Learning

Learning as a topic of study is very important both from the general sense as well as the psychological sense Learning is important for adaptation we need to modify our behaviour potential as a function of experience so that mistakes are not repeated Learning therefore is a fundamental process What is Learning ? A change in Behaviour A change that takes place through Practice or Experience The change must be Relatively Permanent Ability to modify behaviour as a result of experience Distinguishing learning from other changes in behaviour Learning is to be distinguished from temporary behaviour changes due to altered body conditions (fatigue, disease, impact of drugs) Learning should also be distinguished from some permanent changes - Irreparable damage such as brain damage, loss of limb or sense organ

- Changes due to maturation (part of normal biological development and do not depend on specific experiences) - Biologically determined sequences or patterns of growth relatively free of the environment Two phenomena that involve permanent change in behaviour are so simple that they are generally not classified as learning

1. Habituation: Decrease in responsiveness to a particular stimulus as a result of repeated occurrences 2. Imprinting: A primitive form of behaviour change. Rapid learning of a species specific behaviour (response to a stimulus at a early critical age) not all animals imprint Learning vs. Performance How does one determine whether learning has occurred?

- Relatively permanent change - A question asked in class: those who answer have learnt? - Sometimes learning occurs but is not observable Thus learning and performance are closely related but are still distinct Theories of Learning Conditioning - Classical Conditioning (Pavlov); Trial and error learning (Thorndike); Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Cognitive Approach Learning through Cognitive maps; Latent learning (Tolman), Insight learning (Kohler) Social Learning Bandura, Rotter Behaviourism Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviours Focuses solely on observable behaviours A biological basis for learning Learning is context-independent Classical & Operant Conditioning Reflexes (Pavlovs Dogs) Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinners Pigeon Box)

Classical Conditioning Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) The Stimulus Response Theory The Experiment The Case of Little Albert J. B. Watson (1878-1958) Explanations of Classical Conditioning Stimulus Substitution Theory-

An association or a bond is formed between the CS and US so that the CS becomes the equivalent of the US in eliciting a response Information and Expectation

The CS becomes a signal for the US ; when CS is presented , the US is expected Important Concepts Extinction Presentation of CS by itself Occurs when CS is presented alone /without the US for number of trials

Excitation and Inhibition The two opposite tendencies; excitatory tendency has its upper hand during acquisition Inhibitory tendency becomes functional during extinction [suppress the conditioned response ]

Spontaneous recovery After an interval of time, an increase in the strength of a conditioned response which has undergone extinction

Stimulus Generalization A tendency to react to stimuli that are different from , but somewhat similar to , a conditioned stimulus

Discrimination Make one response to one stimulus and different/no response to other srimulus Instrumental/Operant Conditioning Learning in which reinforcement is contingent on a particular response B.F .Skinners (1904-1990) experiment with Rat and Pigeon The analysis of behaviour by Skinner Skinners Experiment Important Concepts

Reinforcement / Reinforcers The presentation /termination of a stimulus or event which, when made contingent on the occurrence of a certain response, makes that response more likely to occur in the future Positive reinforcer & Negative reinforcer Escape Learning Important Concepts

Punishers An unpleasant stimulus which , when its presentation is made contingent on a particular response , tends to decrease the likelihood of that response

Punishment The application of an unpleasant stimulus to suppress an unwanted behaviour

Important Concepts Shaping Teaching a desired response through a series of successive steps

Schedules of positive reinforcement A situation in which reinforcement does not follow every response. Instead, reinforcements follow certain responses according to the specified plan The ABC of Operant Conditioning

The analysis of behaviour requires an accurate but neutral representation of the relationship (or contingencies) between the following Antecedents : the stimulus conditions , such as the lever, the click of food dispenser , a light that may go on when the lever is pressed Behaviour: or operants, such as pressing the lever Consequences : result of the operant behaviour; reinforcement/ punishment Stimulus Generalization In Operant Conditioning

The response made in a particular stimulus situation If the stimulus is changed the response still occurs

The tendency to respond depends upon the degree of similarity between the original training situation and the changed one Avoidance Learning To make a particular response to a warning signal in order to avoid unpleasant stimulus E.L. Thorndikes Puzzle Box The Experiment with Cat Use of Mazes The Cognitive Approach

Grew in response to Behaviorism Foundation in Gestalt School Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection Input Process Output model Cognitive Learning

A change in the way information is processed as a result of experience a person or animal has had New associations have been formed and stored in the memory for future use Learning through Cognitive map, Latent learning, Insight learning and Imitation Tolmans Purposive Behaviourism

Developed by E. C. Tolman in 1930s-1940s

Concept of Mental Map Latent Learning Learning occurs covertly Not evident in behaviour until later when conditions for its appearance are favourable

Occur without reinforcement of particular responses and seems to involve changes in the ways information is processed Insight Learning

Involve perceptual reorganization The solution comes suddenly after a period during which little progress is made Wolfgang Khler The Mentality of Apes (1925) Experiments with Chimpanzees Social Learning Theory

Foundation in Cognitivism A. Bandura (1973) Learning takes place through observation Imitation & Modeling