Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N.

Unidad Guadalajara

Control Robusto Descentralizado por Modos Deslizantes de Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia Multimquinas
Tesis que presenta: Hctor Huerta Avila para obtener el grado de: Doctor en Ciencias en la especialidad de: Ingeniera Elctrica Directores de Tesis: Dr. Alexander Georgievich Loukianov Dr. Jos Manuel Caedo Castaeda

Guadalajara, Jalisco, Septiembre de 2008.

Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad Guadalajara

Decentralized Sliding Mode Robust Control of Multimachine Electric Power Systems

A thesis presented by: Hctor Huerta Avila to obtain the degree of: Doctor of Science in the subject of: Electrical Engineering Thesis Advisors: Dr. Alexander Georgievich Loukianov Dr. Jos Manuel Caedo Castaeda
Guadalajara, Jalisco, September, 2008.

Control Robusto Descentralizado por Modos Deslizantes de Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia Multimquinas

Tesis de Doctorado en Ciencias Ingeniera Elctrica

Por: Hctor Huerta Avila Maestro en Ciencias en Ingeniera Elctrica Centro de Investigacin y Estudios Avanzados del IPN Unidad Guadalajara, 2003-2005

Becario de CONACYT, expediente No. 182855

Directores de Tesis: Dr. Alexander Georgievich Loukianov Dr. Jos Manuel Caedo Castaeda

CINVESTAV del IPN, Unidad Guadalajara, Septiembre de 2008.

Decentralized Sliding Mode Robust Control of Multimachine Electric Power Systems

Doctor of Science Thesis In Electrical Engineering

By: Hctor Huerta Avila Master of Science in Electrical Engineering Centro de Investigacin y Estudios Avanzados del IPN Unidad Guadalajara, 2003-2005

Scholarship granted by CONACYT, No. 182855

Thesis Advisors: Dr. Alexander Georgievich Loukianov Dr. Jos Manuel Caedo Castaeda

CINVESTAV del IPN, Unidad Guadalajara, September, 2008.

Resumen
Este trabajo est dedicado al diseo de esquemas de control robustos descentralizados que sean capaces de responder satisfactoriamente en sistemas elctricos de potencia multimquinas. Estos sistemas estn sujetos a perturbaciones de diferentes tipos, como cortos circuitos, entrada y salida de lneas, de cargas o de generadores. Es evidente la necesidad de controladores que puedan rechazar estas perturbaciones, para proveer energa de calidad y sin interrupciones a todos los usuarios conectados a la red elctrica. El controlador debe ser robusto ante variaciones paramtricas, que se pueden presentar por incertidumbre en los modelos, envejecimiento de los componentes de los generadores y algunas otras causas fsicas. Otro factor a considerar es que los modelos de sistemas multimquinas son de alto orden, por lo cual se dificulta el diseo de controladores y la implementacin de los mismos en el sistema. Entonces, es conveniente disear controles descentralizados que puede facilitar la tarea de diseo e implementacin de los mismos. Este trabajo propone tres nuevas tcnicas robustas para sistemas no lineales. La primera est basada en la metodologa de control por bloques y modos deslizantes integrales. Esta combinacin permite aplicar modos deslizantes integrales en cada bloque del sistema, rechazando las perturbaciones existentes en cada bloque. La segunda tcnica propone el diseo de una variedad deslizante a partir del modelo hamiltoniano de sistemas no lineales, misma que ser utilizada para un control por modos deslizantes. La tercera tcnica propone la aplicacin de modos deslizantes en cada bloque de un sistema no lineal controlable por bloques, mediante la utilizacin de la funcin de Lyapunov de ese bloque. Posteriormente se disean cuatro esquemas de control descentralizado para sistemas elctricos de potencia multimquinas. Los cuatro esquemas propuestos son robustos ante las perturbaciones mencionadas. Adems, estos controladores se pueden implementar en cualquier sistema elctrico de potencia con n generadores, m lneas y k cargas.

Abstract
This work deals with the problem of robust decentralized control of multimachine electric power systems. These systems are subject to different perturbations, such as short circuits, connection and/or disconnection of loads, lines generators, mechanical torque variations, etc. Then, it is necessary controllers which guarantee robustness under those perturbations, to provide electrical energy to the loads with admissible stability margins. Moreover, the controller must be robust under parametric variations due to model uncertainties, and other physical reasons. The electrical power systems are modeled as complex great scale nonlinear systems. Then, the controller design is a challenging problem. Thus the decentralized control schemes enable to avoid these problems. This work proposes three novel robust nonlinear techniques. The first one is based on the Block Control and Integral Sliding Modes. The second obtains a sliding manifold from the Hamiltonian model of a nonlinear system to use this manifold in the Integral Sliding Modes. The third technique enables to apply the sliding mode technique to a nonlinear block controllable system, by using Lyapunov function in each block. Then, four control schemes for electric power systems are designed. The four control schemes are robust under the perturbations of electric power systems mentioned above. The controllers proposed can be implemented in any electric power system with n generators, m lines and k loads.

Acknowledgements

This thesis is dedicated to:

My wife, Mayra Castillo, for his love, patience and friendship. My parents, who always give me their unconditional support. My brother and sister, for your company and friendship.

I want to express my gratitude to: My thesis advisors, Dr. Alexander Loukianov and Dr. Jos M. Caedo, for share me your knowledge, for your patience and your friendship. Thank you for these years. Dr. Edgar Snchez and Jos Manuel Ramrez for their comments about this work, which help to improve this thesis. CONCAYT, Mxico, for granting the scholarship, which allow me to develop this work.

Index
Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1.1 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1.2 Classical controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 1.3 Nonlinear controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1.4 Previous work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 1.4 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1.4 Thesis outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Chapter 2. Electric Power System model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 Shynchronous generator model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2.1 Electrical dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2.2 Mechanical dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 2.2.3 State-space model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2.4 Generators order model reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 2.2.5 Generators reference angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 2.3 Transmission line model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.3.1 Transmission line dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3.2 State-space transmission line model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.4 Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.5 Electric power System model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.5.1 Matrix representation of a passive electrical network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.5.2 Electrical network reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.5.3 Transformation to a reference frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.5.4 Preliminary calculations and data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Chapter 3. Sliding mode control and nonlinear observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2 Sliding mode control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2.1 Equivalent control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2.2 Block control with sliding modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.3 Integral sliding modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.4 Nonlinear observer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.4.1 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Chapter 4. Integral sliding modes with block control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 4.2 Problem statement . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4.3 Control design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Chapter 5. Passivity and Vector Lyapunov functions with sliding modes . . . . . . . . . .39 5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 5.2 Passivity with SM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 5.3 Vector Lyapunov Functions with sliding modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Chapter 6. Electric power systems control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 6.2 Voltage regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

6.2.1 Control design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 6.2.2 Stability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 6.3 Rotor angle stability: Integral sliding modes with block control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 6.3.1 Speed stabilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 6.3.1.1 Control design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 6.3.1.2 Stability analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 6.3.2 Rotor angle stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 6.3.2.1 Control design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 6.3.2.2 Stability analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 6.4 Rotor angle stability: Passivity with sliding modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 6.4.1 Hamiltonian generator model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 6.4.2 Control design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 6.4.3 Stability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 6.5 Rotor angle stability: Vector Lyapunov Functions with sliding modes. . . . . . . . . . .59 6.6 Control logic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 6.7 Electric power systems observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 6.8 Control schemes features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Chapter 7. Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 7.2 Case of study: WSCC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 7.2.1 Matrix representation of the WSCC passive network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 7.2.2 WSCC electrical network reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 7.2.3 Transformation of WSCC electrical network to a reference frame . . . . . . . . 66 7.2.4 WSCC preliminary calculations and data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 7.2.5 WSCC state space-model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 7.3 Proposed controllers parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.4 Simulations results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 7.4.1 EPS observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 7.4.2 ISMSS and SMVR results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.4.3 ISMAS and SMVR results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.4.4 PSMSS and SMVR results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.4.5 VLSMSS and SMVR results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7.4.6 Classical type II with PSS results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7.4.7 Suboptimal H control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.4 Results analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 Chapter 8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Problem statement
Electric power systems (EPS) present two major problems: loss of synchronism or angle unstability, and terminal voltage unstability and collapse due to over loading on transmission line, reactive constraint and faults. Generator controllers must keep the terminal voltage and frequency close to the reference value and provide sufficient damping to the power angles oscillations at all admissible operating points. EPS are becoming more complex due to the increasing on demands for economical reasons. These changes have produced big uncertainties and have pushed the networks closer to their operational limits (stressed) [1]. Then, EPS will require the improved application of advanced control technologies. Proper design of these control systems, which takes into account the continual changes in the structure of the network, is imperative to guarantee robustness over wide operating conditions in the system. On the other hand, EPS are affected by diverse perturbations. In fact, EPS are subject to programmed operation changes and connection and/or disconnections of lines. Moreover, there are unprogrammed perturbations such as faults and disconnections due to the action of protections. Therefore, EPS must be stable and maintain the reference terminal voltage under all kind of perturbations. EPS models are highly nonlinear and subject to variations as a result of changes in systems loading and configuration. Moreover, EPS are modeled as complex large-scale nonlinear systems and the generators may be interconnected over several kilometers in very large EPS. Thus, the controller design for these systems is a challenging problem. Clearly, a complete centralized control scheme could be difficult to implement in EPS, due to reliability and information transfer distortion. On the other hand, an accurate prediction of systems responses and system robustness to disturbances under different operation conditions can be guaranteed by robust decentralized control mechanisms, which are locally implemented; so they do not need information communication among subsystems. For each subsystem, the effects of other external subsystems are considered as a disturbance. For decentralized control schemes of EPS, a controller is designed for each generator connected to the system. Synchronous generators are one of the most important devices in EPS. In order to maintain stability, it is necessary to hold generators synchronism in steady-state even in presence of perturbations. When a perturbation occurs, there are oscillations through the lines, which must be damped to preserve stability [2].

1.2 Classical controllers

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is an essential device for EPS operation. The principal functions of AVR are terminal voltage regulation at a specified value (reference) and stability improvement under small and large disturbances. AVR have been improved since the primitive discontinuous systems (relays, dead bands, etc.), continuous current rotary amplification systems (amplidinas, rototroles), alternate current rotary amplification systems with rectification in the rotor using diodes, until the static systems with power electronics, [2]. The AVR has bounded amplification and excitation voltages as well as the voltage/frequency increment ratio. Thereafter, the AVR action is limited by the maximum and minimum stator and excitation currents bounds. Thus, the AVR model must contain all the constraints on the previously mentioned variables. To maintain the steady-state reference voltage, AVR requires high gain. During a short circuit close to generator terminals, it is necessary a fast action and the application of the maximum excitation voltage. Nevertheless, high gain reduces damping for small perturbations [1]. Under a short circuit near to generator terminals, the generator electrical torque tends to decrease abruptly causing rotor speed increment until fault clearance. Then the system will to be in synchronism if the kinetic energy during the fault can be absorbed by the magnetic potential energy stored in the system. The kinetic energy increment due to short circuit depends on the fault magnitude and the operation condition of the generator before the fault. During a large disturbance, if the generator does not lose synchronism in the first swing, the action of the controller is fundamental to stabilize the system and to damp the oscillations in such a way that the terminal voltage is held. On the other hand, the system can lost synchronism in the next oscillations by an unsuitable controller action. Moreover, high gains on classical controllers under load conditions close to the nominal load reduce the close-loop damping coefficients, causing the lost of synchronism in second oscillation [2]. To solve this problem it is possible to apply two actions: a) reduce the gain value with consequences in keeping the terminal voltage; b) increase the close-loop damping by adding a Power System Stabilizer (PSS). PSS does not work in steady-state and under large perturbations. This device contains a dashpot block, sensors, comparators of voltage magnitude and three leg-lag compensation blocks. The parameters of the PSS are adjusted in the region where the AVR with high-gain can not damp the oscillations satisfactorily. The traditional PSS feedbacks the speed error or acceleration power error. Generally, the PSS output is an additional input to a sum block of reference voltage and AVR feedback voltage. There are a lot of information about modeling and tuning of traditional controllers [2], [3]. They are linear and the parameters are tuned around an equilibrium point by using linear techniques [1]-[3]. The traditional design is realized taking into account EPS worst case condition. Then the controllers are simulated in a wide range of operation conditions using nonlinear models of EPS. This technique has been applied for several years. However, for the operation under high stress, the region of attraction of the equilibrium point tends to decrease and the system trajectories might be in a nonlinear region. Thus the controller parameters obtained using linear techniques might be invalids. Moreover, the methodology described above does not ensure robustness [4]. Improvements on linear controllers can be found in [4], [5] and [6], including normal form analysis [7], [8]. The research on this topic continues, using decentralized control, centralized control, hierarchical control and/or combination of these.

1.3 Nonlinear controllers

In order to avoid the problems described above, in last years, the attention of the researchers have been focused on the design of modern nonlinear controllers for EPS, that permit to reduce the effect of internal and/or external perturbations. The principal features which those controllers must satisfy, are: 1. Nonlinear model and controllers. The mathematical models are not linealized. This means that the results are not limited to a vicinity of the equilibrium point by conserving the nonlinear dynamics. 2. Robustness. The controller designed guarantee good performance in steady-state and in presence of perturbations such as parametric variations or faults. 3. Tracking. The controllers are able to track a terminal reference voltage. 4. Bounded control signals. All the nonlinearities are considered in the controllers design, included bound for the control input. 5. Fast dynamics. Fast and unmodelled dynamics must be analyzed, to reduce the negative effects. Furthermore, all the reductions of EPS models must be mathematically formalized. This work develops three novel robust nonlinear methodologies based on the use of sliding modes, integral sliding modes, block control techniques combined with passivity and vector Lyapunov techniques. Then, four control strategies to achieve the EPS stability in presence of perturbations are proposed. The four control schemes must fulfill two control objectives: a) b) terminal voltage regulation, and rotor angle stability.

1.4 Previous works

In order to improve the EPS stability several control techniques have been applied. In a brief form, the principal techniques are outlined as follows: a) Adaptive control. The control objective is change the controller parameters while the system conditions are changing. Adaptive control has been used to design conventional controllers in [9]-[11]. In [12] the adaptive control technique is combined with feedback linearization. However, this technique has been used for infinite machine bus systems, the best of our knowledge. b) Feedback linearization. In this case the nonlinear models are linearized by a feedback loop in such a way that linear techniques can be used. The fundaments of this methodology can be found in [13], while the applications to infinite machine bus systems are in [14], [15]. In [16]-[20] feedback linearization is applied to multimachine EPS. Nevertheless, this technique does not offer robustness. Combination of feedback linearization and backstepping are used in [13] and [14], but this combination yields a high cost computational algorithm. c) Passivity [21], [22]. A passive system always dissipates energy. Then, energy functions are used to design the controllers. There are applications to electrical machines in [23], [24], while the uses in EPS are in [25]-[30], when EPS energy functions are known. Since the passivity control law feedbacks the system output, which is dependent of the system parameters, this technique lacks of robustness. d) Lyapunov techniques [31]. The controller is designed by using the system Lyapunov functions, based on the energy system. In this way, the stability region is increased. In [32], [33] controllers designed by means of Lyapunov techniques are analyzed to add damping to the closed-loop system in infinite machine bus systems. In [34] a controller for multimachine EPS is presented. However, in order to apply this method, the system Lyapunov function must be known. e) Intelligent control. Two techniques are applied: neural networks and fuzzy logic. The neural network ability to estimate the states of nonlinear systems is taking into account in [35] and [36] for infinite machine bus systems and in [37] and [38] for multimachine EPS. On the other hand, the fuzzy logic has been applied due to the capacity to provide nonlinear effects in control algorithms as in [39] and [40] for infinite machine bus systems and in [41] for multimachine EPS. f) Sliding mode (SM) control [42], [43]. Almost all the controllers for EPS designed by using SM have considered reduced order models, taking into account the generator mechanical dynamics only [44]-[49]. In [50]-[53], SM controllers for infinite machine bus systems have been designed considering the mechanical, rotor and stator electrical dynamics. In [54] an application to multimachine EPS with a reduced order model can be found.

In [55]-[62] a generator eight order model (two equations for the mechanical dynamics and six equations for the electrical dynamics, considering the stator and rotor dynamics) had been used to design a SM control schemes for multimachine EPS.

1.5 Objectives
The objectives of this work are: 1. Develop control strategies for nonlinear systems based on the sliding mode control technique, robust under both matched and unmatched perturbations. 2. Apply the methodologies proposed to design decentralized control schemes for EPS. These controllers must be robust under the EPS perturbations mentioned previously. In order to achieve both objectives, we propose the use of the following techniques: 1) Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control (ISMBC) [59]-[61]. The ISMBC methodology is applied to a class of nonlinear systems presented in the Nonlinear Block Controllable (NBC) form [63]. The EPS generators are presented in the NBC form with internal dynamics. The ISMBC method is based on the combination of integral sliding modes [43] and block control [63]. Block control enables to design a sliding manifold in such a way that the closed-loop system motion on this manifold has desired properties. On the other hand, the integral sliding mode rejects the matched perturbation terms in each block of the NBC system. 2) Passivity with Sliding Modes (PSM) [30]. The passivity with sliding modes technique is applied to system presented in the Hamiltonian form [21], given by the sum of kinetic and potential energies. The sliding manifold is designed by means of the passivity technique. This combination enables a convergence to the steady-state in finite time and matched perturbations be rejected. 3) Vector Lyapunov functions [70] and Sliding Modes (VLSM). The NBC systems are considered again. The control methodology proposed enables to reject matched and unmatched perturbations of the system by applying the sliding mode technique in each block of the NBC system using the Lyapunov functions of the each block.

1.6 Thesis outline

The thesis outline is as follows: Chapter 2 presents the EPS mathematical model. A general EPS with n generators, m buses and k loads, is introduced. The generators, loads and transmission lines are modeled. The state-space model is outlined as well.

Chapter 3 details mathematical background about sliding mode control, integral sliding mode control and nonlinear observers used to estimate the EPS unmeasurable states such that the rotor fluxes. Chapter 4 develops the ISMBC based method as a nonlinear robust methodology to design controllers for NBC systems. This technique enables to reject the matched perturbations and decrease the effect of unmatched ones. Chapter 5 introduces two control methodologies. The first one proposes the combination of passivity with sliding modes, while the second applies SM technique with vector Lyapunov functions. The applications of the proposed techniques are presented in chapter 6. First, a sliding mode voltage regulator is outlined. Then, two control algorithms are designed by using the ISMBC method. Finally, the PSM and LSM controllers are presented. The control schemes performance are proved by simulation, as a case of study in Chapter 7. The designed closed-loop EPS are modeled. The type II IEEE with PSS classical and suboptimal controllers performances are compared with the proposed control schemes. Finally, Chapter 8 presents thesis conclusions and future work.

