1

Y12
APPLIED
SCIENCE

ECOLOGY
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INDEX

ECOLOGY.....................................................................................................................4
ADAPTATIONS.............................................................................................................6
1.STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS.......................................................................6
2.BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS.....................................................................6
3.PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS.................................................................6
COMPETITION.......................................................................................................12
HABITAT.................................................................................................................12
ENERGY......................................................................................................................15
TROPHIC LEVELS.................................................................................................15
QUESTIONS........................................................................................................17
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS.................................................................................18
SYMBIOSIS.........................................................................................................18
COMMENSALISM.............................................................................................18
PARASITISM.......................................................................................................18
SOME PARASITE EXAMPLES.........................................................................19
PREDATION........................................................................................................20
PATTERNS IN A COMMUNITY............................................................................21
1.ZONATION.......................................................................................................21
2.STRATIFICATION...........................................................................................22
3.SUCCESSION..................................................................................................23
POPULATIONS.......................................................................................................24
FIELD WORK ............................................................................................................26
TASK 1 – EXAMINING THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT............................32
TASK 2: SAMPLING THE BUGS..........................................................................36
TASK 3: PROCESSING AND INTERPRETING THE DATA..............................38
US21610 – COLLECT, AND USE COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TO STORE AND
PROCESS, NUMERIC DATA FOR A SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE................................41
GLOSSARY………………………………………………………………………….41
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BY THE END OF THIS TOPIC I WILL

At the end of this unit

I kind of understand this

I really don’t understand

I really understand this

properlyI don’t think I understand

I sometimes understand
I WILL

Understand the terms ecology, environment, habitat, niche

and ecosystem
Be able to explain that an adaptation is a feature that an
organism has that enables it to survive in its environment
Understand trophic levels and state why each is important
Define community, population, abiotic and biotic
Be able to define and give examples of feeding
relationships
Construct food chains and a food web and understand
energy flow through a community
Compare habitats of organisms in your area
Investigate patters within a community such as
succession, stratification, zonation and diversity.
Understand why certain species dominate an area
Know how to use a transect and quadrats to collect data.
Conduct a field study looking at diversity patterns and
write a report.
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ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of organisms in their home.

We need to understand how organisms interact with other organisms, their

surroundings, the weather, pollution etc.

In this unit of work we are going to study ecosystems.

An ecosystem is a study of biological communities of plants and animals and how

they interact with their physical environment.

The Ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things in a specified area that
influence each other.

The Community consists of all the living species in one area.

The Population consists of one species in the community, that are able to interbreed.

So although we are studying the biological communities within an area, we really

need to look at the ecosystem as a whole, because other things affect where species
live and why.

We are going to be looking at a number of ecosystems and studying why certain

species live in certain areas. To do this we need to look at their adaptations, their
feeding relationships and their environment.
 5 ECOSYSTEM

Environment

COMMUNITY

Biosphere Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere

Population

Earth’s
Biomes Climate Oceans
structure

Organism
Tectonic
Zones Weather Plates Seas

Structure of Rock
Habitats Lakes
atmosphere Cycle

Rivers

HOW IT ALL FITS

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ADAPTATIONS
Living things do not live all by themselves, with food provided and a warm bed to
curl up in at night all free of charge. All living things have to fight for their right to
survive. Many species have adapted to their environment in a specific way, which
allows them to have an advantage over would be competitors.

1. STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS
These are adaptations that the organism has made to its structure to help it
survive.
Example
Spines on gorse bushes prevent it being eaten.
The large fleshy water logged cactus trunks enable it to survive very arid
conditions.

2. BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS
These are adaptations that an organism has made in its behaviour to help it
survive.
Example
Rabbits only come out at night as there is less chance of being seen and eaten.
Deer run away hearing an unexpected noise, to avoid being caught by
predators.
Sunflowers follow the sun to gain maximum sunlight for photosynthesis

3. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
These are adaptations that an organism has made in the workings of its body to
help it survive.
Example
Flowers produce nectar to attract insects for pollination.
Humans produce enzymes to help absorb food more quickly.

