would be training the elderly computer skills. Diversity They are against curriculums and one type of school. People now live different and diverse lifestyle which have different needs thus a one size fits all education is no longer appropriate. This is reflected in New Labours policies of faith schools and specialist schools. Criticisms Males and female still do traditional roles. Working Class are likely to have low skilled jobs and not improve on their social position. Most people still go to comprehensives. Lifestyles are not as diverse as Postmodernists would like us to think.

Resource Methods Questionnaires Easy to distribute in large numbers. They are also cheap and quick if the researcher has a short amount of time to conduct their research. Representative They can be distributed to a representative sample of society. Postal Questionaires can be sent anywhere in the country and be generalised allowing for trends to be picked up. This is what Positivists like. Quantatative Positivists like this. It can easily be turned into statistics. It can also be easily repeated. This gives them a high amount of reliability. Low Response Rate Around 30% end up getting returned. The effects how representative they are which is bad for Positivists. Those who do respond are likely to be different from the greater population. Thus skews the data. Not Representative They dont allow for some groups to fill them in. Children cant. Certain ethnic groups cant and they can easily be misinterpreted meaning your results arent accurate. Lack validity They are very shallow and only reflect responses to the researchers preplanned questions that might not be the respondents true view just the one that most represents them. Even in open-ended questionnaires people do not respond with detailed information. Interpretivists claim this.

Postal questionnaires Representative They can be distributed to a representative sample of society. They are easily to be distributed across the UK and can identify trends This is what Positivists like. Reliable They can be easily turned in to statistics and can easily be repeated. Anonymous They never meet the researcher thus are more likely to answer truthfully getting rid of the interviewer effect and the need to answer in a socially desirable manor. Helping Validity Anonymous Research doesnt know if respondent is giving socially desirable responses.

Circumstance If they filled it in by themselves or not or if they cared Misunderstanding // not taking research seriously can easily skew results if there are issues. But pilot studies should deal with this. Lacking validity. And bad for Positivists.

Questionaires given out Higher response rate More representative. Reliability. Any misunderstandings can be dealed with Validity. Peers May influence participants choice. May not be taken seriously if within a school setting.

Participant Observation Validity Provides a lot of qualitative data. Allows for sociologists to find a large amount of information without having to ask any questions through body language and behaviour. This makes it highly valid and preferred by Interpretivists. Natural Allows sociologists to witness participants in their natural environment. This allows the researcher to get a true picture of a specific group. As Lord Humphreys said on his research on homosexual activities in public toilets the only way to truly relate to someone is to be in the same mess they are. Deviant Groups Allows Sociologists to get access to difficult social groups. It is hard to imagine Patrick being able to get in to the Glasgow gang with a clipboard. Flexible - No need for hypothesis. No questions need to be asked. Information can just materialise itself to the researched. Ethical Covert allows for ethical issues. Participants are being deceived and what if they conduct in illegal behaviour?

Observer Effect May not actually be behaving naturally. But this may pass in time as they gain the researchers trust and may take him/her for granted.

Snapshot The researcher will only ever get a snapshot of the groups behaviour. It is far from reliable or repeatable data and it cant be generalised. Positivists dont like this.

Non Participant observation Reliable Can record how much time is spent with male pupils as opposed to female pupils for example. Creating Quantitative data. Which is good for Positivists. Valid Can observe people in their natural setting and thus gain a large amount of valid data and a true picture of participants behaviour. Flexible Needs no hypothesis. Needs no questions. Answers and points of interest can just appear to the sociologist. Deviant Groups Can be monitored when it would usually be difficult to monitor. Misunderstanding Lacking validity. It is from a distance the sociologist cannot be sure if they know what is going on. Lacks validity.Skew results. Lacks reliability. Ethical Participants dont know they are being watched. Could be a problem getting permission to perform in a school. Observer effect If they know they are being observed this will affect results. Thus lack validity.

Structured Interviews Standardised everyone gets asked the same thing. Answers can be generalised, compared depending on social group and trends and patterns can be seen. Positivists like this. Control Researcher will find out just what they set out to find as they maintain control throughout Reliable Can easily be repeated as it is standardised. This makes it favoured by Positivists. It can also be used for statistics easily. This is a clear advantage over Unstructured Lacks validity answers are shallow. Respondents are restricted and cannot respond with further points. Interpretivists dont favour this. Interviewer effect No rapport can be gained like in Unstructured Interviews. This means participants may respond in the way they think the interview wants. Skewing results. Bad for Positivists. Social desirability as researcher is forced to remain neutral in the situation.