Chapter 2 Electric Power Systems model

2.1 Introduction.

This chapter presents the EPS multimachine mathematical model, containing n generators, m buses and k loads. In recent years EPS complexity and size have been increased due to incorporation of new electronic devices, and interconnections of its elements. Nowadays, interconnections are done among cities as well as among countries. EPS consist of three fundamental parts: generation, transmission and loads. Due to markets globalization, EPS have been forced to operate in a nonlinear region, with reduced stability margins. Generation is realized by means of synchronous generators, which must provide voltage and frequency with admissible margins in an uninterrupted way and to be economically viable. All EPS generators must be in synchronism to maintain the complete EPS stability. The generator dynamics is divided in two parts: the electrical dynamics and the mechanical ones. The mechanical dynamics are given by Alemberts and Newtons laws, while the electrical dynamics is obtained by using Kirchoffs, and Faradays laws. After the generator is modeled, the Parks transformation [64] is applied. A generator has two controllers, the turbine controller and the excitation one. Turbine control enables to hold the correct generator output frequency level. Excitation control provides terminal voltage generator in a desired level and adds damping to decrement the effect of small and big perturbations. Electric loads are provided of electrical energy by the transmission network. Transformers are the nearest elements to generators and loads. These elements are able to increase the voltage magnitude to facilitate energy transmission and decrease it to supply the loads. Electrical energy is transported by the transmission lines, which are represented by means of T or circuits, and modeled by using the Kirchoffs laws. Nowadays, the addition of other components to the transmission systems, such as Flexible Alternate Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) is common. EPS consumers or loads are elements subject to random connections and/or disconnections. Loads or consumers can be passive elements such as constant impedance loads or dynamical elements as AC or DC motors, etc. Section 2.2 presents generators mathematical description and a transformation to avoid the dependence of the rotor position. The transmission line dynamics are shown in section 2.3. Constant impedance load mathematical model is described in section 2.4. Section 2.5 outlines the complete electrical network model, and then the Krons reduction and a transformation to dq0 are done. All the parameters needed for simulation are included in section 2.5.

2.2

Synchronous generator model

A synchronous generator is an electrical machine that transforms mechanical energy in electrical one. It has a fix element, the stator, and a rotary element, the rotor [2], [65]. This section presents the mathematical description for a generator with three stator windings, a field winding and three rotor damper windings. The windings orientation and the rotor position are shown in fig. 2.1. The stator windings are separated 120 electrical degrees. A two poles machine is considered; however a generalization to a P poles machines can be done easily, by making the corresponding changes in the mathematical model to express the rotor speed in electrical degrees with = P 2 rotor in radians per second. Mechanical torque is considered as a constant.

Figure 2.1 Synchronous generator schematic diagram 2.2.1 Electrical dynamics From the Kirchhoffs and Faradays laws, the electrical equations of the synchronous generator can be obtained as [2], [65]: for the stator: d (2.1) va = ra va + a dt d (2.2) vb = rb ib + b dt d (2.3) vc = rc ic + c . dt 8

for the rotor:

d f dt d vg = rg ig + g dt d vkd = rkd ikd + kd dt d vkq = rkq ikq + kq . dt v f = rf i f +

(2.4) (2.5) (2.6)

(2.7)

moreover,
vg = vkd = vkq = 0 where v is the voltage, r is the resistance, i is the current, is the flux linkage. The subindexes a, b, c are the stator phases. The subindex f represents the field winding, kd is the direct axis damper winding, and g and kq are the quadrature axis damper windings, respectively. In a matrix representation, the electrical equilibrium equations (2.1)-(2.7) can be written as d (2.8) Vsr = Rsr isr + sr dt where Vsr = [va vb vc v f 0 0 0]T , isr = [ia ib ic i f ig ikd ikq ]T ,

sr = a b c f

kd

kq , Rsr = diag {ra

T

rb

rc

rf

rg

rkd

rkq } .
(2.9)

The flux linkages are expressed of the form

sr = Lsr isr
Laf Lag Lakd

where Lsr is the inductances matrix of the synchronous machine, given as follows:
Lakq Lbb Lbc Lbf Lbg Lbkd Lbkq Lcb Lcc Lcf Lcg Lckd Lckq L fb L fc L ff L fg L fkd L fkq (2.10) Lgb Lgc Lgf Lgg Lgkd Lgkq Lkdb Lkdc Lkdf Lkdg Lkdkd Lkdakq Lkqb Lkqc Lkqf Lkqg Lkqkd Lkqkq with the entries ij of (2.10) are: for i = j the self inductances of the winding i ; for i j the mutual inductances between the winding i and the winding j. It is important to note that the inductances values depend on the rotor position. In order to obtain a mathematical representation which does not depend on the angular rotor position, the Parks transformation [65] is achieved. Since the system is considered as symmetrical balanced, it is possible to eliminate the component of the vectors and the Parks transformation is defined as Vdq TVsr , idq Tisr , dq T sr (2.11) Laa L ba Lca Lsr = L fa Lga Lkda L kqa Lab Lac

where
T Vdq = [V1 V2 ] = vd

vq v f
q f

T 0 0 0 , idq = [i1 i2 ] = id T

iq i f

ig

ikd

ikq ,

dq = [ 1 2 ] = d
T

kd

kq , (2.12)

and the transformation matrix T is defined of the form 0 T T = p 0 I4 with sen sen 2 sen + 2 3 3 2 2 2 Tp cos cos 3 cos + 3 . 3 1 1 12 2 2 The T inverse matrix is calculated as T 1 0 T 1 = p 0 I4 where sen cos 1 Tp 1 = sen 2 cos 2 1 . 3 3 sen + 2 3 cos + 2 3 1

( (

) )

( (

) )

(2.13)

(2.14)

( (

) )

( (

) )

(2.15)

Since the system is symmetrical balanced, ( v0 = i0 = 0 ), the application of the transformation (2.11) in (2.8), expressed in p. u. [64], [65] yields d Vd q = Rid q + d q + W d q (2.16) dt where 0 0 0 66 R , I ( ) = R diag {rs rs rf rg rkd rkq } , W ( ) = 0 . 0 I ( )

The relation between the flux linkages and the currents after the transformation (2.11) is given by d q = Ld q id q (2.17) where
Ldq = T
1

L L sr T = 1 1 T L1 2

L1 2 L22

(2.18)

10

0 Lmd 0 Lf 0 Lg 0 Lmq 0 Lmd 0 Ld 0 Lmd , L = , L22 = 11 , L12 = 0 L Lmd 0 Lkd 0 0 Lmq Ld 0 mq 0 Lkq 0 Lmq Lmd , Lmq are the magnetization inductances of the direct and quadrature axis, respectively.

Next, a state-space model containing the rotor flux linkages and stator currents as the state d variables will be obtained. Solving (2.16) for d q , yields dt d d q = Rid q W d q + Vd q . (2.19) dt Solving (2.17) for id q and substituting in (2.19), results in d d q = RLd q 1 + W d q + Vd q . dt From the equation (2.17) it can be found i1 as a function of 1 and 2 , i. e.
1 1

(2.20)

i1 = ( L11 + L12 L22 1 L12T ) 1 ( L11 + L12 L22 1 L12T ) Lsr L22 12 .

(2.21) (2.22)

In an equivalent form, (2.21) is rewritten as i1 = P 1 + P 2 11 12 where

1

P = ( L11 + L12 L22 1 L12T ) , P = ( L11 + L12 L22 1 L12T ) L12 L22 1 . 11 12
1

A linear transformation is defined from (2.22) of the form T T [2 i1 ] = P [1 2 ]

0 where P = 11 P I4 . P 12

(2.23)

Taking the time derivative of [ 2

i1 ] and using (2.22), the mathematical model in the

T

variables rotor fluxes, 2 and stator currents i1 , is obtained of the form

2 d 2 i = A i + PVdq dt 1 1

(2.24)

where A = P RLdq 1 + W P 1 .
2.2.2 Mechanical dynamics The equilibrium equations that represent the synchronous generator mechanical dynamics can be obtained by the second Newtons law, i. e. Tm Te Ti Tk TD = 0 (2.25)

where Tm is the mechanical torque , Te is the electromagnetic torque, Ti is the inertial torque, Tk is the elastic torque proportional to the angular torsion displacement of the generator shaft; TD , is the damping torque, proportional to the rotor speed. This work just considers the mechanical and electromagnetic torque. 11

Then, the speed dynamics is given by

d (2.26) = Tm Te dt where T j = 2 H b , H is the generator inertia constant in seconds and b is the rated rotor Tj

speed in rad/s. The electromagnetical torque is presented as Te = d iq q id . Solving d and q from (2.23) and using (2.27), and (2.26), we have
d 1 = Tm ( a1 f iq a2 g id + a3kd iq a4 kq id a5id iq ) dt T j

(2.27)

(2.28)

where the constants ai , i = 1, 2, ,5 are defined in Appendix. In EPS stability analysis, it is important to consider the generators rotor angle. The dynamics for the rotor angle is written of the form d (2.29) = s . dt
2.2.3 State-space model In this subsection the equations obtained in subsections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 are presented in state-space form as x1i = x2i b (2.30.a)

[Tmi (ai1 x3i z2i ai 2 x4i z1i + ai 3 x5i z2i ai 4 x6i z1i ai 5 z1i z2i )] 2H x3i = bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 z1i + bi 4 v fi
x2i =

(2.30.b) (2.30.c) (2.30.d) (2.30.e) (2.30.f) (2.30.g) (2.30.h)

x4i x5i x6i z1i

where

= ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3 z2i = di1 x3i + di 2 x5i + di 3 z1i = ei1 x4i + ei 2 x6i + ei 3 z2i = hi1vdi + hi 2 x3i + hi 3 x5i + hi 4 x2i x4i + hi 5 x2i x6i + hi 6 x2i z2i + hi 7 z1i + hi 8v fi

z2i = ki1vqi + ki 2 x4i + ki 3 x6i + ki 4 x2i x3i + ki 5 x2i x5i + ki 6 x2i z1i + ki 7 z2i
xi = [ x1i x2i x3i x4i x5i x6i ]T = i i fi gi kdi kqi ,
T

z2i ] = idi iqi , for i=1, 2, , n, = 1/ b and the constants aij , j=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, bij, j=1, 2, 3, 4,
T T

z i = [ z1i

dij, j=1, 2, 3, cij, j=1, 2, 3, hij, j=1, 2, , 8, eij, j=1, 2, 3, kij, j=1, 2, , 7, are defined in the appendix. These equations will be used in the controllers design, stability analysis and EPS observer design.

12

2.2.4 Generator model reduction Since the EPS are modeled as high order systems, it is important to reduce the fast dynamics in the generator. Then, as result, it is possible to reduce the transmission lines fast dynamics, as it will be explained later. The synchronous generators model (2.30.a)-(2.30.f) can be written as x1i f1i ( x1i , x 2i , z i ) + g i ( xi , Vi , Tmi ) b1i (2.31) + v fi x = f 2i ( x1i , x 2i , z i ) 0 2i

where T T T x1i = [ x1i x2i x3i ] , x 2i = [ x4i x5i x6i ] , xi = [ x1i x 2i ] ,

x2i b ( a x z a x z + a x z a x z a z z ) , f1i = i1 3i 2i i 2 4i 1i i 3 5i 2i i 4 6i 1i i 5 1i 2i bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 z1i ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3 z2i 0 d x + d x + d z , b = 0 , f 2i ( xi , z i ) = i1 3i i 2 5i i 3 1i 1i 1 ri1 x4i + ri 2 x6i + ri 3 z2i
g i ( xi , z i , Tmi ) = g1i ( xi , z i ) , g 2i ( xi , z i , Tmi ) , 0 ; g1i ( xi , z i ) and g 2i ( xi , z i , Tmi ) contain parameter
T

variations and external disturbances such that the mechanical torque Tmi . Moreover, the equations (2.30.g) and (2.30.h) are presented of the form (2.32) z i = A zi z i + f zi (xi ) + b zi v fi + v i where ki 6 x2i hi1vdi h x + h x + h x x + h x x h 0 , f zi ( xi ) = i 2 3i i 3 5i i 4 2i 4i i 5 2i 6i , b zi = , v i = A zi = i 7 , ki 7 ki 2 x4i + ki 3 x6i + ki 4 x2i x3i + ki 5 x2i x5i hi 8 hi 6 x2i ki1vqi and A zi has full rank for all admissible values of xi . According to the singular perturbations technique [31], [66], setting = 0 in (2.32) we have 0 = A zi z i + f zi ( xi ) + b zi v fi + v i . (2.33)

It is important to note that when = 0 , the slow variable x2i in the matrix A zi and the vector
f zi ( xi ) tends to a constant value due to the term x2i / b . Solving (2.33) for z i , we obtain z i = i ( xi , v i ) + i v fi

(2.34)

where i ( xi , v i ) = A zi 1 f zi ( xi ) A zi 1 v i , i = A zi 1b zi . Then substitution of (2.34) in (2.31) yields the reduced order generator model, i.e. x1i f1i ( xi , i ( xi , v i ) ) b1i (2.35) + v fi x = 2i f 2i ( xi , i ( xi v i ) ) 0 Equation (2.35) describes the reduced order model of the generators. In this model the functions f1i and f 2i do not depend on the fast variable z i , just on the slow ones x1i and x 2i .

13

2.2.4 Generators reference angle The EPS stability depends on the relative angles of the generators, i. e., depends on the angular difference between the generators rotors [62]. Due to each rotational has its own angle reference frame, the equations for the generators angles are linearly dependent so, there is at least one more differential equation than is needed to solve the system. Then, choosing the generator 1 as the reference, the relative angle to the generator 1 is defined as ;, i = 1, 2, , n. (2.36)
i i 1

Thus the new states derivatives are

d 1 =0 dt d i i = 2,3, , n . = i 1 , dt The generators model (2.35) must be modified as follows:

a) Replace i with i and 1 = 0 .

(2.37) (2.38)

b) Replace b in the equation of i with 1 . With this reference angle the system order is reduced by one.

2.3 Transmission line model

This subsection presents the model of a lumped parameters transmission line. Figure 2.2 shows the schematic diagram of a transmission line in a circuit, where just the capacitive effect is considered in the shunt elements and the shunt conductance is neglected ( rcap ; Gcap 0 ). The line is considered symmetrical balanced.

Figure 2.2. circuit transmission line

14

2.3.1 Transmission line dynamics The three-phase transmission line equivalent model consists of the series component and the parallel capacitive components.

The voltage equation of the line for the series component is given by d v1abc v2 abc = Rabc iabc + abc dt where
v1abc = [ v1a iabc = [ia ib v1b
T

(2.39)

v1c ] ,
T

v2 abc = [ v2 a

v2b

v2 c ] ,
T T

ic ] ,

abc = [ a b c ] ,

Rabc = diag { Ra Rb Rc } . Considering a three-phase line, we have: Ra = Rb = Rc = RL , Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls y Lij = L ji = M i, j = a, b, c .

The application of the transformation matrix (2.13), in equation (2.39) yields d Tp ( v1dq 0 v2 dq 0 ) = Rdq 0'Tp idq 0 + (Tp 0 dq 0 ) dt or, equivalently d d Tp ( v1dq 0 v2 dq 0 ) = Rdq 0'Tp idq 0 + Tp ( dq 0 ) + (Tp ) dq 0 dt dt where

(2.40)

v1dq 0 = v1d
idq 0 = id iq Rdq 0 = Rabc .

v1q

v10 ,
T

v2 dq 0 = v2 d

v2 q

v20 ,
T

i0 ,

dq 0 = d

q 0 ,

Flux linkages abc and dq 0 are related to the currents iabc and idq 0 by

abc = Labc iabc dq 0 = Ldq 0 idq 0

where
L 0 0 Laa Lab Lac Labc = Lba Lbb Lbc , Ldq 0 = Tp LabcTp 1 = 0 L 0 , 0 0 L0 Lca Lcb Lcc with L = Ls M and L0 = Ls 2 M . Substituting (2.41) in (2.40), we obtain d d v1dq 0 v2 dq 0 = Rdq 0idq 0 + Ldq 0 idq 0 + Tp (Tp ) Ldq 0idq 0 . dt dt d Solving (2.42) for idq 0 , we have dt d idq 0 = A1 + Ldq 0 ' 1 ( v1dq 0 v2 dq 0 ) dt

(2.41)

(2.42)

(2.43)

15

 RL r 0 b L d RL where A1 = Ldq 0 1 Tp Rdq 0Tp 1 + Tp (Tp 1 ) Ldq 0 = r 0 . L dt b RL 0 0 L Equation (2.43) in p.u. [64], is expressed as d idq 0 = A2 idq 0 + Lpu ( v1dq 0 v2 dq 0 ) (2.44) dt where RLb b r 0 0 0 L L RLb , L = 0 b 0 0 . A2 = r pu L L b RLb 0 0 0 0 L L Equation (2.44) describes the dynamics for the series current of a transmission line in p. u. with in rad/seg and the time in seconds.
On the other hand, the capacitor current is given by d icap1abc = qcap1abc (2.45) dt where icap1abc is the capacitor current and qcap1abc is the capacitor electrical charge. After application of the transformation matrix (2.13), the equation (2.45) can be written of the form d d (2.46) icap1dq 0 = ( qcap1dq 0 ) + Tp (Tp 1 ) qcap1dq 0 . dt dt The voltage and charge of the capacitor are related as qcap1dq 0 = C1v1dq 0 . (2.47) Substituting (2.45) and (2.47) in (2.46), we have d v1dq 0 = A3 v1dq 0 + C11icap1dq 0 dt r 0 b 0 where A3 = r 0 0 . b 0 0 0 Expressing (2.48) in p. u., we obtain d v1dq 0 = A4 v1dq 0 + C11b icap1dq 0 dt (2.48)

(2.49)

16

where 0 A4 = r 0

r
0 0

0 0 . 0

The voltage dynamics in the node 1 of the transmission line in p. u. are described by the equation (2.49). The application of the Kirchoffs second law to the transmission line nodes 1 and 2 yields i1dq 0 = idq 0 + icap1dqo . (2.50) i2 dq 0 = idq 0 + icap 2 dqo Substituting (2.50) in (2.49), we have d v1dq 0 = A4 v1dq 0 + C11b ( i1dq 0 idq 0 ) (2.51) dt d v2 dq 0 = A4 v2 dq 0 + C2 1b ( i2 dq 0 + idq 0 ) . (2.52) dt Finally, the transmission line model is given by the equations (2.44), (2.51) and (2.52), i. e. idq 0 A2 L pu Lpu idq 0 0 0 0 0 d v + 0 C 1 I (2.53) 0 1dqo 0 i1dq 0 b 1 3 v1dqo = C1 A4 A4 dt 1 v2 dq 0 C2 A4 A4 v2 dq 0 0 b C2 I 3 i2 d 10 0 0

where I 3 is a identity matrix of the dimension 3. The equation (2.53) describes the transmission line model in p. u. in the dq0 reference frame.
2.3.1 State-space transmission line model The state-space model of the transmission line is given by xL = AL xL + DLi12 where

(2.54)

xL = [ xL1

xL 2 Lpu A4 0

A2 AL = C1 A4 C2 A4 i12 = 0 i1dq 0

xL 9 ] = idq 0 Lpu 0 , A4
T T

v1dqo

v2 dq 0 ,

0 0 0 0 C 1 I DL = 0 , 3 b 1 0 0 bC2 1 I 3

i2 d 10 .