Species that have similar adaptations will be suited to similar habitats. This leads to
competition between species. Unless the species have slightly different niches
(jobs).

On the next page are some pictures of animals in their natural habitats. Use books or
the internet to:
 State what adaptations these animals have to help them survive in their
environments.
 Determine whether these adaptations are structural, behavioural or
physiological.
 State the niche that the animal occupies.
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NZ’s Blue Heron

Kiwi

PekaPeka (Short Tailed bat)

Pingao (NZ Dune

Grass)

Kakapo
Tuatara
This page for your findings.
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Here are two animals that occupy the same bush habitat. How do they avoid
competing with each other for food, shelter etc?

And
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Your teacher will now take you to look at two species. You are to identify the
adaptations, habitat and niche of each. You are also to try and imagine what else
could affect the life of your species. You will report back to your class, with a power
point or poster presentation, showing the similarities and differences between your
two species.

Species 1

Type of Adaptation
Function the
Organism must be Structural Behavioural Physiological
able to carry out

Obtain food

Exchange gases

Move

Sense Surroundings

Excrete Wastes

Reproduce

Protect itself from

predators and the
environment
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Species 2

Type of Adaptation
Function the
Organism must be Structural Behavioural Physiological
able to carry out

Obtain food

Exchange gases

Move

Sense Surroundings

Excrete Wastes

Reproduce

Protect itself from

predators and the
environment

Similarities

Differences
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COMPETITION

Plants and animals will die, if they are not well adapted to their environment. How
could a fish possibly survive on land? It is however, well adapted to its watery
environment.

Animals and plants compete with each other for resources such as food, light, water
and space. The organism that is best adapted for the environment will be the one that
survives.

Competition occurs when two or more organisms are trying to obtain something that
is in short supply. As a result of competition an organism may reproduce / grow much
more slowly or even die.

Plants may compete for Animals may compete for

• Light • Food
• Water • Space
• Minerals • Nesting sites
• Nutrients • Territories
• Carbon dioxide • Mates
• Pollinators • Water
• Germination sites

HABITAT

By analogy,

it may be said that the habitat is the organism's "address", and the niche is its
"profession", biologically speaking.

EXAMPLE

Oak trees live in oak woodlands; that's common sense. The oak woodland is the
habitat. So if you were writing a letter to an oak tree you would address the letter to:

Sir Deciduous Oak Tree,

The Oak Forest,
England,
U.K.

What do oak trees do? If you can answer that question you know the oak trees
"profession" or its ecological niche. Perhaps you think that oak trees just stand there
looking pretty and not doing vey much, but think about it.
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Oak trees:

1. absorb sunlight by photosynthesis;

2. absorb water and mineral salts from the soil;
3. provide shelter for many animals and other plants;
4. act as a support for creeping plants;
5. serve as a source of food for animals;
6. cover the ground with their dead leaves in the autumn.

These six things are the "profession" or ecological niche of the oak tree; you can think
of it as being a kind of job description. If the oak trees were cut down or destroyed by
fire or storms they would no longer be doing their job and this would have a
disastrous effect on all the other organisms living in the same habitat.

The habitat of an organism is affected by various conditions, which can make the
habitat suitable for one organism, but not another.

Factors which affect a habitat can be divided into BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC factors.
Biotic means biological factors and Abiotic means non-biological facors, or physical
factors.
Biotic Factors Abiotic Factors
 Predators  Light Intensity
 Parasites  Temperature
 Food supply  Humidity
 Human interference  Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
 Competition levels
 Exposure
 Wave action
 Soil/water pH
 Rainfall
 Wind
 Soil type
 Salinity
Organisms in different habitats are affected by different factors.

Example: Some of the environmental factors that could affect a fish are:

Wave action
Food supply
Parasites

Human activities
Dissolved gases

Predators Salinity

pH Pollution
Temperature
Competition
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Now look at the picture below and fill in some of the environmental factors that could
affect these organisms.

Environmental Factors: that could affect this cute bunny are…..