Representative Due to being time consuming unlikely to include much of the population. Thus not representative. Bad for Positivists. Unstructured Interviews Rapport can be gained. So participants act more naturally and more truthfully then they normally would do. Giving it validity. Validity Allows researchers to get a true picture of peoples feelings, opinions and attitudes. Flexible Interviewees can raise points of interest to discuss and interview can ask more questions. Researchers can possibly find out more than they set out to. Preferred by Interpretivists. Non Hierarchal Feminists dont like Interviews because they treat women as isolated. Unstructed ones allow them to discuss how they may be oppressed. Unreliable They are difficult to repeat as each is unique. Bad for Positivists. Qualitative Hard to turn in to quantitative data. How does a researcher shift through hours of dialog? You cant make generalisations or identify trends clearly! Time consuming Unlikely that the sociologist will be able to conduct a large number of interviews. Not representative.

Group Interviews Safety in Numbers Participants may not feel intimidated and thus unlikely to be effected by the interview effect. This may encourage more fuller answers allowing a true picture and greater validity. Preferred by Interpretivists. Devient Groups May be willing to be interviewed as a group but not individually. An example of this would be Anti-School subcultures. Control Usually lack control and are more likely to be informal and unstructured.

Reliable Lacks reliability because it is hard to repeat. A one off. Also, how do you generalise or turn in to quantitative data? Positivists dont like it. Non Valid Certain members of the group are likely to dominate discussion with certain members taking the lead and quieter members simply agreeing in order not to create conflict.

Research Methods Lab Experiments Control Sociologist has complete control of the situation. No unknown variables that would be difficult to deal with. Reliability They can easily be repeated as they are in an isolated environment. Positivists like this. Scientific They allow for precise, objective and quantitative data to be found out. Tests can be done in a scientific way and get scientific results. Establishing social facts. Unnatural The environment is unnatural thus it is unlikely that that the behaviour being seen will be natural. This effects validity. Interpretivists are against this. Expensive and time consuming meaning it is hard to conduct many of these experiments in order to make it representative. Positivists dont like this. Cant establish social facts in an unsocial environment. It also can be unethical and could never be used in education.

Field experiments Natural Take place in the real world which allows for accurate results to be found of peoples actual behaviour. This gives a true picture and thus Interpretivists favour this. Flexible Can be used in order to gain high in validity qualitative data or quantitative data for reliability. This means that both Positivists and Interpretivists favour this method. No Control Allows for whole new meanings and understandings to be found out. No set hypothesis is needed a question and answer can just appear. Ethical issues People are being deceived in their natural environment.

No control Hard to control the variables of situations in the real world. Anything could happen to interrupt experiment. This can skew results. One off They are hard to repeat and hard to get qualitative data from, due to the risk of variables, this is bad for Positivists who may prefer a more controlled environment such as Lab experiments. Hollow Only observe. You dont get to ask questions. Bad for true meaning. Bad for Interpretivists. Positivists claim it is just assumptions..So bad for them too.

Research Methods Official Statistics Hard Stats = Death Rate, Birth Rate etc Soft Stats = Unemployment, Crime etc. Easy To access. Usually free. Cover many different areas of social life. Hollow Statistics are just numbers and do not give true meanings. Interpretivists dont like them. Representative categorise and show a Not accurate They can easily be wrong, representative sample of people in the effecting validity, Marxists argue that UK. The Census for example. Good for government statistics, like unemployment Positivists and crime, are changed so they look better and maintain the Ruling Classes. Crime also has a lot of variables. This means they lack validity. Quantitative Allow for trends to be seen Mistakes Can easily be made by people in the population. They can be compared who fill in forms or admin staff who and are easily repeatable. Good for compile them. Even in Hard statistics this Positivists. can occour. NOT VALID. Research Methods Public Documents Easy and cheap to get hold of. Usually government//Charity//Business and will provide both qualitative and quantitative data which is good for both Positivists and Interpetivists. Validity- Provide detailed information with reflections which are likely to be accurate. Thus they are valid. Representative Trends can be identified between similar documents and their take on events. Lack Validity They have been made with a bias. They thus are likely to lack proper validity as they have beenrose tinted. Bad all round.