Equation (2.54) describes the transmission lines dynamics in p. u. and in the dq0 reference frame. In case of balance three-phase line, the zero sequence of voltages and currents are equal to zero; then, the transmission model (2.54) is reduced to six equations.

17

2.4 Loads
This section presents the mathematical model of a constant impedance load, fig. 2.3. The load is considered symmetrical balanced.

Figure 2.3. Constant impedance load The equation for the voltage in the load is written as d vkabc = Riabc + abc . dt Using (2.13) the equation (2.55) is transformed to the form d d Tp vkdq 0 = RTp idq 0 + Tp dq 0 + (Tp ) dq 0 . dt dt d Substituting (2.41) in the equation (2.56) and solving for idq 0 , we have dt d idq 0 = A5 idq 0 + L1 I 3 vkdq 0 dt r R 0 L b r d R where. A5 = L1 Tp RTp 1 + Tp (Tp 1 ) L = 0. dt L b R 0 0 L Expressing the equation (2.57) in p. u., we obtain d idq 0 = Ac idq 0 + Lc vkdq 0 dt b R b 0 0 0 r L L b R , 0 b 0 0 . Lc = where Ac = r L L b R b 0 0 0 0 L L Equation (2.58) describes the load constant impedance dynamics expressed in p. u. dq0 reference frame.

(2.55)

(2.56)

(2.57)

(2.58)

in the

18

The equation (2.58) can be represented in state-space as xc = Ac xc + Lc vkdq 0 where xc = [ xc1 xc 2

T T

(2.59)

xc 3 ] = id iq i0 . Finally, the equation (2.59) represents the dynamics for a constant impedance load in statespace form, in p. u. and in the dq0 reference frame.

2.5 Electric Power Systems model

This section shows the mathematical model of an electrical network with n generators, m buses and k loads interconnected by transformers and transmission lines. The restrictions for the voltages in generators terminals (electrical network-generators interconnections) are presented. There is a wide variety of loads that can be connected to the EPS, e.g., induction motors, DC motors, constants impedance loads, etc. The load can be modeled considering the load voltage-current dependence. Without loss of generality, the loads can be considered as constant impedances. This assumption does not affect controllers performance. Since the generator fast dynamics, i.e. the stator dynamics, were reduced, it is possible to despise transmission lines fast dynamics. Then, the electrical network can be modeled by using the phasorial nodal method. Equation (2.30) shows that there are 10 variables, 8 state variables and 2 voltages in the direct and quadrature axis for each generator. In case of an EPS with n generators there are 8n equations and 10n variables. Additionally, 2n equations are required to describe completely the system. These equations are obtained by constrains in generators terminal voltages. Then, it is necessary to obtain the relationships between the generators terminal voltage and the electrical network.
2.5.1 Matrix representation of a passive electrical network The passive network has m buses and its mathematical representation can be obtained by using the phasorial nodal method of the form [2] I = YV (2.60) T T where V = [V1 V2 Vm ] is the nodal complex voltages vector, I = [ I1 I 2 I m ] is

the nodal complex currents vector injected by the nodes and Y is the admittances network matrix, and its entries are calculated as a) Yii driving point admittance for node i b)
Yij negative of the transfer admittance between node i and j.

2.5.2 Electrical network reduction In this section a reduced model of the electrical network (2.60), will be obtained [64]. The transformers nodes are incorporated to the network by adding the transformers reactances to the generators. Since the loads are considered as constant impedances, they are included in the network. To obtain an equivalent reduced electrical network with just n nodes, we recall that all node currents are set equal to zero, except for the generators nodes.

19

Then, the currents matrix representation of the reduced network is given by I I = n 0 where I n = [ I1 I 2
T

(2.61)

I n ] is the current vector of the generation nodes. Partitioning the admittances matrix according to (2.61), we have I n Ynn Ynm n Vn (2.62) = 0 Ym nn Ym nm n Vm n
where Vn = [V1 V2

Vn ] , Vm n = [Vn +1 Vn + 2
T

Vm ] , then (2.62), becomes

T

I n = YnnVn + Ynm nVm n ,

0 = Ynm nVn + Ym nnVm n . Solving (2.64) for Vm n and substituting in (2.63), we obtain

(2.63) (2.64) (2.65)

I n = MVn
1

where M = Ynn Ynm n Ym nm n Ym nn . The equation (2.65) describes the reduced electrical network with only n generation nodes.
2.5.3 Transformation to a reference frame Now, it is necessary to express the network model (2.65) in the dq0 reference frame. Then I dq 0 = M dq 0Vdq 0 (2.66)

where Vdq 0 = Vdq 01 Vdq 02 is defined as with Ts = diag {Ts1 Ts 2

Vdq 0 n , I dq 0 = I dq 01 I dq 02
M dq 0 Ts MTs 1

I dq 0 n

and the matrix M dq 0 (2.67)

sen sen 2 sen i + 2 i i 3 3 2 Tsi = cos i cos i 2 cos i + 2 , i = 1, 2, , n. 3 3 3 1 1 12 2 2 The system (2.67) is composed by n complex equations. It is possible to obtain the voltages and currents projections on the direct and quadrature axis. Then we can obtain 2n real equations, i. e. (2.68) I dq 0 = M dq 0Vdq 0
where

( (

Tsn } ,

) )

( (

) )

Vdq 0 = Vd 1 Vq1 Vd 2 Vq 2

Vdn Vqn , I dq 0 = I d 1 I q1 I d 2 I q 2

I dn I qn ,

20

M dq 0

Re {M dq 01,1 } Im {M dq 01,1 } Im {M dq 01,1 } Re {M dq 01,1 } = Re {M dq 0 n ,1 } Im {M dq 0 n ,1 } Im {M dq 0 n ,1 } Re {M dq 0 n ,1 }

Re {M dq 01, n } Im {M dq 01, n } Im {M dq 01, n } Re {M dq 01, n } . Re {M dq 0 n , n } Im {M dq 0 n , n } Im {M dq 0 n , n } Re {M dq 0 n , n }

2.5.4 Preliminary calculations and data In order to implement EPS simulations, it is necessary to know fundamental data, listed as follows [2]: a) all parameters are expressed in p. u., except for the rotor speed in rad/s, time and inertia constant defined in sec.; b) loads are converted to equivalent impedances or admittances; c) generator parameters are established: nominal values, synchronous, transient and sub-transient reactances and time constants, inertia constants, resistances and reactances; d) electrical network parameters are established; e) a pre-fault network flow analysis is outlined to determine the active and reactive power of the generators, as well as the steady-state voltage magnitude and angle; f) the network admittances matrix is calculated as it was indicated in the section 2.5.1; g) the loads equivalent admittances are calculated as P Q YL = L 2 j L 2 (2.65) VL VL The generator initial conditions are computed as: 1) Calculate the complex current

S (2.66) I = V where S and V are the generator power and terminal voltage, respectively, obtained from the rotor fluxes. 2) Calculate the complex voltage in the generator quadrature axis of the form Eq = V + ( rs + X q ) I = Eq r . (2.67)

3) The voltage field with respect to the stator is given by E fd = Eq + ( X d X q ) id = X md i f . 4) From (2.68) i f is calculated as
E fd

(2.68)

. (2.69) X md 5) Obtain the generator currents in the direct and quadrature axis, as follows: id + jiq = je j r I . (2.70)

if =

21

6) Determine the flux linkages in the field and damper windings, i. e. f = X md id + X f i f ,

g = X mq iq , kd = X md id + X md i f , kq = X mq iq .
7) The excitation voltage is defined as v f = rf i f where rf =
X md + X f

b 'd 0

8) The electromagnetic torque is computed of the form: Te = X d id iq + X md i f iq + X q id iq . 9) Finally, Tm = Te .

Remark: It is important to note that the procedure described in the present section is valid for any EPS, with n generators, m buses and k loads. Moreover, the EPS model introduced can include any kind of loads, and it is not limited to constant impedance loads.

22

Chapter 3 Sliding mode control and nonlinear observer

3.1 Introduction.
This chapter presents the concepts of block control (BC), sliding modes (SM) and integral sliding modes (ISM). BC technique is applied to a class of nonlinear systems that can be represented in the nonlinear block controllable (NBC) form, as in the case of the EPS generators presented in the previous chapter. SM control enables to reject perturbations that satisfy the matching condition, when the solution of a system enters in the sliding mode. ISM control enables to reject matched perturbations since the first instant of time. Combination of BC and ISM enables robustness under matched and unmatched perturbations and will be presented in the next chapter. Section 3.2 describes the SM technique. The description of the ISM technique can be found in section 3.3. Finally, section 3.4 presents a nonlinear observer, which will be applied to estimate the EPS unmeasurable states in the next chapters.

3.2 Sliding mode control

The SM technique has been applied in a lot of process, nowadays in EPS too [54]-[62]. The SM could appear in nonlinear systems that have some discontinuous term such as relays [43]. SM control has had great attention due to the fact that it ensures robustness under parametric variations and external perturbations when the system solution enters the sliding mode. A SM controller is designed in two stages: a) Design a sliding manifold s ( x ) = 0 , as a subspace of the state-space in such a way that the system has desired properties such as stability, tracking, robustness, etc. The sliding manifold can be designed by using any linear or nonlinear technique. b) Choose a bounded discontinuous control such that the system is enforced to reach the sliding manifold previously designed i.e. u , s ( x ) > 0 u ( x) = 0 . u0 , s ( x ) < 0 3.2.1 Equivalent control To define the behavior on sliding manifold and to obtain the sliding mode equation, the equivalent control method has been proposed [42]. Since SM control produces a high frequency change on the control input, theoretically infinite, it is difficult to understand the closed-loop system behavior. Form a geometric point of view, the equivalent control replaces the discontinuous control in the intersection of the sliding surfaces by a continuous control such that the state vector crosses by a tangential manifold to the sliding manifold.

Consider the system

where x R n is the state-vector, u R m is the control input and rank {B ( x )} = m . Setting the sliding manifold s(x) time derivative equal to zero, it is possible to find the equivalent control and the sliding mode equation, i. e. s s s = f ( x ) + B(x)u eq = 0 (3.2) x x where u eq is the equivalent control. Solving (3.2) for u eq , we have

x = f ( x) + B (x) u .

(3.1)

s s u eq = B(x) f ( x ) . x x Substituting (3.3) in (3.1), the sliding mode equation is

s s x = f ( x) B( x) B( x) f ( x ) . x x
1

(3.3)

The sliding manifold must be designed such that the SM dynamics have the desired properties. In a general case, it is a challenging problem. However, this problem can be solved easily if the system (3.1) can be represented, possibly after a nonlinear transformation, in the nonlinear block controllable form (NBC form).
3.2.2 Block control with sliding modes The block control technique is applied to the class of systems represented in the NBC form [63]. This methodology enables to transform the system into a linear one with the poles located at the desired location, which can be adjusted by the controller gains. The NBC form consist of r blocks: x1 = f1 ( x1 ) + B1 ( x1 ) x 2
x 2 = f 2 ( x 2 ) + B 2 ( x 2 ) x3

(3.4)
xi = fi ( xi ) + Bi ( xi ) xi +1 , xr = fr ( x ) + B r ( x ) u
T

i = 3, 4,..., r 1
T

where x = [ x1 x 2 x r ] , xi is a vector of dimension ni , xi = [ x1 xi ] , the vector xi+1 is the virtual control in the i th block. Moreover, the subindexes ni satisfiy
n1 n2 nr ,

Definition 3.1. The system (3.4) is in the NBC form if the matrix Bi ( ) , i = 1, 2,..., r has full
rank, i.e.

i =1 i

n = n.

rank B i x 1 ,, x i = n i . The BC technique requires r steps, as follows.

Step 1. Choosing the virtual control x 2 for the first block of (3.4) as

24

x 2 = B1+ ( x1 ) ( f1 ( x1 ) + k1z1 E1z 2 ) ,

T

k1 > 0

(3.5)

where z1 := x1 , z 2 is a new variables vector, B1+ is the right pseudo-inverse of B1 ,

n n E1 = I n 1 0 R 1 2 . The transformed first block in the new variables with virtual control (3.5) is rewritten as z1 = k1z1 + z 2 . Solving (3.5) for z 2 , we have

f ( x ) z 2 = B 2 ( x1 ) x 2 + 1 1 := 1 ( x2 ) . 0
Taking the time derivative of (3.6), we obtain z 2 = f2 ( x2 ) + B 2 ( x2 ) x 3 . where B 2 ( ) = B 2 ( ) B1 ( ) , f2 ( ) = and rank {B 2 } = rank {B 2 } = n2 .

(3.6)

1 ( ) ( ) f 2 ( ) + 1 ( k1z1 + E1z 2 ) x 2 z1

This procedure can be done for the each block of the system (3.4), as follows.

Step i. The transformed i th block has the form zi = fi ( xi ) + Bi ( xi ) xi +1 .

Choose the virtual control xi+1 in (3.7) as where z i +1 R
n i +1

(3.7) (3.8)

xi +1 = Bi + ( xi ) ( fi ( xi ) + ki z i Ei z i +1 ) , ki > 0
T n i n i +1

+ is a new variables vector, k i z i is the desired dynamics, Bi is the right

pseudo-inverse of Bi , Ei = I n i 0 R as

. Then, the i th transformed block is expressed

z i = ki z i + Ei z i +1 .
The new variables vector z i+1 is obtained from (3.8) of the form

f ( x ) ki z i z i +1 = Bi ( xi ) xi +1 + i i := i +1 ( xi +1 ) . . 0 B ( x ) n n n where E i = 0 I ni+1 ni R ( i+1 i ) i+1 and Bi +1 ( xi ) = i i . Ei Then z i +1 = fi +1 ( xi +1 ) + B i +1 ( xi +1 ) x i + 2

with B i +1 ( ) = Bi +1 ( ) Bi ( ) , fi ( ) =

i ( ) xi +1

fi +1 ( ) +
j =1

i ( ) z j

( k z
j

+ E j z j +1 )

and rank {B i +1} = rank {B i +1} = ni +1 .

25

Step r. The complete transformed system is given by z i = ki zi + Ei zi +1 , i = 1,, r 1

z r = f r ( z ) + Br ( z ) u
In order to stabilize the system (3.9), the sliding manifold s = zr = 0 is chosen, and the control input u is selected as follows: u = k g B r T sign ( s ) , k g > 0 .

(3.9)

(3.10)

The stability condition of the control law (3.10) can be found by the Lyapunov method as k g > u eq (3.11) where u eq is the equivalent control of (3.10), calculated as it was indicated in section 3.2.1, i. e.
u eq = B r + f r ( z ) ,

with B r + as the pseudo-inverse of B r . Under the stability condition (3.11), a solution of the closed loop system (3.9)-(3.10) reaches the sliding manifold s = 0 , in finite time, and the the sliding mode motion on this manifold is described by reduced order ( n nr ) system z1 = k1z1 + z 2

z 2 = k2 z 2 + z 3
. (3.12)

z i = ki z i + z i +1 , i = 3, 4,..., r 2 z r 1 = kr 1z r 1 It can be seen that the system (3.12) is linear; therefore. The choosing of the controller gains k1 , k2 , , kr 1 be positive ensures a solution is asymptotically stable.
Remark 3.1. The BC technique enables to design a sliding surface, apply the SM technique, and then reject the matching perturbations. However, this methodology does not solve the problem of unmatched perturbations. Thus, it is necessary to introduce other technique.

3.3 Integral sliding modes

In [43] the Integral Sliding Modes technique is presented. Let the ideal system be x = f ( x) + B ( x) u .

(3.13)

Assume that there exists a continuous or discontinuous control input u = u 0 ( x ) , such that the ideal closed-loop system has the desired properties. The ideal system is defined as x0 = f ( x0 ) + B ( x0 ) u0 ( x ) (3.14) where x0 is the ideal trajectory of (3.13) with the control input u 0 . Nevertheless, the ideal system is subject to internal and/or external perturbations, so the closed-loop system real solution is given by

26

x = f ( x ) + B ( x ) u + g ( x, t )

(3.15)

where the vector g ( x, t ) contains the parameters variations, unmodelled dynamics and external perturbations. Assume that the vector g ( x, t ) satisfies the matching condition, i. e., there exists g R m such that
g ( x, t ) = B ( x ) g .

(3.16)

Moreover, assume that the perturbations vector g ( x, t ) is bounded and the upper bound can be written as

g ( x, t ) g + ( x, t ) .

It is necessary to find a control law such that the solution of the system (3.15) satisfies x ( t ) = x 0 ( t ) for the initial condition x ( 0 ) = x 0 ( 0 ) . Then, the control input u of the system (3.15) is redefined of the form

u = u 0 + u1
where u 0
m

(3.17)
m

reject the perturbation term g ( x, t ) in (3.15). The substitution of the control input (3.17) into
x = f ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 + B ( x ) u1 + B ( x ) g . s = s 0 ( x ) + , s, s 0 ,
m

is the ideal control input defined for (3.14) and u1

will be designed to

the system (3.15), yields

(3.18) (3.19)

Define the sliding manifold s as

where s 0 ( x ) can be designed as a system states function and is the sliding manifold integral part. In order to achieve x ( t ) = x 0 ( t ) , the equivalent control of u1 in (3.17) must satisfy
B 1 ( x ) u1eq = g .

(3.20)

Taking the time derivative of the sliding manifold s , (3.19), we have s (3.21) s = s 0 ( x ) + = 0 f ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 ( x ) + B ( x ) u1eq ( x ) + g + . x The integral variable, , dynamics is chosen such that to satisfy condition (3.20), i. e. s (3.22) = 0 f ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 ( x ) , ( 0 ) = s ( x ( 0 ) ) . x The initial condition ( 0 ) = s ( x ( 0 ) ) guarantees that the sliding mode motion occurs from the first instant of time. Substituting (3.22) in (3.21), we obtain s s = s 0 ( x ) + = 0 B ( x ) u1eq ( x ) + g = 0 . x The second part of the control input (3.17) u1 , is chosen as u1 = sign(s) . From (3.23), under the condition > g (3.23)

27

the perturbation term g ( x, t ) in (3.18) is rejected and the system (3.5) sliding modes equation is given by
x = f ( x ) + B ( x ) u0 ( x ) .

