ST.

XAVIERS COLLEGE
MAITIGHAR, KATHMANDU

DIGITAL LOGIC ASSIGNMENT 1

SUBMITTED BY: NAME: SABIN CHALISE KUMAR YADAV CLASS: BIM 1 ROLL NO: 43 COLLEGE
ST

SUBMITTED TO: ER. SANJAY

SEMESTER SECTION B

IT DEPARTMENT ST. XAVIERS

DIGITAL COMPUTER AND DIGITAL SYSTEM

REGISTERS, COUNTERS AND MEMORY UNIT

REGISTERS:
A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU (central processing unit) in order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to commonly used values. Registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and are the fastest way for the system to manipulate data. Below them are several levels of cache memory, at least some of which is also built into the CPU and some of which might be on other, dedicated chips. Cache memory is slower than registers but much more abundant. Below the various levels of cache is the main memory, which is even slower but vastly more abundant (e.g., hundreds of megabytes as compared with only 32 registers). But it, in turn, is still far faster and much less capacious than storage devices and media (e.g., hard disk drives and CDROMs). Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an 8-bit register or a 32-bit register. The x86 (i.e., Intel-compatible) instruction set defines a set of eight 32-bit registers. Registers can also be classified into general purpose and special purpose types. The former serve as temporary holding places for data that is being manipulated by the CPU. That is, they hold the inputs to the arithmetic/logic circuitry and store the results produced by that circuitry. Special purpose registers store internal CPU data, such as the program counter (also termed instruction pointer), stack pointer and status register. Program counters contain the address of the next instruction to be executed. Instruction registers hold the instruction being executed by the CPU, address registers hold memory

addresses and are used to access memory, and data registers are used to store integers.

COUNTERS:
A group on flip-flops can be connected together to perform counting operations. Such a group of flip-flops is a counter. They are special purpose arithmetic circuits used for the purpose of counting. Counter circuits server many purposes like counting occurrences of certain events, generating timing intervals for controlling various tasks in a digital system and tracking elapsed time between events. Counters are classified into two categories according to the way they are clocked. They are Asynchronous Counters and Synchronous Counters. In asynchronous counters, commonly known as ripple counters, the first flip-flop is clocked by the external pulse and then each successive flip-flop is clocked by the output of the preceding flip-flop. This counter is called asynchronous because not all flip flops are hooked to the same clock. This form of counter is slow because of the cascaded clocking scheme. In synchronous counters, the clock input is connected to all of the flip-flops so that they are clocked simultaneously. It differs from the asynchronous counters in that the count pulses input is connected to the clock inputs of all flip-flops. This counter is advantageous than ripple counter in terms of speed of operation.

MEMORY UNIT:

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND IC DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES

READ-ONLYMEMORY (ROM)
A ROM contains permanently or semi permanently stored data, which can be used to read from the memory but either cannot be changed at all or cannot be changed without specialized equipment. A ROM stored data that are used repeatedly in system applications, such as tables, conversions, or programmed instructions for system initialization and operations. They are type of a programmable logic devices. ROMs retain stored data when the power is off and are therefore non-volatile in nature. There are four types of ROM: 1. 2. 3. 4. Mask ROM Programmable ROM (PROM) Erasable PROM (EPROM) Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)

MASK ROM:
The mask ROM is usually referred as ROM. It is permanently programmed during the manufacturing process to provide widely used standard functions, such as popular conversions, or to provide user-specified functions. Once the memory is programmed, it cannot be changed.

PROGRAMMABLE ROM (PROM):

Programmable ROM (PROM) is basically the same as mask ROM once they have been programmed. The difference is that PROM comes from the manufacturer

without being programmed and are custom programmed in the field to meet the users need.

ERASABLE PROM (EPROM):

Unlike ordinary PROM, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if an existing program in the memory array is erased first. It can be erased by an exposure to highly intensive ultraviolet radiation for several minutes ranging to hour.

ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROM (EEPROM):

Electrically Erasable PROMs can be both erased and programmed with electrical pulses. Since it can be both electrically written into and electrically erased, the EEPROM can be rapidly programmed and erased in-circuit for reprogramming.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC ARRAY (PLA)

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS TECHNIQUES

The devices used in digital circuits generally operate in one of the two unites, known as HIGH and LOW resulting in a very simple operation. There are only a few basic operations in digital circuits which are very easy to understand. Digital techniques require Boolean algebra which is very simple and can easily be learnt. Digital circuits require basic concepts of electric network analysis which can easily be learnt. The principal electrical characteristics required are switching speed and loading considerations. On the other hand, analog circuits and systems involve frequency and time domain concepts, complicated circuit analysis techniques, etc. which make the understanding of these circuits much more difficult than the digital circuits. A large number of IC's are available for performing various operations. These are highly reliable, accurate, and small in size and the speed of operation is very high. A numbers of programmable IC's are also available. The effect of fluctuations in the characteristics of the components, ageing of components, temperature and noise etc. is very small in digital circuits.

 Digital circuits have capability of memory which makes these circuits highly suitable for computers, calculators, watches, telephones etc. The display of data and other information is very convenient, accurate and elegant using digital techniques.

It is a very fascinating and challenging field of study because most of the latest electronics systems are digital in nature.

Hence, in conclusion Digital Electronic Techniques are easy to understand and use, provide accurate data, have high speed of operation, programmable operations, less affected by noise, have easily available circuits and are the most popular in the current market.