Environmental Factors: That could affect this pretty flower are……..

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ENERGY
The sun supplies energy to all life on Earth. However, animals have no means of
harnessing this energy for their bodies. Plants on the other hand carry out
photosynthesis and can convert the sun’s energy into carbohydrates, which they store
in their leaves, fruits and tubers. Animals can then access this energy by eating plants.

Thus as plants are the only organisms able to manufacture food from the sun’s energy
they are called PRODUCERS all other organisms are CONSUMERS. Consumers
can not manufacture their own food and need to eat for energy. The position of an
organism on a food chain is called its trophic level. Energy from the sun is passed
along in a food chain. Most commonly numerous food chains are linked together in a
food web.

There is a limit to the number of trophic levels in a food chain/web. This is because
only about 10% of the energy consumed is passed along. Most of the energy that is
consumed is used for life processes, in particular heating. Thus as you move up
through a food chain/web there are less organisms able to be supported.

TROPHIC LEVELS

Each step or trophic level (trophic = feeding) in a food chain is given a name.
Producer, herbivore, carnivore and decomposer are common names, but there are
other names that can be used for each position in a food chain.

An organism may belong to more than one feeding level, depending on what
particular food chain (within a complex food web) that you are looking at.

2nd Trophic 3rd Trophic 4th Trophic 5th Trophic

1st Trophic Level Level Level Level
Level
1o Consumer 2o Consumer 3o Consumer 4o Consumer
Producer
Herbivore 1o Carnivore 2o Carnivore 3o Carnivore
Producer

Rock Oyster Dark Rock

Oysters Borer Shell

Animal
Plankton

humans
Mussels
Plant
Plankton

Shrimps Starfish
Mullet
(small fish)

Kahawai
Seagull
(large fish)
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In food webs and chains the arrow points in the direction of energy flow.

QUESTIONS
1. Who eats the Daphnia?

2. Who is eaten by the frog?

3. List the producers

4. Draw two food chains of at least 3 trophic levels.

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FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

In a community there are many relationships, both between members of the sam
species (intraspecific relationships) and between members of different species
(interspecific relationships). Many relationships result in both organisms benefiting.
They may gain mates, space, shelter or food. Other relationships such as parasitism
result only in one organism benefiting whilst the other may be harmed or unaffected.

Feeding Organism Organism Example

Relationship A B
Symbiosis Beneficial Beneficial Root nodules on
(Mutualism) legume plants
Commensalism Beneficial Not Affected Sucker fish on a
shark
Parasitism Beneficial Harmful Flea on a dog

Predation Beneficial Harmful Cat with a mouse

SYMBIOSIS

Often called MUTUALISM. Quite often in this kind of relationship it will be found
that neither organism can live without the other. A common example is the nitrogen
fixing bacteria that live in the root nodules of legumes. The plant gets a source of
nitrogen, whilst the bacteria get a place to live and also obtain sugars from the plant.

Another example is the cow and the bacteria that live in their stomachs. The bacteria
break down the cellulose in the plant cell walls so that the energy can be released.
The cow gets to use the energy and again the bacteria have food and a place to live.

COMMENSALISM
This is a term used to describe the type of relationship where only one of the two
organisms gains any benefit, yet no harm comes to the second.

e.g Sharksuckers and sharks. The sharksucker benefits by saving energy from
limiting its swimming and obtaining food scraps when its host is feeding.

PARASITISM
These are organisms that are especially adapted to live on or in a host. They live off
their host and usually cause it harm. There are two types.

1. Endoparasites - live inside their host e.g tapeworm in dogs.

2. Ectoparasites – live on the outside of the host. E.g. fleas on a cat.

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SOME PARASITE EXAMPLES

TAPEWORM – an endoparasite

The tapeworm is a flatworm whose main host is the dog. It lives in the dog’s intestine
and causes fluid filled cysts containing tapeworm eggs to form around major organs.
It can also be contracted by humans from eggs in a dog’s fur and causes mild to
serious abdominal pain, in serious cases can result in a need for liver transplants.