(3.24)

which is the ideal system (3.13). The control input u 0 ( x ) of the system (3.24), can be designed by using any control technique. It is important to note that the dimension of the sliding mode equation is the same as the original (ideal) system.
Definition 3.2. [43] A sliding mode is said to be an integral sliding mode if its motion equation is of the same order as the original system. Remark 3.2. The integral sliding modes technique enables to reject matched perturbations only. However the real life control systems content both the mutched and unmatched perturbations. Moreover, the problem of design of the nominal part u 0 ( x ) is still a

challenging problem. To solve these problems, a new method based on the combination of Block Control and Integral Sliding Modes techniques, which enables to design nonlinear robust controllers that reject matched perturbations and decrease the effect of unmatched perturbations, will be presented in chapter 4.

3.4 Nonlinear observer

Usually, the implementation of a controller requires the complete information about the systems states. However, in practice, sometimes it is impossible to measure all the system states. Then, it is necessary to estimate the states, that are not available, by means of an observer. This section analyzes a nonlinear observer design for a class of nonlinear systems.
3.4.1 Problem statement Consider a nonlinear system presented as a two interconnected subsystems, of the form x1 = f1 ( x1 , x 2 , z (t ) ) (3.35)
x 2 = f 2 ( x 2 , z (t ) ) + B 2u

(3.36) (3.37)
T

y = C1x1

where x1 R m1 , x 2 R m2 , z R m3 , x1 = x1,1 , x1,2 , , x1, m1

is the state vector which

T

components is available for the measurement, x 2 = x2,1 , x2,2 , , x2,m 2

is the vector that

T

includes the unmeasurable states, y Rl is the output vector, z (t ) = z1 (t ), z 2 (t ), , z m3 (t ) A1. The functions f1 ( ) and f 2 ( ) are presented as is a the measured external signal vector, the matrix B 2 elements are constant, and assume
f1 ( ) = A1x1 + f11 (x 2 ) + f12 (y , z (t )) f 2 ( ) = f 21 (x 2 ) + f 22 (y , z (t ))

A.2 The vector f11 (x 2 ) is a bounded function; 28

A.3. The pair {A1 , C1} is detectable, and f A.4. The matrix A 2 = 21 is stable. x 2 It is important to note that the generators mathematical models can be represented in the form (3.35)-(3.37). In this case, the vector x1 presents the mechanical variables, and/or ; the vector z contains the stator currents id and iq , and the vector x 2 is composed by the rotor fluxes. In order to estimate the vector x 2 , the following nonlinear observer is proposed: x1 = f1 ( x1 , x 2 , z ) + L1 ( x1 x1 ) x 2 = f2 ( x1 , x 2 , z ) + B 2u (3.38) (3.39)

where x1 and x 2 are the estimates of the vectors x1 and x 2 , respectively, and L1 is a matrix with constant entries. The observer (3.38)-(3.39) stability can be analyzed by means of the observation errors system, given by e1 = ( A1 + C1L1 )e1 + f12 ( e 2 ) (3.40)
e 2 = f 21 ( e 2 )

(3.41)

where e1i = x1i x1i , i = 1, 2,..., m1 and e 2i = x 2i x 2i , i = 1, 2,..., m2 . . The system is studied by the following theorem [31]:
Teorem 3.1 [31] Assume that the assumptions A1. A.4 are satisfied. Then the system (3.40) is locally input-tostate stable with e 2 as input and the system (3.41) satisfies e 2 = f 2 ( 0, e 2 ) with u = 0 . Thus the

solution of the system (3.40)-(3.41) is asymptotically stable.

Proof. Under the assumption A.3 there exists a matrix L1 such that matrix ( A1 + C1L1 ) is stable. Therefore, under the Assumptions A.2 and A.4 the solutions of (3.40) and (3.41) satisfy (3.42) e1 ( t ) 1 e1 ( s ) , t s + 1 sup e 2 ( ) s t e2 ( t ) 2 e2 ( s ) , t s (3.43)

are class KL functions and 1 () is a class function. From (3.42) with s = ( t + t0 ) 2 , we have
t + t 0 t t0 e1 ( t ) 1 e1 + 1 sup e 2 ( ) , t +t0 t 2 2 2 .

in a region containing the origin, where t > s > t0 , t0 > 0 is the initial time, 1 () and 2 ()

(3.44)

t + t0 The application of (3.42) with s = t0 and t = ( t + t0 ) 2 yields the estimation of e1 , i. e. 2

29

 t t0 t + t0 1 e1 ( t0 ) , + 1 sup e 2 ( ) e1 t t +t0 2 2 0 2 Using (3.43), we obtain sup e 2 ( ) 2 e 2 ( t0 ) , 0

t0 t + t0 2

(3.45)

(3.46) (3.47)

t t0 sup e 2 ( ) 2 e 2 ( t0 ) , t + t0 2 t
2

Substituting (3.45)-(3.47) into (3.44) and using the inequalities e1 ( t0 ) e ( t0 ) , e 2 ( t0 ) e ( t0 ) , e ( t ) e1 ( t ) + e 2 ( t ) yields where e = (e1 , e 2 )T , s s s Then, it is easy to check that is a class KL function for all r > 0 . Hence, the origin of (3.40)-(3.41) is uniformly asymptotically bounded. e ( t ) e ( t0 ) , t t0

( r , s ) = 1 1 r , + 1 ( 2 ( r , 0 ) ) , + 1 2 r , + 2 ( r , s ) . 2 2 2

30

Chapter 4
Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control
4.1 Introduction
EPS present different perturbations, as: generators and lines parametric variations, load variations, unknown for the decentralized controllers, etc. The mechanical torque variations are considered as perturbations if information about this variable is not available. Thus, controllers designed for EPS must be robust under the perturbations previously mentioned. This chapter develops a robust control scheme based on Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control (ISMBC) technique [59], [60]. The ISMBC methodology is applied to a class of nonlinear systems presented in the Nonlinear Block Controllable (NBC) form, which consists of a set of blocks interconnected in such a way the controller can be designed step-by-step. A lot of mathematical models of physical systems have the NBC form. For instance, the generator model introduced in chapter 2 has the NBC form. The ISMBC method consists of the combination of three techniques: 1) Block Control (BC) [63], that has been widely applied to the class of NBC systems. This technique enables to design a surface such that the closed-loop system has the desired properties. 2) Integral Sliding Modes (ISM) [43], that reject exactly matched perturbations since the first instant of time, obtaining an unperturbed system. 3) Nested Sliding Modes (NSM) [67], to apply the Integral Sliding Modes in each block of the NBC system. Then, it is possible to reject unmatched perturbations. As mentioned in chapter 3, the BC technique with SM yields step-by-step a linear closedloop system with the desired eigenvalues. However, this procedure does not offers robustness of the sliding mode motion. In order to guarantee matched perturbations invariance, the ISM is proposed. Then, system perturbations are estimated and rejected by controller since the first instant of time. The unmatched perturbations are rejected by combination of ISM and NSM. It is known that ISM requires the application of discontinuous functions, therefore, in order to allow the application of ISM for each block of the NBC form system, a continuously differentiable sigmoid function is used instead of discontinuous one. Using the methodology proposed above, it is possible to reject both, matched and unmatched perturbations. Moreover, the perturbations are rejected in finite time.

4.2 Problem statement

In the present section, the robust control method based on Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control (ISMBC) technique [59], [60] is presented in generic terms to show the generality of the proposedapproach. In the next chapters a robust controller for the electrical power system will be designed by using this methodology. Consider the nonlinear perturbed system (4.1) x = f ( x ) + B ( x ) u + g ( x, t ) . where x R n is the state vector, u R m is the control input, g ( x, t ) is the perturbations vector, f ( x ) and B ( x ) are smooth vector fields defined on ( x, u ) D0 R m where D0 is a domain containing the origin. Let Tr : R n R n a diffeomorphism such that transforms the system (4.1) into the nonlinear block controllable form, which consist of r blocks, organized as follows: x1 = f1 ( x1 ) + B1 ( x1 ) x 2 + g1 ( t , x1 )
x 2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + B 2 ( x2 ) x 3 + g 2 ( t , x2 ) xi = fi ( xi ) + Bi ( xi ) xi +1 + g i ( t , xi ) , i = 3,..., r 1 xr = fr ( x ) + B r ( x ) u + g r ( t , x ) y = x1

(4.2)

where, x = [ x1 x r ] R n is the state vector, xi R ni , xi = [ x1 xi ] ; u R m is the control

T T

vector. Moreover, f ( ) and the columns of B ( ) are smooth vector fields, g i ( ) is a bounded unknown perturbation term due to parameter variations and external disturbances.

Definition 4.1 [63]. The perturbed system (4.2) is said to have the nonlinear bock controllable form if the matrix Bi ( ) , i = 1, 2,..., r has full rank, i.e.

rank B i x i = n i .
The integers n1 ,..., nr define the dimension of the ith block (system structure) and satisfy
n1 n2 nr = m,

( )

i =1 i

n = n.

The control objective is to design a controller such that the output y in (4.2) tracks a desired reference x1ref (t ) with bounded derivatives, in spite of unknown but bounded perturbations.

To induce quasi sliding mode in the ith block of the system (4.2), the continuously differentiable sigmoid function sigm ( / ) defined as
e / e / e / + e / where 1/ is the slope of the sigmoid function at = 0 , will be used since lim sigm ( / ) = sign ( ) . sigm ( / ) = tanh ( / ) , tanh ( / ) =
0

32

4.3 Control design

According to the block control technique [63], the state xi +1 , i = 1, ..., r 1 is considered as a virtual control vector in the ith block of the system (4.2). The design procedure is described in r steps. Step 1. The control error in the first block of the system (4.2) is defined as z1 = x1 x1ref := 1 ( x1 ) then z1 = f1 ( x1 ) + B1 ( x1 ) x 2 + g1 ( t , x1 ) (4.3) with g1 ( t , x1 ) = g1 ( t , x1 ) x1ref . The virtual control x 2 in (4.3) is redefined of the form x 2 = x 2,0 + x 2,1 the new desired ones, k1z1 , k1 > 0 , i. e. (4.4)

where the nominal part, x 2,0 is selected to eliminate the old dynamics in (4.3) and introduce
+ x 2,0 = B1 ( x1 ) ( f1 ( x1 ) + k1z1 E1z 2 ) ,

k1 > 0

(4.5)

n n + where z 2 R n2 is a new variables vector, E1 = I n 1 0 R 1 2 and B1 is the right pseudo + T T inverse of B1 , defined as B1 = B1 (B1B1 ) 1 .

In order to reject the perturbation term g1 ( t , x1 ) in (4.3), the second part of the virtual

control (4.4), x 2,1 is designed by using the integral sliding mode technique [43]. The pseudosliding manifold s1 is chosen as s1 = z1 + 1 = 0 , s1 , 1 R 1 . Then, from (4.3)-(4.6) it follows s1 = k1z1 + E1z 2 + B1 ( x1 ) x 2,1 + g1 ( t , x1 ) + 1 .
n

(4.6) (4.7) (4.8) (4.9) (4.10)

Choosing the dynamics for the integral variable 1 of the form the equation (4.7) becomes

1 = k1z1 E1z 2 , 1 ( 0 ) = z1 ( 0 ) s1 = B1 ( x1 ) x 2,1 + g1 ( t , x1 ) .

+ x 2,1 = 1 (x1 )B1 sigm ( s1 / 1 )

The control input x 2,1 in (4.9) is selected as follows: where sigm ( s1 / 1 ) = sigm ( s1,1 / 1 ) , , sigm s1, n1 / 1 . Substituting (4.4), (4.5) and (4.10) in (4.4) results in z1 = -k1z1 + E1z 2 1 (x1 ) sigm ( s1 / 1 ) + g1 ( t , z1 ) . (4.11)
T

If

the

matrix

M1 ( x1 ) R
T

( n 2 n 1 ) n 2

is

chosen

such

that

the

square

matrix

B 2 ( x1 ) = B1 ( x1 ) M1 ( x1 ) has full rank.

33

The new variables vector z 2 can be obtained from equations (4.4), (4.5) and (4.10) as

s1 f1 ( x1 ) k11 ( x1 ) 1 (x1 ) sigm z 2 = B2 x2 + 1 := 2 ( x2 ) 0

T

(4.12)

where x2 = [ x1 x 2 ] . The procedure described above can be implemented to the ith block of (4.2) as follows. Step i. At this step, the dynamics of the transformed ith block of the system (4.2) are given by z i = fi ( xi ) + Bi ( xi ) xi +1 + gi ( t , xi ) (4.13) where z i R ni is a new variables vector, gi ( ) = gi 1 ( t , xi ) d dt i 1 ( xi 1 ) sigm ( si 1 i 1 ) , z i = i ( xi ) , and Bi = Bi Bi . The virtual control xi +1 in (4.13) is redefined as xi +1 = xi +1,0 + xi +1,1 . respectively, of the form xi +1,0 = Bi + ( xi ) ( fi ( xi ) + ki z i Ei z i +1 ) ,
xi +1,1 = i ( xi )Bi+ sigm ( si / i ) ,

(4.14)

Taking into account the procedure achieved in step 1, xi +1,0 and xi +1,1 are selected, ki > 0

(4.15) (4.16)

i > 0

n n where z i +1 R ni+1 is a new variables vector, Ei = I n i 0 R i i+1 and Bi + = BT (Bi BT ) 1 . The i i proposed pseudo-sliding manifold and its derived dynamics, respectively, are: n si = z i + i = 0 , si , i R i ,

si = ki z i + Ei z i +1 + Bi ( xi ) xi +1,1 + gi ( t , xi ) + i . i = ki z i Ei z i +1 , i ( 0 ) = z i ( 0 )

(4.17) (4.18)

If i satisfies

the equation (4.17) can be rewritten as si = i ( xi ) sigm ( si / i ) + gi ( t , xi ) , i ( xi ) > 0 . The substitution of (4.15) and (4.16) in the block (4.13) yields z i = -ki z i + Ei z i +1 i ( xi ) sigm ( si / i ) + gi ( t , xi ) . Again, choosing a (n i +1 n i ) n i +1
T

matrix

M i ( zi )

such that the square matrix

Bi +1 ( xi ) = Bi ( xi ) M i ( xi )

has full rank, the new variables vector z i +1 can be obtained

, i = 2,..., r 1,

from equations (4.13)-(4.16) as si fi ( xi ) ki i ( xi ) i ( xi ) sigm z i +1 = Bi +1xi +1 + i 0 := i +1 ( xi +1 ) .

34

Step r. At the last step, the transformed complete system can be presented in the new variables z1 ,, z r as
z i = ki z i + Ei z i +1 i ( xi ) sigm ( si / i ) + gi ( t , zi ) z r = f r ( z ) + B r ( z ) u + g r ( t , z ) , i = 1, , r 1 si = i ( xi ) sigm ( si / i ) + gi ( t , zi )

(4.19)

where B r ( ) = B r 1 ( ) B r ( ) has full rank since nr = m . Design the control input u in (4.19) as u = u 0 + u1 and define a sliding variable s r R of the form
nr

(4.20) (4.21) (4.22)

s r = z r + r , r R nr .

Then Choosing

s r = fr ( z ) + B r ( z ) u 0 + B r ( z ) u1 + gr ( t , z ) + r . r = fr ( x ) B r ( x ) u 0 , r ( 0 ) = z r ( 0 )

simplifies the equation (4.22) to

s r = B r ( z ) u1 + g r ( t , z ) .

(4.23) (4.24)

The second part of the control input (4.20) is selected as u1 = r (x)B r 1sign ( s r ) , r (z ) > 0 .

Now, the sliding variable s r stability is analyzed. First since the perturbation function g i ( ) are bounded then we assume B.1 There is a known positive function i ( zi ) such that gi (t , zi ) i ( zi ), i = 1,..., r (4.25) 1 Considering the Lyapunov function Vr = s r T s r , and using (4.25) it follows 2 T Vr = s r r (z ) sign ( s r ) + g r ( t , z ) . (4.26) s r T r (z ) sign ( s r ) + r ( z ) From (4.26) it is easy to see that under the condition r (z ) > r (z )
the derivative Vr is definite negative and sliding mode occurs on the manifold s r = 0 (4.21) in a finite time. Solving (4.23) for u1 , formally setting s r = 0 allows to obtain
u1eq = B r 1 ( z ) g r ( t , z )

where u1eq ( t , z ) is the equivalent control [43]. Therefore, the integral control (4.24) rejects the perturbation term g r ( t , x ) in the last block of (4.19):
z r = fr ( z ) + B r ( z ) u 0 + B r ( z ) u1eq + g r ( t , z )

35

and we obtain Now, selecting

z r = fr ( z ) + B r ( z ) u 0 .

u 0 = B 1 ( z ) fr ( z ) + kr z r , kr > 0 r

the sliding mode dynamics are described by z i = ki z i + Ei z i +1 i ( xi ) sigm(si / i ) + gi ( t , zi ) si = i ( zi ) sigm ( si / i ) + gi ( t , zi ) z r = kr z r , i = 1, , r 1. Now, it is possible to establish the following result:
Theorem 4.1. If Assumption B.1 (4.25) is satisfied, then, there exist positive constants h1 ,..., hr 1 such that the solutions of the system (4.25) are uniformly bounded, i. e.

(4.27)

z i ( t ) hi , i = 1,..., r 1.
Proof. The proof is constructive and consists of r steps, beginning with the last block of (4.25)|. Step r. Using the Lyapunov function Vr = 1 z r T z r , leads to 2 2 Vr kr z r , kr > 0 .

Thus, the trajectories of the last variables vector z r are asymptotically stable.
Step r-1. Proceeding in similar way as in previous step, the Lyapunov function 1 Vr 1 = s r 1T s r 1 is proposed, then using (4.27) and (4.25) we have 2 Vr 1 = s r 1T r 1 ( zr 1 ) sigm ( s r 1 ) + g r 1 ( t , zr 1 ) . (4.28) s r 1T r 1 ( zr 1 ) sigm ( s r 1 ) + r 1 ( zr 1 ) In the region s r 1 > r 1 the equation (4.28) becomes
Vr 1 = s r 1T r 1 ( xr 1 ) sign ( s r 1 ) + r 1 ( zr 1 ) . s r 1 r 1 ( xr 1 ) r 1 ( zr 1 )

(4.29)

Moreover, under the condition

r 1 ( zr 1 ) > r 1 ( zr 1 ) ,

s r 1 will be decreasing until it reaches the set

{s

r 1

r 1}

in a finite time and it remains inside. The upper bound of this reaching time can be calculated by using the comparison lemma as follows: tr 1 s r 1 ( 0 ) r 1 .