Research Methods Personal Documents Valid Interpretivists like these because they are full of valid data giving true opinions and incite. Hard to find They are personal documents thus they are hard to get hold of. The writer may have thought that they may one day be published Anne Frank etc thus this effects the light they show themselves in and effects validity. Not representative especially with old ones. They do not show the opinions of the illiterate population and only show

Honest Likely to be trustworthy as they were not made with publication in mind. This is good for validity.

the opinions of those who are more able. This affects their reliability and representativeness. Positivists dont like this they cant generalise. Research Methods Content Analysis Flexible Can be used to collect either quantitative or qualitative data. The former, a sociologist may look for social groups associated with certain types of media stories. Latter, a sociologist may look at the amount of time something is given. Good all around Valid Allows a proper insight in to social behaviour and the messages of the mass media towards certain groups and events. This is good for Interpretivists. Repeatable Can be checked for trends and turned in to statistical data. This can make it representative and reliable. Good for Positivists. Reliability You are only taking one person or organisations view and are not getting the view of the population. This affects validity as it is subjective. It is also not representative of the population. Affecting its reliability. Hollow Statistical data collected will be hollow and will not explain the reasons for the amount of time donated to certain groups etc but more that what the researcher seeks to find out does exist. Bad for validity and.

Research Methods Case Studies Initial ideas Can obtain initial ideas and research questions about a particular group which can be used later in a larger survey. Validity Because the focus is on one group it is likely to a large amount of meaningful information will be found which will give an accurate picture of the individuals situation. This is good for validity. Interpretivists favour. Flexible Because it is in-depth on one group allowing for a large amount of information to be collected hypotheses and questions do not need to be formulated. Ideas can appear throughout the study. Too small Can not be claimed to be representative. Because they just simply arent. Positivists dont like them. Representativeness Thus you cannot see trends or patterns in society or anything. So they lack a clear purpose on their own.

Research Methods Longitudinal Studies

Not just a snapshot Unlike Questionnaires of Interviews which only show the opinion right there and then allow for real opinions and meaning to be developed over time. Such as Seven Up repeated every 7 years which has gone on for more than 50 years. Valid Because of this it is able to provide a large amount of valid data.

Expensive It takes a lot of money and a lot of time and travelling. People may move across the world!

Trends It allows for trends in the population to be identified. One time the study takes place can be entirely different to the next. This is good for Positivists.

Drop out rate Tends to be very high. Meaning that the sample is not as representative as it once was. In a study on education the non-successful participants may no longer wish to participate this means the sample remaining are not representative. This effects validity and representativeness. Bad all round. This is called Sample attrition. Sample size Is likely to be small and unlikely to be representative of the entire population. Thus Positivists dont really see the point.

Research Methods What might affect choice of topic? Personal Interest Feminists for example. Study Womens Rights because interests them. Teachers may be interest in aspects of the education system they wish to study. Flavour of the month Feminism, Racism and Poverty have all had heydeys where a number of studies have been done about them. It is likely to that important social issues at the time will be studied due to public interest. Funding Many Sociologists research is determined by those willing to fund it. Businesses may wish them to study a commercial issue. The government, for example, is making some research dependent that they study the idea of the Big Society. This is something which Sociologists will have a big influence in. Practical Issues It is hard for a man to gain access to a maternity ward to study the womens feelings of childbirth. Similarly it would be hard for a woman to study a group of football hooligans or male anti-school cultures. Knowledge gaps Something which has not been studied in detail before may inspire a Sociologist to try and plug the gap in the market. Just like business. Research Methods What Practical Issues can materialise? Large scale It would be hard to do interviews to test the link between social class and educational failure in the UK as you would need a big sample which would take time. Thus Questionnaires are likely. Deviant groups Unlikely to respond to things such as questionnaires or requests for interviews. They may prefer participant observation like the Glasgow gang did in Patricks research. Time and money Can effect the type of research a sociologist would do. Interviews, Observation and Longitudinal studies take a long time and are very expensive. If they are doing research for a university they are likely to have a budget and time frame. Funding Sociologists are likely to be sponsored by either the government or universities or commercial companies. This will affect the type of research. Many want quantitative data for example as it appears scientific and can be comparable.

Research Methods What Ethical issues can arise?

According to BSA need informed consent from respondents before performing research. Thus participant observation covertly and some field experiments ethically challenging. Studies have to ensure respondents privacy. Especially if researching a deviant group as any information could lead them to trouble with the law.

Research Methods What Theoretical issues? Positivists likely to do research which is representative and can be repeated so they look like scientists. Lad experiments, interviews, questionnaires

Interpretivists are unlikely to do this and are more likely to do research with observation or unstructured interviews or even field experiments to get a truer picture of events. Feminists are likely to do research which focuses on womens rights. Marxists with class conflict and New Right with attacking state intervention.