ADAPTATIONS
1. No digestive system – just a thin body to absorb the food that has already been
digested by the host.
2. No eyes as it has no need for them.
3. A double row of hooks and four suckers to hold on through all sorts of
intestinal motions.
4. A mucus covering to protect against the host animal’s digestive juices.
5. A large number of eggs are produced because a lot are lost in the transfer
between hosts.
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THE FLEA – an ectoparasite

This parasite survives by sucking blood from birds and mammals.

ADAPTATIONS

1. Flat sides to make movement between feathers and hairs easy.

2. Large hind legs to make jumping from host to host eash.
3. No wings – these could get caught in hair or feathers.
4. Piercing mouthparts to break the skin.
5. Salivary glands that secrete a juice to prevent blood clotting.
6. A tough exoskeleton
7. Claws at the end of each leg to prevent dislodgement.

PREDATION
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PATTERNS IN A COMMUNITY
In your community you should have noticed patterns. Two of these can be seen easily
and one not so easily.

1. ZONATION

This is the distribution pattern that occurs along the ground due to different biotic and
abiotic conditions. Examples can be seen on sand dunes or at a beach, where different
organisms occupy the zones of low tide, mid tide and high tide.

The organisms are suited / adapted to their particular habitat and thus show definite
zones of preference. They usually cannot tolerate the variety of habitats in the area
and thus do not show a range of distribuitions.
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2.
S TRATIFIC
A TION

This is a distribution
pattern on a vertical
scale rather than
along the ground.

In the top
canopy
there are a
number of trees that have made it up to where the sun is. Plants living below this
level have special adaptations to enable them to survive in the area such as large
leaves to increase the surface area for sunlight absorption.
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3. SUCCESSION

This is a pattern that can really only be seen over time. Good examples are where an
area has been burned or cleared. The first plants to appear may be grasses or clover.
They can grow easily on poor soil and create a micro-climate. As they fertilise the
soil the second generation of plants can then develop. These may be bracken and
gorse, both of which provide shelter for the slower growing native plants.

Eventually a state is reached where the community does not change from year to year.
It is then a stable or climax community. What plants are in the climax community is
largely determined by the climate and soil of the area.
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POPULATIONS

If a few individuals enter an unoccupied area, and assuming that there are plenty of
resources, they will begin to reproduce.

The population will grow exponentially and this represents the maximum growth rate
of a population.

The absence of predators and competition means that there is no environmental

resistance to population growth. If the growth of the population was to continue at an
exponential rate, eventually there would be overcrowding, and lack of resources.

This is prevented from happening by environmental resistance. The environment

becomes saturated with this particular species reaching its full carrying capacity.
When this point is reached the birth and death rates exactly balance each other.

Environmental resistance possibilities are:

1. Shortage of food, water or oxygen

2. Lack of light
3. Predators
4. Lack of shelter
5. Disease
6. Toxic waste accumulation
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FIELD WORK
You are required to conduct a study of a steam in the Piha region.

To be a good fieldworker you need to.

 Be aware of your surroundings
 Take plenty of accurate data
 Be very observant

You also need to take care not to upset the natural balance of the area. When you are
out in the field the point of the exercise is to see the populations, relationships and
patterns the way they are naturally.

You are to be studying two communities that show a pattern due to abiotic and biotic
influences. You will be studying two different stream communities.

Communities are composed of a number of populations in a defined area. For

example you could study a rosebush community, or look at a back yard community.
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 28

In your first practice study you are going to look at a rosebush community.

1. What other varieties of plants are close by your rose bush?

2. Roughly sketch the area around your rose bush, (up to about 10m in diameter)

3. Is the bush in full sun, partial sun or full shade?

4. Are there any factors that may shade the bush from wind, rain etc?

5. Is the plant cared for? Has it been pruned? Has it been sprayed lately?
 29

6. If your rose bush is really big, chose one branch. Before starting your ‘count’,
observe the bush for visiting insects and count and identify them. Count and
identify all the organisms that you find on the bush and around the base.