36

Furthermore,

x r 1,1eq = ( i ( zi ) sigm ( si / i ) )eq fulfills

there

is

r 1 > 0

such

that

for

t > tr 1

the

equivalent

control

s r 1 (t ) = x r 1,1eq (t ) + gr 1 (t , zr 1 ) r 1 r 1

(4.30)

where r 1 r 1 is the error introduced by using the quasi control law (4.16). To analyze the stability of the r-1 block of the system (4.25) with the state vector z r 1 , the Lyapunov function Vr 1 = 1 z r 1T z r 1 is considered and its time derivative is derived as 2
s Vr 1 = z r 1T kr 1z r 1 + Er 1z r r 1 ( zr 1 ) sigm r 1 r 1 + gr 1 ( t , zr 1 )
2 s kr 1 z r 1 + z r 1 z r r 1 ( zr 1 ) sigm r 1 r 1 + gr 1 ( t , zr 1 ) .

In the region s r 1 > r 1 , the derivative Vr 1 becomes

2 s Vr 1 kr 1 z r 1 + z r 1 z r r 1 ( zr 1 ) sign r 1 r 1 + gr 1 ( t , z )

kr 1 z r 1 + z r 1 z r + s r 1
2

and considering (4.30), it can be rewritten as

Vr 1 kr 1 z r 1 + z r 1 z r + r 1 r 1 .
2

(4.31)

Because the solution z r (t ) tends asymptotically to zero, therefore, there is r > 0 such that
z r (t ) r for all t > tr 1

Hence the derivative (4.31) for t > tr 1 becomes

Vr 1 kr 1 z r 1 + z r 1 r 1 + kr 1 r 1 z r 1 kr 1 r 1 z r 1
2 2 2

= kr 1 (1 r 1 ) z r 1 z r 1 ( kr 1 r 1 z r 1 r 1 )
2

(4.32)

kr 1 (1 r 1 ) z r 1 ,
2

z r 1 > where r 1 = r + r 1 r 1 .

1 kr 1 r 1

r 1 , 0 < r 1 < 1

(4.33)

Choosing kr 1 > 0 ensures that the derivative Vr 1 (4.32) is negative outside the region (4.33). Hence, after t = tr 1 the solution z r 1 (t ) enters ultimately into the region defined by

z r 1 hr 1,

hr 1 =

1 kr 1 r 1

r 1

(4.34)

This shows that the solution z r 1 is ultimately bounded by (4.34), and arbitrarily will fast decay to zero as kr 1 .

37

Step i. The step r-1 can be generalized for the block i, with i= r-2, , 1. 1 In the region si > i the derivative of the Lyapunov function Vi = siT si , is calculated as 2 T Vi = si i ( zi ) sign ( si ) + gi ( t , zi ) siT i ( zi ) sign ( si ) + i ( zi ) s i i ( zi ) + i ( zi ) Again, under the condition i ( zi ) > i ( zi ) , si enters region ti s i ( 0 ) i . The equivalent quasi control xi ,1eq for t > ti > > tr 1 satisfies (4.36) si = xi ,1eq + gi (t , zi ) < i i , i > 0 . Considering the function Vi = 1 z iT z i inside the region si > i , it follows 2
Vi ki z i ki z i
2

(4.35) i } in finite time given by

{s

s + z i z i +1 i ( zi ) sign i + gi ( t , zi ) i + z i z i +1 + si .
z i +1 (t ) < i +1 , t > ti

(4.37)

Due to the solution z i +1 (t ) is bounded by Then, for t > ti , (4.37) becomes

Vi ki z i
2

+ z i i + kii z i
2 2

kii z i

= ki (1 i ) z i

z i ( kii z i i )

(4.38)

ki (1 i ) z i ,

where i = i +1 + i i . Selecting ki > 0 , the derivative (4.38) is negative outside the region defined by 1 zi > i , 0 < i < 1 kii Thus, for t > ti it follows 1 z i hi , hi = i kii bounded by z r 1 < hr 1 z1 < h1 and tends to zero as ki .

(4.39)

Therefore, using (4.39) we can conclude that the solutions z r 1 (t ) , .., z1 (t ) are ultimately

38

Chapter 5
Passivity and Vector Lyapunov Function with Sliding Modes
5.1 Introduction
This chapter develops two control techniques applied to nonlinear systems. Both of the proposed methodologies are robust with respect to bounded perturbations. Particularly, all the bounded perturbation that affect EPS can be rejected by the application of the nonlinear techniques presented in this chapter. The first control technique proposed is Passivity with Sliding Modes (PSM). PSM is applied to nonlinear systems with dissipative terms presented in the Hamiltonian form. The passivity technique is based on the energy function of the system. The mathematical model is obtained by using the system Hamiltonian, given by the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The traditional passivity control law feedbacks the system output. However, the closed-loop system lack robustness and the system converges to the desired value asymptotically. Then, the combination of passivity with sliding modes is proposed to add robustness to the closed-loop system. Additionally, sliding modes technique enables convergence to the steady-state in a finite time. Then, the system will be robust with respect to bounded matched perturbations. Moreover, the perturbations are cancelled in a finite time. The second control algorithm is applied to NBC systems. The Vector Lyapunov functions with Sliding Modes technique (VLSM) is based on the combination of sliding modes with the Lyapunov functions of each block of the system. This combination enables to reject bounded matched and perturbations.

5.2 Passivity with SM

Consider the class of nonlinear systems that can be presented in the nonlinear Hamiltonian form with dissipative terms [21], i. e. H x = J ( x ) R ( x ) x ( x ) + B ( x ) u + g ( x, t ) , (5.1) H y (x) = B (x) (x) , x where x R n is the estate vector, u R m is the control input, y ( x ) R m is the system output,
g ( x ) is the perturbation term that contains parameter variations and external disturbances,
H ( x ) is the Hamiltonian function, which represents the total stored energy, given by the sum

of the potential and kinetic energies. The skew-symmetric matrix J ( x ) , contains the states interconnections and R ( x ) is a semi-definite positive matrix.

The passivity property is established as follows: Definition 5.1. System (5.1) is passive with respect to the supply rate r ( x) = u T y if there exits a continuous differentially function H (x) called the storage function such that

H (x) H (x0 ) + u T y dt .
t0

t1

In order to asymptotically stabilize the system (5.1), the classical passivity theory employs the static output feedback [21] (5.2) u = ky ( x ) , k > 0 . Continuous control law (5.2) guarantees asymptotic convergence in absence of perturbations only, i.e. when g ( x ) = 0 and lacks robustness in the perturbed system (5.1). Therefore, to solve the above problems, in this work, a robust control scheme is developed based on combination of Passivity and Integral Sliding Modes (PSM); it will be presented in the next section. In accordance with ISM technique [43] we assume that the perturbation satisfies the matching condition g ( x, t ) = B ( x ) g ( x, t ) , g R m (5.3) the control input u in (5.1) is redefined as u = u 0 + u1 (5.4) where the part u 0 is chosen to stabilize the system (5.1) and the second part u1 is designed to function s
m

reject the bounded unknown perturbation term g ( x ) in (5.1). Then the sliding variables vector is selected as
s = s 0 ( x ) + , s 0 ,
m

(5.5)

where is the integral variables vector. Using (5.1)(5.5) the projection motion of the system on subspace s1 is derived of the form
H s = G ( x) J ( x ) R ( x ) x ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 + B ( x )( u1 + g (x, t ) ) + (5.6)

with G = (5.6), i. e.

s 0 . Then, integral vector dynamics is chosen to cancel the nominal dynamics in x

H = G (x) J ( x ) R ( x ) x ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 , (0) = s 0 ( x ( 0 ) ) . Then, system (5.6) reduces to s = M (x) [u1 + g (x, t ) ] , M (x)=G (x)(x) . Choosing the second part u1 of the control input (5.4), as u1 = sign(s(x)), > 0 . (5.7)

40

Then, under the condition > g (x, t ) a sliding mode motion is induced on the manifold
s = s 0 ( x ) + = 0 in finite time, and the equivalent control u1,eq calculated from

s = M (x) u1eq + g (x, t ) = 0 of the form

u1,eq = g ( x, t )

rejects exactly the perturbation term g ( x ) in (5.1). The sliding mode motion on the sliding manifold s(x) = 0 is described by unperturbed system H x = J ( x ) R ( x ) x ( x ) + B ( x ) u 0 , H y = B (x) (x) , x Now, the nominal control input u 0 in (5.8) is designed of the form
u 0 = k g y ( x ) sign ( H ( x ) ) , k g > 0 .

(5.8)

(5.9)

Stability of the closed-loop system (5.8) and (5.9) will be analyzed in the next.

Theorem 4.1. If

H H T C.1 R ( x) + k g y y = (x(t )) > > 0, k g > 0 x x then, the discontinuous control law (5.9) guarantee that the solution of system (5.8) converge to zero in a finite time.
T

Proof: Consider the candidate Lyapunov function 1 V = H 2 (x) , 2 Taking into account the following power balance [21]
dH H H T = R ( x) + u y (x) dt x x
T

(5.10)

(5.11)

then
T H dV H T R ( x) = H ( x ) k g y ysign ( s (x) ) dt x x

H H T H (x) R ( x) kg y y H ( x ) x x T H H T H (x) R ( x) + kg y y . x x
T

(5.12)

From C.1, the derivative (5.12) is definite negative, which guaranties the convergence of the state vector to the manifold H ( x ) = 0 .

41

Then V < H ( x ) , or

V < 2V . Using the Comparison Lemma [31] a solution of (5.13) can be estimated as 2 1 V < 2V ( t0 ) ( t t0 ) 2V . 2 H ( t ) < H ( t0 ) ( t t0 ) . Thus H (t ) vanishes in Then t s < t0 + 1

(5.13)

finite

time

H ( t0 ) ,

> 0 and sliding mode motion starts on the manifold H ( x ) = 0 after

this time.

5.3 Vector Lyapunov Functions with Sliding Modes

The ISMBC technique developed in Chapter 4 can be modified if, for each step a sliding variable is chosen as a Lyapunov function. In this case, the closed-loop system stability analysis is simpler since it is reduced to the stability analysis of a vector Lyapunov function dynamics [70]. Consider the class of perturbed nonlinear SISO systems represented (possible after a nonlinear transformation) in the NBC form:
x1 = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) x2 + g1 ( t , x1 ) x2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) x3 + g 2 ( t , x2 ) xi = f i ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) xi +1 + gi ( t , xi ) xr = f r ( x ) + br ( x ) u + g r ( t , x ) , y = x1
T

.
i = 3, 4,..., r 1
T

(5.12)

where x = [ x1 xr ] R n is the state vector, xi = [ x1 xi ] ; u is the scalar control input,

fi ( ) and bi ( ) are smooth functions, bi ( x ) > 0, x , gi ( ) is a bounded unknown

perturbation term due to parameter variations and external disturbances. Moreover, all blocks are of the same dimension, i.e., n1 = n2 = = nr = 1 . The Vector Lyapunov functions approach with SM control for the system (5.12) is designed in r steps as follows. Step 1. The control error in the first block of the system (5.12) is defined as z1 = x1 xref then with g1 ( t , x1 ) = g1 ( t , x1 ) xref .
z1 = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) x2 + g1 ( t , x1 )

(5.13)

42

The virtual control xi +1 in (5.13) is defined as x2 = x2,0 + x2,1 thus z1 = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) x2,0 + b1 ( x1 ) x2,1 + g1 ( t , x1 )

(5.14) (5.15)

where the second part x2,1 will be selected to stabilize this block and the fist part, x2,0 is chosen such that to introduce a new variable as follows x2,0 = z2 (5.16) where z2 is a new variable. Then, using (5.13)(516) yields
z1 = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) z2 + b1 ( x1 ) x2,1 + g1 ( t , x1 )

(5.17)

To design the second part of (5.14), x2,1 , the first block Lyapunov function is proposed of the form 1 2 z1 2 The time derivative of (5.18) along the trajectories of (5.17) is given by V1 ( z1 ) = z1 f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) z2 + b1 ( x1 ) x2,1 + g1 ( t , x1 ) .

V1 ( z1 ) =

(5.18)

(5.19)

The second part of virtual control (5.14) x2,1 is designed to stabilize the first block as
V (z ) (5.20) x2,1 = k1 z1sigm 1 1 , k1 > 0, 1 > 0 1 where sigm ( ) is the continuously differentiable sigmoidal function defined in Chapter 4.

Substituting (5.20) in (5.19), we obtain V ( z ) V1 ( z1 ) = z1 f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) z2 + g1 ( t , x1 ) k1sigm 1 1 . 1 The procedure described above will be applied to the second block of system (5.12).
Step 2. The new variable z2 can be obtained from (5.14), (5.16) and (5.20) of the form

(5.21)

V (z ) z2 = x2 + k1 z1sigm 1 1 . 1 Taking the time derivative of (5.22), results in z2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) x3 + g 2 ( t , x2 )

(5.22) (5.23)

where g 2 ( t , x2 ) = g 2 ( t , x2 ) + k1

V1 ( z1 ) d z1sigm . dt 1
(5.24) (5.25)

If the virtual control x3 in (5.23) is defined as x3 = x3,0 + x3,1 then, it follows

z2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) x3,0 + b2 ( x2 ) x3,1 + g 2 ( t , x2 ) .

43

Selecting the first part of the virtual control x3,0 , of the form x3,0 = z3 we obtain
z2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) z3 + b2 ( x2 ) x3,1 + g 2 ( t , x2 )

(5.26) (5.27)

where z3 is a new variable. Choosing the Lyapunov function V2 ( z2 ) = yields 1 2 z2 2 (5.28)

V2 = z2 f 2 ( x2 ) + z3 + g 2 ( t , x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) x3,1 .

The second part of (5.24), x3,1 , is designed of the form

V (z ) (5.29) x3,1 = k2 z2 sigm 2 2 , k2 > 0 . 2 Then the derivative (5.28) becomes V ( z ) V2 ( z2 ) = z2 f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) z3 + g 2 ( t , x ) k2b2 ( x2 ) z2 sigm 2 2 . 2 The procedure done in the steps 1 and 2 can be generalized for the other blocks as follows:

Step i. The ith variable zi and its derivative can be expressed as, respectively
V (z ) zi = xi + ki 1 zi 1sigm i 1 i 1 , i = 1, 2,..., r 1 , i 1 zi = fi ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) xi +1 + gi ( t , xi )

and with gi ( t , xi ) = gi ( t , xi ) + ki 1

(5.30)

Vi 1 ( zi 1 ) d zi 1sigm . dt i 1
(5.31) (5.32) (5.33)

Selecting the virtual control xi +1 in (5.30) as xi +1 = xi +1,0 + xi +1,1 we obtain Select xi +1 as xi +1 = zi +1 then
zi = f i ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) xi +1,0 + bi ( xi ) xi +1,1 + gi ( t , xi ) .

zi = f i ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) zi +1 + bi ( xi ) xi +1,1 + g i ( t , xi )

(5.34)

again zi +1 is a new variable.

44

According to previous steps, a Lyapunov function is proposed of the form 1 Vi ( zi ) = zi 2 . 2 Then Vi ( zi ) = zi f i ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) zi +1 + g i ( t , xi ) + bi ( xi ) xi +1,1 .

Choosing the virtual control xi +1,1 as

V (z ) xi +1,1 = ki zi sigm i i , ki > 0 . i

(5.35)

it follows
V ( z ) Vi = zi f i ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) zi +1 + g i ( t , xi ) 2kiVi ( zi ) bi ( xi ) sigm i i . i Step r. Finally, at this step we have
V (z ) zr = br 1 ( xr 1 ) xr + kr 1 zr 1sigm r 1 r 1 r 1 the transformed last block dynamics of the system (5.12) is given by zr = f r ( x ) + br ( x ) u + g r ( t , x )

(5.36)

with g r ( t , x ) = g r ( t , x ) + kr 1

Vr 1 ( zr 1 ) d zr 1sigm . dt r 1
1 2 zr . 2

The following Lyapunov function is proposed Vr ( zr ) = Then

Vr ( zr ) = zr f r ( x ) + br ( x ) u + g ( t , x ) .

(5.37)

The control input u is chosen as u = kr zr sign (Vr ( zr ) ) , k g > 0 . Substituting (5.38) in (5.37) we have Vr ( zr ) = zr r ( x ) 2kr br ( x ) Vr ( zr ) sign (Vr ( zr ) )

(5.38)

where r ( x ) = f r ( x ) + g r ( t , x ) .

45

Thus, the closed-loop system stability analysis is reduced to analyze the dynamics stability T of the vector Lyapunov function V = [V1 , V2 , ..., Vr ] as follows
V1 ( z1 ) z11 ( x1 , z2 ) 2k1V1 ( z1 ) b1 ( x1 ) sigm 1 V ( z ) V1 ( z1 ) z22 ( x2 , z3 ) 2k2V2 ( z2 ) b2 ( x2 ) sigm 2 2 2 V2 ( z2 ) = . Vi ( zi ) Vi ( zi ) V ( z ) zii ( xi , zi +1 ) 2kiVi ( zi ) bi ( xi ) sigm r r i Vr ( zr ) zr r ( x ) kr br ( x ) Vr ( zr ) sign r

(5.39)

Outside the regions

V1 ( z1 ) > 1 , V2 ( z2 ) > 2 , Vi ( zi ) > i , i = 3,..., r 1

the vector Lyapunov function dynamics (5.39) becomes V1 ( z1 ) z11 ( x1 , z2 ) 2k1V1 ( z1 ) b1 ( x1 ) sign (V1 ( z1 ) ) V2 ( z2 ) z22 ( x2 , z3 ) 2k2V2 ( z2 ) b2 ( x2 ) sign (V2 ( z2 ) ) = Vi ( zi ) zii ( xi , zi +1 ) 2kiVi ( zi ) bi ( xi ) sign (Vi ( zi ) ) V ( z ) r r zr r ( x ) kr br ( x ) Vr ( zr ) sign (Vr ( zr ) ) or, equivalently V1 ( z1 ) 2k1b1 ( x1 ) 1 ( x1 , z2 ) V1 ( z1 ) V ( z ) 2k b ( x ) ( x , z ) 2 2 3 V2 ( z2 ) 2 2 2 2 2 . Vi ( zi ) Vi ( zi ) 2ki bi ( xi ) i ( xi , zi +1 ) Vr ( zr ) V ( z ) 2b ( x ) k ( x ) r r r r r

(5.40)

(5.41)

46

where

1 ( x1 , z2 ) = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) z2 + g1 ( t , x1 ) 2 ( x2 , z3 ) = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) z3 + g 2 ( t , x2 ) i ( xi , zi +1 ) = fi ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) zi +1 + gi ( t , xi ) , i = 1, 2,..., r 1
Thus, under the conditions:
1 1 b1 ( x1 ) 1 ( x1 , z2 ) 2 1 k2 > b2 1 ( x2 ) 2 ( x2 , z3 ) 2 k1 > 1 1 bi ( xi ) i ( xi , zi +1 ) 2 1 kr > br 1 ( x ) r ( x ) 2 ki >
.

the vector Lyapunov function solutions V1 ( t ) ,, Vr 1 ( t ) will be bounded by

{V ( t ) } , {V ( t ) } ,
1 1 2 2

. i = 3,..., r 1

(5.42)

{V ( t ) } ,
i i

The upper bound of the reaching time of the vector Lyapunov function to the regions defined by (5.42) can be calculated by using the comparison lemma [31] of the form t1 V1 ( 0 ) 1 , t2 V2 ( 0 ) 2 ti Vi ( 0 ) i Thus, if Vi ( t ) i , t > ti , it follows z1 21 , z2 2 2 , zi 2 i , i = 1, 2,...r 1 . .

47

The sliding mode motion of the system (3.12) is described by V (z ) z1 = f1 ( x1 ) + b1 ( x1 ) z2 + g1 ( t , x1 ) k1 z1sigm 1 1 1 V (z ) z2 = f 2 ( x2 ) + b2 ( x2 ) z3 + g 2 ( t , x 2 ) k2 z2 sigm 2 2 2
V (z ) zi = fi ( xi ) + bi ( xi ) zi +1 + g i ( t , xi ) ki zi sigm i i , i = 1, 2,..., r 1 i and the solution Vr (t ) converges to zero in finite time.

(5.43)

Now, it is possible to establish the following result.

Theorem 5.2.Under the assumption B.1 (4.25), there exist positive constants 1 ,..., r 1 such that the solution of control-loop system (5.31) with (5.33) and (5.35) is uniformly ultimately bounded, i. e. zi ( t ) i , i = 1,...r.

The proof of Theorem 5.2 it follows from the control design procedure described above.

Remark. It is important to note that the bound given by the VLSM technique is smaller than the presented by the ISMBC technique. Moreover, since the transformation presented here is simpler than presented by ISMBC, it is easier to design a controller by using VLSM.

48

Chapter 6
Electric Power Systems Control
6.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the EPS rotor angle stability. The application of the control schemes previously developed is presented. There are two control objectives, first, regulate the terminal voltage and then stabilize the rotor speed. The controllers proposed are robust under external disturbances such as generators and/or lines short circuits, mechanical torque variations, etc., as well as internal perturbations, e. g. changes in electrical network configuration, load variations, parameter variations, etc. Four control schemes are proposed. All of them guarantee terminal voltage regulation and speed stabilization. First a voltage regulator is designed and then there are four possibilities to stabilize the rotor speed: a) Stabilize the rotor speed directly by means of ISMBC technique. b) Stabilize the rotor speed by stabilizing the rotor angle using ISMBC. c) Stabilize the rotor speed via PSM. d) The rotor speed is stabilized by using LSM methodology. The voltage regulator and the speed stabilizers are combined in each control schemes. The stability of each controller is analyzed. Section 6.2 outlines the voltage regulation design via integral sliding modes. Section 6.3 presents the application of ISMBC to EPS, two speed stabilizers are proposed. A speed stabilizer obtained by using the PSM technique is presented in section 6.4. Finally, section 6.5 describes the LSM methodology is applied to design the fourth speed stabilizer.

6.2

Voltage Regulation

6.2.1 Control design In this section, the voltage regulation problem is studied. The Sliding Mode Voltage Regulator (SMVR) is proposed. First, it is necessary to obtain the dynamics for the generator terminal voltage. The terminal voltage, vgi , is defined as
vgi 2 = vdi 2 + vqi 2 .

(6.1)

Using (2.33), vdi and vqi are calculated of the form

vdi v i = = H i1[ A zi z i + f zi (xi )] . (6.2) vqi Then, the dynamics for terminal voltage, vgi can be obtained from (6.1), (6.2), (2.31), and (2.32) as [55]
vgi = f vi (xi , z i ) + bvi v fi + g vi (xi , z i , Tmi )

(6.3)

where f vi (xi , z i ) is the nominal part of the voltage dynamics and the perturbation term

contains parameter variations and external disturbances, bvi (t ), t 0 . Moreover

gvi (xi , zi , Tmi )

bvi = hi 2bi 4 ,

1 f vi ( xi , z i ) = vdi ( xi , z i ) 1i ( xi , z i ) + vqi ( xi , z i ) 2i ( xi , z i ) , bvi = hi 2 bi 4 + ki 4 bi 4 x2i , ki1 hi 2 ( bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 zdi ) + hi 3 ( di1 x3i + di 2 x5i + di 3 z1i ) + 1 x2i ( ri1 x4i + ri 2 x6i + ri 3 z2i ) + , 1i ( xi , z i ) = x2i ( ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3 z2i ) + hi1 hi 4 +h ( f (x , z , T ) q (x , z ) x ) x i 5 ( f (x , z , T ) q (x , z ) x ) x i i i mi i i i 3i 4i i i i 3i 6i i i i mi ki 2 x4i + ki 3 ( ri1 x4i + ri 2 x6i + ri 3 z2i ) + 1 2i ( xi , i i ) = ki 4 ( x2i ( bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 z1i ) + ( fi (xi , i i , Tmi ) qi (xi , i i ) x3i ) x3i ) , ki1 + ki 5 ( x2i ( di1 x3i + di 2 x5i + di 3 z1i ) + ( fi (xi , z i , Tmi ) qi (xi , z i ) x3i ) x5i ) d d d d d g vi ( xi , z i ) = hi 6 zdi + hi 7 x2i zqi + x2i zqi + ki 6 x2i zdi + x2i + ki 7 zqi + hi 8 v fi + f vi . dt dt dt dt dt Defining the voltage control error evi = vgi vrefi
and the control input v fi
v fi = v fi ,0 + v fi ,1

(6.4)

we have

evi = f vi (xi , z i ) + bvi v fi ,0 + bvi v fi ,1 + g vi (xi , z i , Tmi )

(6.5)

where vrefi is the constant reference voltage. To design a robust controller we use the integral sliding mode approach [43]. In order to reject the perturbation term gvi (xi , zi , Tmi ) in (6.5) a sliding variable svi R is formulated as svi = evi + vi (6.6) with the integral variable vi R . Then from (6.5) and (6.6) it follows (6.7) svi = f vi (xi , z i ) + bvi v fi ,0 + bvi v fi ,1 + g vi (xi , z i , Tmi ) + vi . Choosing vi = f vi (xi , z i ) bvi v fi ,0 , vi (0) = evi (0) results in svi = bvi v fi ,1 + g vi (xi , z i , Tmi ) . (6.8)
Select v f i ,1 in (6.8) as
v f i ,1 = 2i sign( svi ), 2i > 0 .

(6.9)

From (6.8), under the condition 2i > bvi 1 g vi (xi , z i , Tmi ) a sliding mode is enforced on the
manifold svi = 0 (6.6) from the initial time instant t = 0 . The equivalent control
v f i ,1eq = bvi1 g vi (xi , z i , Tmi )

50

calculated as a solution of svi = 0 (6.7), compensates exactly the perturbation term g vi (xi , z i , Tmi ) in (6.3) [43], and the sliding mode motion is described by the unperturbed system (6.10) evi = f vi (xi , z i ) + bvi v fi ,0 . Now, it is necessary to achieve the terminal voltage regulation, i. e. the control input v fi ,0 in (6.10) is selected of the form
v fi ,0 = k gi sign ( evi ) .

(6.11)

6.2.2 Stability analysis Consider the Lyapunov function

1 V = evi 2 . 2 Then

V = evi f vi (xi , z i ) + bvi v fi ,0 . Substituting (6.11) in (6.12) we have V = evi f vi (xi , z i ) bvi k gi sign ( evi )
= evi f vi (xi , z i ) bvi evi k gi sign ( evi ) evi f vi (xi , z i ) bvi evi k gi evi bvi k gi f vi (xi , z i ) .

(6.12)

Thus under the condition k g > bvi 1 f vi (xi , z i ) = v fi ,0 eq the terminal voltage control error evi tends to zero in a finite time [43]. (6.13)

6.3

Rotor angle stability: Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control.

This section presents the design of nonlinear robust controllers based on the ISMBC technique presented in chapter 3. Two control schemes are proposed. The first scheme proposes the stabilization of the rotor speed [59] and the second one stabilizes the rotor angle [60].
6.3.1 Speed stabilization This section presents the design of the Integral Sliding Mode Speed Stabilizer (ISMSS).

51

6.3.1.1 Control design The reduced order model for the ith generator model described in the chapter 2, is given by (6.14) x1i = f1i ( xi , i ( xi , v i ) ) + b1i v fi
x 2i = f 2i ( xi , i ( xi v i ) )

(6.15)

x2i b ai1 x3i 2i ( xi , v i ) + ai 2 x4i 1i ( xi , v i ) + b where f1i ( x, z ) = Tmi , a x ( x , v ) + a x ( x , v ) + a ( x , v ) ( x , v ) 2H i 3 5i 2 i i i i 4 6 i 1i i i i 5 1i i i 2i i i bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 1i ( xi , v i ) ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3 2i ( xi , v i ) 0 f 2i ( xi , z i ) = di1 x3i + di 2 x5i + di 3 1i ( xi , v i ) , b1i = 0 . ri1 x4i + ri 2 x6i + ri 3 2i ( xi , v i ) 1
To achieve the first control objective, that is, the rotor speed stability enhancement, define the control error as z2i = x2i b . (6.16) Then, taking the time derivative of (6.16) along the trajectories of (6.14) yields z2i = f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) x3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) (6.17) where xi = ( x1i x 2i ) ,
T

fi () = d mi (ai 2 x4i idi + ai 3 x5i iqi ai 4 x6i idi + ai 5idi iqi ) ,

x3i = x3i ,0 + x3i ,1

qi () = a i1d mi i qi (6.18) (6.19)

and, qi (t ) > 0, t > 0 . Redefine the fictitious control, x3i in (6.16) as and select x3i ,0 of the form
x 3i ,0 = qi1 () f i () + k0i z2 i z3i , k0i > 0

where z3i is a new variable. To design the second part of (6.18), x3i ,1 define a pseudo-sliding variable s2i as s2 i = z 2 i + 2 i where 2i is an integral variable, then using (6.17)-(6.19) we have
s2 i = k 0 i z 2 i + z3 i + qi () x 3i ,1 + g 2 i () + 2 i .

(6.20)

Choosing the equation (6.20) becomes Now, select x 3i ,1 of the form

2 i = k 2 i z 2 i z3 i ,

2i (0) = z2i (0)

s2i = g 2 i ( xi ,Tmi ) + qi ( xi , v i ) x3i ,1 .

x 3i ,1 = 2i qi1 (xi , v i ) sigm( s2i / i ), 2i > 0 .

s i = f i () + qi () x3i + k2i z2i + 2i sigm ( s2i / i ) .

(6.21) (6.22)

From equations (6.18), (6.19) and (6.21) the control switching function s i = z3i is defined as

52

Finally the control law v f i is selected as v f i = k gi sign( s i ),

6.3.1.2 Stability analysis Let the Lyapunov function

k gi > 0 .

(6.23)

V= and its time derivative

1 2 si 2

V = si f s i (xi , v i ) + q si (xi , v i )v f i where f s i ( xi , v i ) and q si (xi , v i ) are continuous functions of time, moreover q si (t ) > 0, t > 0 . Considering (6.23), we obtain
V = si f s i (xi , v i ) k gi q si (xi , v i ) sign( s i ) si f s i (xi , v i ) q si (xi , v i ) si k gi si q si (xi , v i )k gi f s i (xi , v i ) . Then, when the following condition k gi > qsi 1 (xi , v i ) f si (xi , v i ) = v fi ,eq = si f s i (xi , v i ) q si (xi , v i ) si k gi sign ( si )

(6.24)

is fulfilled the solution of the closed loop system (6.14), (6.15) and (6.23) converges to the sliding manifold si = 0 (6.22) in a finite time. The sliding mode motion on this manifold is governed by the reduced order system x1i = z2i , (6.25) z 2i = k2i z2i 2i sigm( s2i / i ) + g 2i ()
s2i = 2i sigm( s2i / i ) + g 2i ( xi ,Tmi )

(6.26) (6.27)

x 2i = A 2i x 2i + f 2i ( xi , v i )

with i sufficiently small and under the condition

2i > g 2i ( xi , v i , Tmi )
a quasi sliding mode motion is enforced in a small i -vicinity of s2i = 0 . Thus, if i 0 the perturbation term in (6.25) is rejected, and the linearized mechanical dynamics can be represented as

x1i = z2i

z 2 i = k2 i z2 i
with the desired eigenvalue k 2i .

(6.28)

The equation (6.27) represents the rotor flux internal dynamics. The matrix A 2i is Hurwitz and the nonvanishing perturbation f 2i ( xi , v i ) is a continuous function. Therefore there exist an

53

admissible region where a solution x 2i (t ) of (6.27) is ultimately bounded [31] Moreover, the control error z 2i (6.16) tends exponentially to zero, and the angle x1i tends to a constant steady state, ssi . However, only one single eigenvalue of the closed-loop system (6.28) can be assigned. Then, in order to choose both eigenvalues, we propose another control scheme to control the rotor angle.
6.3.2 Rotor angle stabilization The Integral Sliding Mode Angle Stabilizer (ISMAS) is shown in this subsection. 6.3.2.1 Control design The rotor angle control error is defined as z1i = x1i i ,ref

(6.29)

where i ,ref is a reference power angle and it will be obtained from an observer in the next Section. Taking the time derivative of (6.29) along the trajectories of (6.14) yields z1i = x2 i b + g1i ( xi , vi ) i , ref . where g1i ( xi , vi ) = g1i ( xi , vi ) i ,ref . Redefine the fictitious control x2i in (6.30) as
x2i = x2 i ,0 + x2i ,1

(6.30) (6.31) (6.32)

and select x2i ,0 of the form

x2i ,0 = k1i z1i + z2 i + b

where z2i is a new variable. To design the second part of (6.31), x2i ,1 define a pseudo-sliding variable s1i as s1i = z 1i + 1i with 1i as an integral variable. Then using (6.30)-(6.32) we have s1i = k1i z1i + z2 i + x2i ,1 + g1i ( xi , v i ) + 1i . Choosing 1i = k1i z1i z2 i , 1i (0) = z1i (0) the equation (6.33) becomes s1i = g1i ( xi , v i ) + x2i ,1 . Now, select x 2i ,1 of the form x 2i ,1 = 1i sigm( s1i / 1i ), 1i > 0 . From equations (6.31), (6.32) and (6.34) the new variable z2i is defined as z2 = x2i b + k1i z1i + 1i sigm ( s1i / 1i ) and its dynamics are obtained as z2i = f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) x3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) where g 2i () = g 2i () + k1i g1i () i ,ref d dt 1i sigm ( s1i / 1i ) . Defining the fictitious control x3i in (6.35) in similar way as in (6.31), we have x3i = x3i ,0 + x3i ,1 . (6.34) (6.33)

(6.35)

(6.36)

54

Choose x3i ,0 and x3i ,1 , respectively of the form

x3i ,0

= qi1 (xi , v i ) f i (xi , v i ) + k2i z2i z3i x 3i ,1 = 2i sigm( s2i / 2i ), 2i > 0

(6.37) (6.38)

where k2i , 2i , 2i > 0 and s2i are selected as s2 i = z 2 i + 2 i , (6.39) with 2i = k2i z2i z3i , 2i (0) = z2i (0) . (6.40) Finally, from (6.36)-(6.38) the angle switching function s i = z3i is obtained of the form
s s i = f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) x3i ,0 + k2i z2i + 2i sigm 2i 2i and the control input v fi is proposed of the form

(6.41)

v fi = k gi sign( s i ),
6.3.2.2 Stability analysis The following Lyapunov function

k gi > 0 .

(6.42)

V= yields

1 2 s i 2

where f i () is a continuous function and b i ( t ) > 0, t > 0 . Considering (6.23), we obtain

V = s i f i (xi , v i ) k gi q i (xi , v i ) sign( s i ) = s i f i (xi , v i ) q i (xi , v i ) s i k gi sign ( s i ) s i f i (xi , v i ) q i (xi , v i ) s i k gi s i k gi q i (xi , v i ) f i (xi , v i ) . Therefore, under the following condition k gi > q i 1 (xi , v i ) f i (xi , v i ) = v fi ,eq

V = s i f i (xi , v i ) + q i (xi , v i )v f i

(6.43)

the system state (6.14), (6.15) and (6.42) converges to the angle sliding manifold s i = 0 (6.41) in a finite time. The sliding mode equation is described by the reduced order system

z 1i = k1i z1i + z2i 1i sigm( s1i / 1i ) + g1i (xi , vi )

z 2i = k2i z2i 2i sigm( s2i / 2i ) + g 2i (xi , vi , Tmi )

z 1i = k1i z1i + z2i 1i sigm( s1i / 1i ) + g1i (xi , vi ) z 2i = k2i z2i 2i sigm( s2i / 2i ) + g 2i (xi , vi , Tmi )
s1i = 1i sigm( s1i / 1i ) + g1i ( xi , v i ) s2i = 2 i sigm( s2 i / 2 i ) + g 2i ( xi , v i , Tmi )

(6.44)

55

x 2i = A 2i x 2i + f 2i ( xi , i )

(6.45)

with 1i and 2i sufficiently small and under the conditions

1i > g1i ( xi , v i ) and 2i > g 2i ( xi , v i , Tmi )

a quasi sliding mode motion is enforced, first, in a small 2i -vicinity of s2i = 0 , and then in

1i -vicinity of s1i = 0 . Thus, if 1i 0 and 2i 0 , then the perturbation terms in (6.44) are
rejected, and the linearized mechanical dynamics is described as

z 1i = k1i z1i + z2i z 2 i = k2 i z2 i

(6.46)

with the desired eigenvalues k 1i and k 2i . Again, the equation (6.45) represents the ultimately bounded internal dynamics. Thus, the angle control error z 1i tends exponentially to zero and the angle tends to its reference value ref ,i .