Type of Bug No of Bugs % of Total Number of

Bugs
Monarch Butterfly

Earwig

Thrush

Praying mantis

Scale insect

Robin

Caterpillar

Spider

Lacewing

Aphid

Mosquito

Ladybird

Ant

Snail

Slater

Earthworm

Fly

Bee

% of Ants = Number of Ants x 100

Total number of bugs

Now draw a bar graph of your findings.

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 31

Now write a couple of paragraphs describing the community on your bush and how it
may have been affected by biotic and abiotic factors. Include in your discussion an
explanation of how the different species are adapted to their habitats.
 32

A STUDY TO COMPARE TWO SEASHORE COMMUNITIES

In this investigation you are to collect information from a seashore community and
compare it to information about a different seashore community.

Task 1 and 2 need to be completed in the field whilst tasks 3 and 4 need to be carried
out individually in the classroom.

TASK 1 – EXAMINING THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

PART A: SKETCH MAP FOR COMMUNITY 1 - ROCKY

On your sketch indicate

 An approx scale
 The sample site
 Vegetation around the site
 Large boulders
 Areas of slow and fast moving water
 Any plants
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PART B: COASTAL SURVEY FOR COMMUNITY 1 - ROCKY

Eastern End Cornwallis

 What plants are present, close to, the shore?

Trees = mainly Pohutakawa
Grass
 Name the dominant plant for the following

Trees/shrubs ______Pohutakawa_____________

Ground cover________Grass_______________

 Do the plants help prevent erosion of the shoreline?

Yes the grass holds the shoreline in place. And the
pohutakawas help in this.

 Is the shore in shade at all during the day?

The beach is, from the trees.
The shore is only in late afternoon after 4pm, due to the cliffs
a bit further along.

 What is the bottom of the seabed like? Rock

 What is the land immediately before the shoreline used for? Recreational
activites and some fishing from the rocks

 Has the foreshore been altered by humans at all?

Vegetation cleared for the grass and pohutakawas.

Some rubbish from human access
Road about 100m away.
Lots of fishing being carried out.
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PART A: SKETCH MAP FOR COMMUNITY 2 - OPEN

On your sketch indicate

 An approx scale
 The sample site
 Vegetation around the site
 Large boulders
 Areas of slow and fast moving water
 Any plants
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PART B: COASTAL SURVEY FOR COMMUNITY 2 - Open

Central City

 What plants are present, close to, the shore?

 Name the dominant plant for the following

Trees/shrubs ______ _____________

Ground cover________ _______________

 Do the plants help prevent erosion of the shoreline?

.

 Is the shore in shade at all during the day?

 What is the bottom of the seabed like?

 What is the land immediately before the shoreline used for

 Has the foreshore been altered by humans at all?

PART C: ABIOTIC FACTORS FOR COMMUNITIES

COMMUNITY 1 – ROCKY

Date 22nd Jan 2009 Time of Sampling 3pm

Trial Water Clarity Temperature pH Time for Tennis

Reading (oC) ball to come back
(m) to shore from 10m
1 0.20 20 7.2 30s
2 0.30 19.5 7.1 20s
3 0.25 20 7.2 20s
Average
 36

COMMUNITY 2 – OPEN

Date Time of Sampling

Trial Water Clarity Temperature pH Time for Tennis

Reading (oC) ball to come back
(m) to shore from 10m
1

Average

TASK 2: SAMPLING THE BUGS

Carry out a biological survey of the range and number of the “bugs” for one
community by catching and sorting as many bugs as possible from your sampling site.

 Identify the different tidal zones as closely as possible.

 Chose 3 – 5 sampling sites across the range of tidal zones.
 At each site look for visual evidence of ‘bugs’ and record.
 Use a net to sweep your sampling site, scraping rocks, and disturbing the
bottom.
 Empty the net into a tray and allow to settle.
 Use the identification sheet to group the bugs into the trays provided.
 Record the number of bugs from each of your sampling sites and add them
together.
 Calculate the percentage for each bug.