6.4

Rotor angle stability: Passivity with Sliding Modes

The development of the Passivity Sliding Modes Speed Stabilizer (PSMSS) is shown in this section.
6.4.1 Hamiltonian generator model Consider now, a synchronous generator model given by the difference between the system states and their steady-state, i. e. 1i f1i ( i , i ) b1i (6.47) = + ( v fi v fi , ss ) 2 i f 2 i ( i , i ) 0

i = A zi i + f zi ( i ) + b zi v i + i v i
where

(6.48)
T

i = ( 1i 2 i ) , 1i = (1i , 2i , 3i )T = ( x1 x1, ss , x2 x2, ss , x3 x3, ss ) ,

T

2 i = ( 4 i , 5i , 6 i )T = ( x4 x4, ss , x5 x5, ss , x6 x6, ss ) ,

T

i = ( 1i , 2i )T = ( z1i z1i , ss , z2i z2i , ss ) , v i = v i v i , ss , and v fi , ss is the steady-state control

T

input, which will be observed by means of the nonlinear observer proposed. Moreover ki 6 x2i hi 2 x3i + hi 3 x5i + hi 4 x2i x4i + hi 5 x2i x6i hi1 0 h A zi = i 7 , f zi ( xi ) = k x + k x + k x x + k x x , i = 0 k , ki 7 i1 i 2 4 i i 3 6 i i 4 2 i 3i i 5 2 i 5 i hi 6 x2i
b zi = [ 0, hi8 ] , and vi = vdi , vqi . An equivalent mathematical model of the generator dynamics (6.14), (6.15) can be found by using the generator Hamiltonian [30]. So, the increment of the energy around the equilibrium point is expressed of the form H i = EKi + EPi (6.47) where
T

56

1 EKi = 2i 2 , and 2
EPi =
x1i ,ss x1i

(Tmi Tei ) dx1i

= 1iTmi + 1i a1i 3i 2i + 1i ( a2i 4i 1i + a3i 5i 2i + a4i 6i 1i + a5i 1i 2i ) . Thus, the passivity synchronous generator model is given by 1i = ( J i Ri ) HiT ( i , i , Tmi ) + b1i ( v fi v fi, ss ) + gi ( 2i , i )

(6.48) (6.49) (6.50) (6.51)

i = A zi i + f zi ( i ) + b zi ( v fi v f ,ssi ) + H i v i
yi = bi H i = a1i1i 1i
T T

2i = f 2i ( i , i )

where H H i ( 1i ) = i 1i 0 1 0 J i = 1 0 0 , 0 0 0
T

H i H i T , , , b zi = [ 0, h8i ] , 2i 3i
0 0 T 0 0 , g i ( i , i ) = [ 0, 0, g3i ( i , i )] , g3i ( i , i ) = b2i5i + b3i 1i , 0 0

0 Ri = 0 r3i and yi is the output.

6.4.2

Control design

Redefining the control law v fi in (6.48) as v fi = v fi ,0 + v fi ,1 . (6.52) where the fist part v fi ,0 is designed to stabilize the speed and the second part v fi ,1 is selected to reject the perturbation term g i ( i , i ) in (6.48). The second part of the control law (22) is designed by using the integral sliding mode control technique [43], and the sliding variable s1i is defined as s1i = 3i + i (6.53) where i is the integral variable. Taking the time derivative of (6.53) along of the trajectories of the system (6.48), we have s1i = 3i + i (6.54) = b3i f si ( i , v i ) + b4i v fi ,0 + b4i v fi ,1 + g3i ( i , v i ) + i where
f si = ( a1i 2i ) Tmi + ( a2i4i 1i + a3i5i 2i + a4i6i 1i + a5i 1i 2i ) . From (6.54) it can choose the dynamics for the integral variable i as
1

i = b3i f si ( i , v i , Tmi ) b4i v fi ,0 .

s1i = v fi ,1 + g3i ( i , v i ) .

(6.55) (6.56)

Then

57

Now, the second part of the control input (6.52) is selected as v fi ,1 = i sign( s1i ), i > 0 . Under the condition

(6.57)

i > g 3i ( i , v i )
v fi ,1eq = g3i ( i , v i ) (6.58)

the equivalent control v fi ,1eq calculated from s1i = 0 (see (6.56)) satisfies and then the integral sliding modes control (6.57) rejects the perturbation term g3i ( i , v i ) in (6.56). Thus the subsystem (6.48) becomes 1i = ( J i R i ) H iT ( i , v i , Tmi ) + bi v fi ,0 (6.59)

which is the unperturbed system. Since the energy function (6.47) in steady-state satisfies H i = 0 , it is possible to select the first part of the control law (22) by means of the sliding mode technique as follows: (6.60) v fi ,0 = k gi yi sign( sHi ), k gi > 0 where sHi = H ( i ) .
6.4.3 Stability analysis The closed-loop system (6.57)-(6.60) becomes 1i = ( J i R i ) H iT ( i , v i , Tmi ) k gi yi bi sign( sHi )

(6.61) (6.62)

2i = A 2 i 2 i + f 2 i ( i , v i )

Then the stability of each subsystem in (6.61) can be analyzed by the Lyapunov function 1 Vi = H i 2 ( i ) . (6.63) 2 The derivative of (6.63) along of the trajectories of the subsystem (6.61) and (6.62) can be written as H i H Vi = H i ( i ) H i ( i ) = ( i ) R i i ( i ) + v fi yi i i
= H i ( i ) a1i 2b3i1i 2 1i 2 k gi yi 2 sign( H i ( i )) H i ( i ) a1i 2b3i1i 2 1i 2 k gi yi 2 H i ( i ) .

(6.64)

From (6.64) it is easy to see that the derivative of (6.63) is definite negative for k gi > 0 . Thus the proposed relay control law (6.60) ensures the convergence of the subsystem (6.31) to the manifold H i ( i ) = 0 and the solution of the closed-loop (6.59)-(6.60) system converges to zero in a finite time. On the other hand the subsystem (6.62) is the ultimately bounded internal dynamics. Thus, the errors 4i , 5i , and 6i tend exponentially to zero [31], while the speed and power angle errors 1i , 2i tend to zero in a finite time.

58

6.5

Rotor angle stability: Vector Lyapunov with Sliding Modes

This section describes the design of the Lyapunov Sliding Modes Speed Stabilizer (VLSMSS). Consider again the perturbed NBC system (6.14), and the speed control error defined as z2i = x2i b . (6.65) The time derivative of (6.65) along the trajectories of (6.14) is given by z2i = f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) x3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) (6.66) where xi = ( x1i x 2i ) ,
T

fi () = d mi (ai 2 x4i idi + ai 3 x5i iqi ai 4 x6i idi + ai 5idi iqi ) ,

x3i = x3i ,0 + x3i ,1 .

qi () = a i1d mi i qi (6.67) (6.68) (6.69)

and, qi (t ) > 0, t > 0 . The fictitious control x3i is redefined as Choosing the first part of (6.67), x3i ,0 of the form
x 3i ,0 = z3i

the equation (6.66) becomes z2i = f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) z3i + qi (xi , v i ) x3i ,1 + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) function V2i = Then V2i = z2i f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) z3i + qi (xi , v i ) x3i ,1 + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) . Selecting the second part of (6.67) as x3i ,1 = k1i z3i sigm (Vi ) it follows V V2i = z2i f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) z3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) k1i z2i qi (xi , v i ) sigm 2i i In the region V2i > i , we have V2i 2k1i qi (xi , v i ) f i (xi , v i ) + z3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) Then, under the condition 1 k1i > qi 1 (xi , v i ) f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) z3i + g 2i ( xi , v i , Tmi ) 2 the speed control error dynamics tends to the region V2i < i . . 1 2 z2 i . 2

where z3i is a new variable. To design the second part of (6.67), x3i ,1 we choose the Lyapunov (6.70)

(6.71) (6.72)

V2i = z2i f i (xi , v i ) + qi (xi , v i ) z3i + g 2i (xi , v i , Tmi ) k1i z2i qi (xi , v i ) sign (V2i )

(6.73)

59

The new variable z3i can be obtained from (6.67), (6.68) and (6.72) as follows
V z3i = x3i ,1 + k1i z2i sigm 2i . i In order to design the control input v fi , we select the Lyapunov function

(6.74)

V3i = and then, we obtain

1 2 z3 i 2

V3i = z3i f Li (xi , v i ) + q Li (xi , v i )v f i . where f Li (xi , v i ) and q Li (xi , v i ) are continuous functions of time, moreover (6.75) q Li (t ) > 0, t > 0 . Choose the control input v fi of the form v fi = k g z3i sign(Vi ) . Thus
Vi = z3i f Li (xi , v i ) k gi qLi z3i (xi , v i ) sign(V3i ) V3i 2k gi q Li (xi , v i ) f Li (xi , v i ) . According to the Theorem 5.1, under the condition 1 k gi > qLi 1 (xi , v i ) f Li (xi , v i ) (6.76) 2 the speed control error z2i tends to the set z2i < i . Since the zero dynamics solution (6.27) is ultimately bounded, the solution of the complete closed-loop system (6.66), (6.67) and (6.27) is ultimately bounded.

6.6

Control logic

Since there is one generator control input, the excitation voltage v fi , and there are two outputs, the generator rotor speed i and the generator terminal voltage vgi , a hierarchical control logic to coordinate the operation between the voltage regulator and a speed stabilizer is proposed. Four different control logics are proposed, combining the SMVR and either ISMSS, ISMAS, PSMSS or LSMSS. A hierarchical control action through the proposed logics is presented. Since the mechanical dynamics are slower than the electrical ones, the control resources are spent, at first, to stabilize the rotor speed. When the rotor speed reaches the boundary layer with width 1i , the control resources will be spending to stabilize the terminal voltage. After convergence of the terminal voltage to region vgi 3i , the control action reduces the rotor speed boundary layer width from 1i to 2i . Thus, the controller maintains the value of the rotor speed within desired accuracy 2i and 2i 3i . The four control logics are presented in a compact form as follows.

60

a) SMVR and ISMSS. v f i = k gi sign( s i ) , (6.23) v fi = {v fi = 2i sign( svi ) k gi sign(evi )} , (6.4) 1i if i > 3i i = 2i if i 3i b) SMVR and ISMAS.
v f i = k gi sign( s i ) , (6.42) v fi = {v fi = 2i sign( svi ) k gi sign(evi )} , (6.4) 1i if i > 3i i = 2i if i 3i c) SMVR and PSMSS. v f i = k gi yi sign( sHi ) i sign( s1i ), (6.52) v fi = {v fi = 2i sign( svi ) k gi sign(evi )} , (6.4)

if if

si > i si i (6.77)

if if

s i > i s i i (6.78)

if sHi > i if sHi i (6.79)

i =

1i if 2i if

i > 3i i 3i

d) SMVR and LSMSS.

v f i = k gi z3i sign(V 3i ), (6.75) v fi = {v fi = 2i sign( svi ) k gi sign(evi )} , (6.4) 1i if i = 2i if if if si > i si i (6.80)

i > 3i i 3i

6.7

Electric power systems observer

Since the EPS presented in chapter 2 is modeled as a nonlinear high order system, it is necessary to estimate the unmeasurable states, such that the rotor fluxes x 3i , x 4i , x 5i and x 6i , to complete the control schemes (6.67)-(6.80) designed in this chapter. Then, assume that the power angle, x 1i , rotor speed, x 2i and stator currents i1i and i2i can be measured.

61

The rotor fluxes x 3i , x 4i , x 5i and x 6i can be estimated by means of the following observer: x1i = x2i = b x = f (x , i ) l
2i i i i

1i

( x2i x2i )

Tmi = l2i ( x2i x2i ) (6.81) x3i b x + b x + b i b i1 3i i 2 5i i 3 di i 4 x4i ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3iqi 0 = d x + d x + d i + 0 v fi i 2 5i i 3 di x5i i1 3i x ri1 x4i + ri 2 x6i + ri 3iqi 0 6 i where fi ( ) = d miTmi ( ai1 x3i iqi + ai 2 x4i idi ai 3 x5i iqi + ai 4 x6i idi + ai 5idi iqi ), x1i and x2i are the estimate rotor angle and speed, respectively, Tmi is the estimate of the mechanical torque and xi = [ x3i , x4i , x5i , x6i ] is the estimate of the rotor flux. The convergence of the observer (6.81) can be analyzed by the estimation error dynamics obtained from (6.81), (6.14) and (6.15) given by a linear system with time varying parameters: (6.82) e1i = A1i e1i + A 2i ( t ) e 2i
T

where e1i = (e1i , e2i , emi ) , e2i = x2i x2i , emi = Tmi Tmi , e 2i = [e3i , , e6i ] ,
T

e 2 i = A 3i e 2 i

(6.83)

0 0 0 l d ei , j = xi , j xi , j , i = 2,..., 6; j = 1,..., n , A1i = 0 , mi 1i l2i 0 0 0 0 0 0 a x i t a x i t a x i t a i t i t and A 2i ( t ) = i1 3i qi ( ) i 2 4i di ( ) i 3 5i qi ( ) i 5 di ( ) qi ( ) 0 0 0 0

bi1 0 bi 2 0 0 c 0 ci 2 i1 . A 3i = di1 0 di 2 0 0 r4i 0 ri 2 0 d mi The pair , [1 0] is observable and the eigenvalues of the matrix A 3i , 0 0 1 1 p1,2 = ( ci1 + ri 2 ) ci12 + ri 2 2 2ci1ri 2 + 4ci 2 ri1 , 2 2 1 1 p3,4 = ( bi1 + di 2 ) bi12 + di 2 2 2bi1di 2 + 4bi 2 di1 2 2

62

are real and negative. Since the matrix A 3i is Hurwitz, a solution of the subsystem (6.83) is exponentially stable. Then the matrix A 2i ( t ) is bounded and, the subsystem (6.82) is input-toestate stable with e 2i as input [31]. Therefore, the assumptions of the Theorem 3.1 are met and the solution of (6.82) and (6.83) is asymptotically stable.

6.8

Control schemes features

Some important features should be underlined for the power system with the proposed control schemes. 1) The four presented control schemes can be implemented for any EPS, with n generators, m buses and k loads. The EPS model can be included any kind of loads, and other type of electrical elements such as FACTS, etc. 2) The controllers stability conditions show that all unknown perturbation bounded by the constant k gi will be rejected by the controllers, achieving the EPS robust stability. 3) The local control laws depend on: a) the local generator speed and stator current, which are assumed to be available for the measurement, b) the local rotor fluxes, which can be estimated by the proposed nonlinear observer (15), and c) the local stabilizer gain ki . In other words each local controller requires only the local information and, moreover, the parameters of this local controller can be determined in a decentralized way, without considering the impact of other controllers or system conditions. These three important features allow a decentralized approach to the design of the proposed control systems. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the proposed control systems. The upper part of this diagram, yields the voltage regulation which depend on the required terminal voltage Vrefi and the system loading condition, while the lower part denoted as Speed Stabilizer, generates achieves the rotor angle stability, based on the stator current sensor signal and nonlinear observer output signals. During a short-circuit in the network the absolute priority to the Speed Stabilizer is given, since it is important to achieve firstly the electromechanical stability. The relay block generates the discontinuous signal v fi as the input for the exciter.

63

Fig 6.1. Proposed controllers schematic diagram.

64

Chapter 7
Simulations

7.1 Introduction
This chapter shows the results obtained by applying the control schemes presented in last chapter. The WSCC reduced equivalent of 9 buses model is presented. The WSCC enables to simulate small and large perturbations in EPS. Since each test case introduces a new model, this EPS is very useful to simulate, parametrical variations and different operation conditions [2]. Comparison among classical type II exciter with PSS [2], [68] and the four proposed controllers are shown. Moreover, comparison with a suboptimal H controller [69] is presented. All the simulations were realized by using MATLAB and SIMULINK. Section 7.2, presents the WSCC reduced equivalent of 9 buses model. Simulation data such as the proposed controllers parameters are shown in section 7.3. Section 7.4 introduces the four proposed controllers simulations results. Finally, section 7.5 analyses the control schemes proposed performance and its comparison with a classical and a suboptimal controllers.

7.2 Case of study: WSCC

In order to compare the controllers proposed with classical ones, the WSCC is considered [2], [68]. The WSCC (Western System Coordinating Council) consists of three generators, three loads and nine buses. In this system, it is possible to simulate any kind of perturbations, such that short circuits, lines, loads or even generators in/out, etc. The WSCC schematic diagram is shown in fig. 7.1. The WSCC model is obtained by using the methodology introduced in Chapter 2. 7.2.1 Matrix representation of the WSCC passive network As mentioned in chapter 2, the loads can be considered as constant impedances, and then, they can be added to the electrical network. Using a Krons reduction, we will have the generation nodes only [2]. The electrical network model can be obtained by using the phasorial nodal method of the form (7.1) I 3 = Y3V3 where T T V3 = [V1 V2 V9 ] , I 3 = [ I1 I 2 I 9 ] . Moreover Y3 C 3 is the network admittances

matrix and its entries are calculated as in section 2.5.1.

Figure 7.1. WSCC schematic diagram.

7.2.2 WSCC electrical network reduction The reduced equivalent electrical network of the WSCC will be obtained. Following The procedure described in section 2.5.2 we partition the network equation (7.1) as I n 3 Y33 Y36 Vn 3 = 0 Y63 Y66 Vn 6

where Vn 3 = [V1 V2 V3 ] , Vn 6 = [V4 V5

T

V9 ] , I n 3 = [ I1
T

I2

I3 ]

The

reduced (7.2)

network equation is obtained of the form I n 3 = M n 3Vn 3

where M n 3 = Y33 Y36Y66 1Y63 . Figure 7.2 shows the schematic diagram of the equivalent reduced electrical network.
7.2.3 Transformation of the WSCC electrical network to a reference frame Follow the procedure established in section 2.5.3, we have I dq 03 = M dq 03Vdq 03

(7.3)

where
Vdq 03 = Vdq 01 Vdq 02 Vdq 03 , I dq 03 = I dq 01 I dq 02 I dq 03 and the matrix M d q 03 is defined as 1 (7.4) M dq 03 Ts MTs Ts = diag {Ts1 Ts 2 Ts 3 } , sen i with 2 Tsi = cos i 3 12
T T

( 3) cos ( 2 ) 3
sen i 2
i

( 3 ) cos ( + 2 ) , 3 sen i + 2
i

i = 1, 2,3.