% hermit crab = number of hermit crabs found x 100

Total number of bugs

Your identification charts are supplied separately to your booklet. (This is to

avoid you dropping your notes in the ocean and waving goodbye to them as
they sail to Australia.)
 37

Rocky Shore Sandy Shore

Type of Bug No of % Bugs Type of Bug No. % Bugs
Bugs Bugs
Barnacle 256
Periwinkle 18

Limpet 32

Sea lettuce 19

Chiton 2

Cockabully 49

Venus necklace 71

Sea anemone 17

Cats eye 75

Mussel 354

Kina 20

Starfish 4

Whelk 15

Sandhopper 20

Cockle 2

Tuatua 0

Toheroa 0

Snapper 0

Paddle crab 1

Sponge 42

Kelp 96
 38

TASK 3: PROCESSING AND INTERPRETING THE DATA

PART A: USING THE STREAM ENVIRONMENTAL DATA FROM TASK 1

For community 1 and 2, process the data for each environmental factor.

To do this use the invormation from task 1 to complete the following.

1. Water Clarity – calculate the average clarity reacing.

2. Temperature – calculate the average temperature for each community.
3. pH – calculate the average pH for each community.
4. Wave drift speed – calculate the average speed of the water using the formula
below.

Average Speed = Distance travelled (m) x correction factor

Average time (s)

(Correction factor for tennis ball is 0.8)

5. Substrate – record the substrate use for each community from your stream
survey.
6. Land use – record the land use for each community from your stream survey.
7. Comment on the differences and similarities for each environmental factor.
(write one of these words in the differences column: Same, Similar, Different,
Very different)

Environmental Factor Community 1 Community 2 Differences or

Rocky Open similarities
Water Clarity (m)

Temperature (oC)

pH

Wave drift speed (ms-1)

Substrate

Land use

PART B: USING THE ‘BUGS’ DATA FROM TASK 2

1. Using the information from the table in task 2, draw a bar graph on the
grid overleaf to show the types and percentage of each bug found in
community 1.
2. Draw the data from community 2 onto the same set of axes using a
different colour.
 39 % of
Total
Bugs

Type of bug

TASK 4: DESCRIBING AND COMPARING THE DIVERSITY BETWEEN

TWO COMMUNITIES

PART A: Describing the diversity within the two communities.

Write two or three short paragraphs to describe the4 two communities and the pattern
of diversity shown.

In the paragraphs you should comment specifically on

 Similarities and differences of the types and numbers of the bugs.
 40

PART B: Discussing the diversity within the two communities.

Write two or three paragraphs to discuss the reasons for the similarities and
differences between the diversity of the two communities.

This discussion should include.

 A description of how the abiotic factors affect the bugs.
 An explanation of how the biotic factors affect the bugs.
 An analysis of how the land use around the stream affects the water quality and
the diversity within the area.
 An explanation of the adaptive features of the bugs, that allow them to live in their
environment.
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4 CREDITS LEVEL 2

US21610 – COLLECT, AND USE COMPUTER

TECHNOLOGY TO STORE AND PROCESS,
NUMERIC DATA FOR A SCIENTIFIC
PURPOSE
Your will use the data collected during your field trip to gain unit standard US21610.
Please follow the instructions below.

Element 1

 Record your ‘bug’ data as you collect it by hand.

 Transfer your collected ‘bug’ data to the computer.

Element 2

 “Tidy up” your data so that it can be used to make a bar graph, to compare the
two communities that were surveyed.
 Import the pH data from the data logger, and present as a graph, and calculate
an average.

Presentation of your data:

Your data will need to be submitted twice.

1. Submit your data with your fieldwork, ensuring that it is clearly labelled
and referred to in your write up.
2. Submit your work again with this sheet as a cover sheet. You need to
include:
 The raw data that you collected by hand
 A print out of the data you entered onto the computer
 A print out of your tidied up data
 A print out of your bar graph.
 A print out of the imported pH data
 A print out of the pH graph and average.

YOUR NAME____________________________________________

YOUR CLASS___________________________________________

DATE COMPLETED_____________________________________

RESULT
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