66

Figure 7.2. WSCC equivalent reduced electrical network. The currents and voltages projections on the direct and quadrature axis are obtained of the form I dq 03 = M dq 03Vdq 03 (7.5) where
I dq 03 = I d 1 I q1 Id 2 Iq2 Id 3
Re {M dqo1,1} Im {M dqo1,1} Im {M dqo1,1} Re {M dqo1,1} Re {M dqo 2,1} Im {M dqo 2,1} = Im {M dqo 2,1} Re {M dqo 2,1} Re {M Im {M dqo 3,1} dqo 3,1} Im {M Re {M dqo 3,1} dqo 3,1}

I q 3 , Vdq 03 = Vd 1 Vq1 Vd 2 Vq 2 Vd 3 Vq 3 ,
Re {M dqo 2,1} Im {M dqo 2,1} Im {M dqo 2,1} Re {M dqo 2,1}

M dq 03

Re {M dqo 2, 2 } Im {M dqo 2, 2 } Im {M dqo 2, 2 } Re {M dqo 2, 2 } Re {M dqo 2,3 } Im {M dqo 2,3 } Im {M dqo 2,3 } Re {M dqo 2,3 }

Re {M dqo1,3 } Im {M dqo1,3 } Im {M dqo1,3 } Re {M dqo1,3 } Re {M dqo 2, 3 } Im {M dqo 2,3 } . Im {M dqo 2,3 } Re {M dqo 2,3 } Re {M dqo 3,3 } Im {M dqo 3,3 } Im {M dqo 3,3 } Re {M dqo 3,3 }

7.2.4 WSCC preliminary calculations and data From section 2.5.4, we have: a) All the parameters are presented in p. u. with 100MVA as the base. b) The loads are presented as impedances or admittances. c) The reactances and the time constants, the nominal values such that the synchronous, transient and sub-transient parameters, the inertia constants, resistances and reactances, are presented in table 7.1. d) The electrical network parameters are shown in table 7.2. e) The pre-fault power flow analysis is in table 7.3. f) The loads equivalent admittances are in table 7.2. g) The generators initial conditions are calculated according to the section 2.5.4, part g), as is shown in table 7.4. h) From the electrical network parameters, the pre-fault admittances matrix is calculated as

67

0.0000 j8.4459 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 j8.4459 0.0000 0.0000 j5.4855 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 j5.4855 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 j 4.1684 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 j 4.1684 0.0000 0.0000 3.3074 j30.3937 1.3652 + j11.6041 1.9422 + j10.5107 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 j8.4459 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.3652 + j11.6041 3.8138 j17.8426 0.0000 1.1876 + j5.9751 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.9422 + j10.5107 0.0000 4.1097 j16.1335 0.0000 0.0000 1.2820 + j5.5882 0.0000 0.0000 j5.4855 0.0000 0.0000 1.1876 + j5.9751 0.0000 2.8047 j 24.9311 1.6171 + j13.6980 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.16171 + j13.6980 3.7412 j 23.6424 1.1551 + j9.7843 0.0000 0.0000 4.1684 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.2820 + j5.5882 1.1551 + j9.7843 2.4371 j19.2574 0.0000

Parameters MVA kV P. F. Type Speed Xd

Table 7.1. Generators parameters Generator 1 Generator 2 247.5 192.0 16.5 18.0 1.0 0.85 Hydro Steam 180 r/min 3600 r/min 0.1460 0.8958

Generator 3 128.0 13.8 0.85 Steam 3600 r/min 1.3125

Nominals Syn Trans Subtrans Otthe

Xq 0.0969 0.8645 1.2587 Xd 0.0608 0.1198 0.1813 Xq 0.0969 0.1969 0.2500 d0 8.9600 6.0000 5.8900 q0 0.0000 0.5350 0.6000 Xd 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 Xq 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 d0 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 q0 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 Xl 0.0336 0.0521 0.0742 ra 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 H 23.6400 6.4000 3.0100 Table 7.4. Generators initial conditions Generator 1. Generator 2. Generator 3. 3.5800 61.1000 54.2000 () 120 120 120 Lf 1.7589 0.8169 0.5850 Lg -0.6520 -0.6766 -0.8752 Lkd 0.5091 0.7212 0.4162 Lkq -0.6520 -0.6766 -0.8752 Tm 0.7160 1.6300 0.8500 Table 7.2 Bus Lines and loads parameters. Reactances Admittances R X B G 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 68

Generators

1-4 2-7 3-9

Transmission lines

Shunt admittances

4-5 4-6 5-7 6-9 7-8 8-9 5-0 6-0 8-0 4-0 7-0 9-0

0.0100 0.0170 0.0320 0.0390 0.0085 0.0119

0.0850 0.0920 0.1610 0.1700 0.0720 0.1008

1.3652 1.9422 1.1876 1.2820 1.6171 1.1551 1.2610 0.8777 0.9690

-11.6041 -10.5107 -5.9751 -5.5882 -13.6980 -9.7843 -0.2643 -0.0346 -0.1601 0.1670 0.2275 0.2835

7.2.5

WSCC state-space model

The WSCC mathematical model is presented here in a brief version. The WSCC model consist of a system of differential-algebraic-equation (DAE), given by a) The generators differential equations x1i = x2i x21

[Tmi (ai1 x3i z2i ai 2 x4i z1i + ai 3 x5i z2i ai 4 x6i z1i ai 5 z1i z2i )] 2H x3i = bi1 x3i + bi 2 x5i + bi 3 z1i + bi 4 v fi
x2i = x4i x5i x6i z1i = ci1 x4i + ci 2 x6i + ci 3 z2i = di1 x3i + di 2 x5i + di 3 z1i = ei1 x4i + ei 2 x6i + ei 3 z2i = hi1vdi + hi 2 x3i + hi 3 x5i + hi 4 x2i x4i + hi 5 x2i x6i + hi 6 x2i z2i + hi 7 z1i + hi 8v fi
T

z2i = ki1vqi + ki 2 x4i + ki 3 x6i + ki 4 x2i x3i + ki 5 x2i x5i + ki 6 x2i z1i + ki 7 z2i
where xi = [ x1i x2i x3i x4i x5i x6i ]T = i i fi gi kdi kqi , z i = [ z1i for i=1, 2, 3, = 1/ b and the constants aij , j=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, bij, j=1, 2, 3, 4, cij, j=1, 2, 3, dij, j=1, 2, 3, eij, j=1, 2, 3, hij, j=1, 2, , 8, kij, j=1, 2, , 7, are defined in Appendix z2i ] = idi
T

iqi ,

69

b) The electrical network algebraic equations, with the currents and voltages projections on the direct and quadrature axis: I dq 03 = M dq 03Vdq 03 .

7.3 Proposed controllers parameters

The controllers parameters are shown in tables 7.1 through 7.4 as follows. Table 7.5 ISMSS parameters Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 3 0.03 0.03 0.03 7.5 5 6 8 10 9 0.9 0.8 1.2 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.001 0.002 0.001 Table 7.6 ISMAS parameters Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 3 0.03 0.03 0.03 6 4.5 5 7.5 5 6 7 9 8.5 8 10 9 0.9 0.8 1.2 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.001 0.002 0.001 Table 7.7 PSMSS parameters Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 3 0.03 0.03 0.03 8 10 9 0.9 0.8 1.2 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.001 0.002 0.001 Table 7.8 VLSMSS parameters Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 3 0.03 0.03 0.03 6 4.5 5 7.5 5 6 7 9 8.5 8 10 9 0.9 0.8 1.2 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.001 0.002 0.001

2i
1i 2i 3i kgi k1i k2i

kgi k1i

1i 2i
1i 2i 3i kgi

1i 2i 3i kgi K1i K2i

1i 2i

1i 2i 3i

70

7.4 Simulations results

The proposed control algorithm was tested on the complete model of Nine-bus system, that has three generators and three loads (Western System Coordinating Council, WSCC), Fig.7.1. The proposed controllers were tested under four different events: a) in t = 1 s, Tm experienced a pulse 0.5 for 1 s in the generator 2, b) in t = 4 s until t = 4.15 s, a three-phase short circuit is simulated in the terminals of generator 1, c) in t = 10 s, a three-phase short circuit during 150 ms is applied in the line 5-7 of the fig. 1; the fault is cleared by opening the line and finally d) in t=14 s, t was introduced a parametric variation, by incrementing 25% in the inductance Lmi . Moreover, different operations were simulated as it is shown in fig.7.7, 7.11, 7.15 and 7.19. Next subsections present results about the application of the proposed control schemes and the comparison with classical Type II with PSS system.
7.4.1 EPS observer Figures 7.3-7.6 show the nonlinear observer convergence.

Figure 7.3 Field flux response

Figure 7.5 kd flux response

Figure 7.4 g flux response

Figure 7.6 kq flux response

71

7.4.2 ISMSS/SMVR results The ISMSS/SMVR control scheme response is presented in fig. 7.7-7.10.

Figure 7.7 ISMSS/SMVR relative angles response

Figure 7.8 ISMSS/SMVR speed response

Figure 7.9 ISMSS/SMVR voltage response

Figure 7.10 ISMSS/SMVR control input

7.4.3 ISMAS and SMVR results The ISMAS/SMVR control scheme response is shown in fig. 7.11-7.14.

Figure 7.11 ISMAS/SMVR relative angles response

Figure 7.12 ISMAS/SMVR speed response

72

Figure 7.13 ISMAS/SMVR voltage response

Figure 7.14 ISMAS/SMVR control input

7.4.4 PSMSS and SMVR results The PSMSS/SMVR control scheme response is presented in fig. 7.15-7.18.

Figure 7.15 PSMSS/SMVR relative angles response

Figure 7.16 PSMSS/SMVR speed response

Figure 7.17 PSMSS/SMVR voltage response

Figure 7.18 PSMSS/SMVR control input

73

7.4.5 VLSMSS and SMVR results The VLSMSS/SMVR control scheme response is shown in fig. 7.19-7.22.

Figure 7.19 VLSMSS/SMVR relative angles response

Figure 7.20 VLSMSS/SMVR speed response

Figure 7.21 VLSMSS/SMVR voltage response

Figure 7.22 VLSMSS/SMVR control input

7.4.6 Classical type II with PSS system The type II exciter with PSS response is given in figure 7.23 and 7.24

Figure 7.23 Classical controller relatives angles response

Figure 7.24 Classical controller speed response

74

7.4.7 Suboptimal H control

Figure 7.25 Suboptimal controller response

7.5 Results analysis

Figures 7.3-7.22 reveal two important aspects. First, the state variables hastily reach a steady state condition after small and large disturbances, exhibiting the stability of the closed-loop system. The controller is able to improve both, the power system stabilization and the postfault terminal voltage regulation. There are some important observations among the control schemes. Since there is just one voltage regulator, the voltage response in the four schemes is almost the same. The settling time is similar in the four cases. The smaller is the ISMSS and the bigger is the PSMSS. On the other hand, there is a little overshot in the four schemes. The proposed controllers achieve the rotor angles stability in only one oscillation. Comparing the transient speed response of the generators in case of proposed nonlinear control schemes and classical controllers showed in fig 7.8, 7.12, 7.16, 7.20, and 7.24, it is possible to note that the traditional PSS/AVR stabilizes the system. However, the transient response of the classical controller is more oscillatory than the response given by the proposed nonlinear control schemes since the latter adds significantly better damping in the power oscillations. It is possible to observe that the overshoot and settling time are reduced as well. The proposed nonlinear control strategies are independent from the operating point of the system, contrary to linear controller. It is important to note that the proposed nonlinear control scheme enables to avoid this problem since it ensures cancellation of the interactions between the subsystems provided an additional damping with respect to classical controllers. On the other hand, the suboptimal controller adds more damping compared to the classical one. Nevertheless, the response given by the suboptimal controller is more oscillatory than the shown by either of the four control schemes designed. As a consequence, the settling time is bigger.

75

76

Chapter 8
Conclusions and future work
8.1 Conclusions
This work develops three novel nonlinear control techniques. These techniques are robust under matched perturbations and two ones are robust under unmatched perturbations too. The three techniques developed are listed as follows: 1) Integral sliding modes with block control (ISMBC), based on the combination of Integral Sliding Modes and Block Control, enables to reject the matched perturbations since the first instant of time and decrease the effect of unmatched perturbations. 2) Passivity with Sliding Modes (PSM), taking advantage of the system energy properties, it is possible to reject matched perturbations and provide closed-loop system converge to its equilibrium point in a finite time. 3) Vector Lyapunov functions with Sliding Modes (VLSM), which enables to reject matched perturbations and decrease the effect of unmatched perturbations. Then, four control schemes were designed based on the three robust nonlinear control techniques described above. The four control schemes proposed fulfills the EPS requirements, i.e. each control scheme provides: Generator terminal voltage regulation by means of integral sliding modes technique. Rotor angle stabilization by using a speed stabilizer. Robustness under external disturbances and parameter variations. The four control methodologies presented are: a) ISMSS and SMVR, regulates the generator terminal voltage and achieve the angle stability by stabilizing the rotor speed. b) ISMSS and SMVR, regulates the generator terminal voltage and achieve the angle stability by stabilizing the rotor angle. c) PSMSS and SMVR, regulates the generator terminal voltage and achieve the angle stability by using the generator Hamiltonian. d) VLSMSS and SMVR, regulates the generator terminal voltage and achieve the angle stability by stabilizing the rotor speed.

rotor rotor rotor rotor

The used plant model is fully detailed nonlinear, and this model takes into account all interactions in power system between the electrical and mechanical dynamics and load constraints. With the proposed control schemes, only local information is required. The comprehensive stability analysis of the closed-loop system including the observer was carried out. The designed nonlinear controller is tested through simulation under the most important perturbations in power systems: - Variation of the mechanical torque. - Large fault (a 150 ms short circuit). - Loads variations. - Generator parameter variations.

Simulation results show that the sliding mode controller with the proposed logic is able to achieve the mechanical dynamics and the generator terminal voltages robust stability under small and large disturbances. The performance of the nonlinear control schemes proposed is independent from the operating point of the system. It is important to note that the nonlinear control schemes designed ensures cancellation of the interactions between the subsystems provided an additional damping with respect to classical controllers, and other controllers such that a suboptimal controller. The control schemes proposed are not restricted to a particular EPS, i.e. each one can be applied to a general EPS with n generators, m buses and k loads. The control schemes can be applied to any kind of EPS systems, even systems that preserve the electric network structure and any kind of loads, even nonlinear loads and loads depending on frequency and/or voltage.

8.2 Future work

As a future work, it is worth to mention: Design a control scheme, including the turbine dynamics in the EPS model. Include dynamical loads in EPS and analyze their effect in the control schemes. Real time implementation of the control schemes proposed. Include FACTS in the EPS model. Design SM controllers for FACTS. . Design a high order sliding mode control scheme for EPS.

78

References
[1] V. Vittal, N. Bhatia, A. A. Fouad, Analysis of the inter-area mode phenomenon in power systems
following large disturbances IEEE Transactions on Power and Systems, Vol. 6, No. 4, November 1991, pp. 1515-1521. [2] P. M. Anderson and A. Fouad, Power Systems Control and Stability, IEEE Press New York, 1994. [3] F. P. DeMello and C. Concordia, Concepts of Synchronous Machine Stability as Affected by Excitation Control, IEEE Trans., PAS-88, Apr. 1969, 316-329. [4] M. H. Khammash, V. Vittal and C. D. Pawloski, Analysis of control performance for stability robustness of power systems, IEEE, Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 9, No. 4, November 1994. [5] M. Djukanovic, M.Khammash and V. Vittal, Application of the structured value theory for robust stability and control analysis in multimachine power systems, Part I: Framework development, IEEE, Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 13, No. 4, November 1998. [6] M. Djukanovic, M.Khammash and V. Vittal, Application of the structured value theory for robust stability and control analysis in multimachine power systems, Part II: Numerical simulations and results, IEEE, Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 13, No. 4, November 1998. [7] N. Kshatriya, U. D. Annakkage, A. M. Gole and I. T. Fernando, Improving the Accuracy of Normal Form Analysis IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 2005. [8] S. Liu, A. R. Messina and V. Vittal, A Normal Form Analysis Approach to Siting Power System Stabilizers (PSSs) and Assesing Power System Nonlinear Behavior IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 21, No. 4, November 2006. [9] A. Ghandakly and P. Idowu, Design of a Model Reference Adaptive Stabilizer for the Exciter and Governor Loops of Power Generators, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 5 pp. 887-893, 1990. [10] A. Ghandakly and J. Dai, An Adaptive Synchronous Generator Stabilizer Design by Generalized Multivariable Pole Shifting (GMPS) Technique, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 7, pp 1239-1244, 1992. [11] S. Jain, F Khorrami, Fardanesh, Adaptive Nonlinear Excitation Control of Power Systems with Unknown Interconnections, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, Vol. 2, No. 4, December 1994. [12] T. Lahdhiri and A. T. Alouani, On the Robust Control of Synchronous Generator in Proc. American Control Conference, pp 3798-3801, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, June 1998. [13] A. Isidori. Nonlinear Control Systems. Spinger Verlag, New-York, third edition, 1995. [14] W. Mielczarski and A. M. Zajaczowski, Multivariable Nonlinear Controller for Synchronous Generator, Optimal Control Applications and methods, Vol 15, pp 49-65, 1994. [15] T. Landhiri and A. T. Alouani, Design of a Nonlinear Excitation Controller for Synchronous Generator using the Concept of Feedback Linealization, in Proc. American Control Conference, New Mexico, USA, 1997. [16] J. Machowsky, S. Robak, J. W. Bialek, J. R. Bumby and N. Abi-Samra, Decentralized Stability-Enhancing Control of Synchronous Generator, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 15, No. 4, November 2000. [17] O. Akhkrif, Fr. Okou, L. Dessaint and R. Champagne, "Application of Multivariable Feedback Linearization Scheme for Rotor Angle Stability and Voltage Regulation of Power System", IEEE Trans. Power Syst., Vol.14, No.2, pp.620-628, 1999. [18] B. Wu and O. P. Malik, Multivariable Adaptive Control of Synchronous Machines in a Multimachine Power System, IEEE Trans on Power Systems, Vol. 21, No. $, November 2006. [19] K. Jung, K. Kim, T. Yoon and G. Jang, Decentralized Control for Multimachine Power Systems with Nonlinear Interconnections and Disturbances, International Journal of Control, Automation, and Systems, Vol 3, No. 2 (especial edition), pp. 270-277, June 2005.

[20] C. A. King, J. W. Chapman and M. D. Ilic. Feedback linearizing excitation control on a full [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39]
scale power system model IEEE Trans. Power Systems, 9, 1102-1109, 1994. A. J. Van der Schaft, L2 Gain and Passivity Techniques in Nonlinear Control, Springer Verlag London, England, 1999. R. Ortega, A. Lora, P. Nicklasson., and H. Sira-Ramrez, Passivity-based Control of EulerLagrange Systems, Spinger Verlag London, England, 1998. R. Yu, W. Li and Z. Mao, A Novel Controller Scheme for Induction Motor Based on Passivity Output Feedback Equivalence Proc, of the 6th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, June 21 - 23, 2006, Dalian, China. W. Wang, and J. Cheng, Passivity-Based Sliding Mode Position Control for Induction Motor Drives, IEEE Trans. on energy conversion, Vol. 20, No. 2, June 2005. Z. Xi, and D. Cheng, Passivity-based stabilization and H control of the Hamiltonian control systems with dissipation and its applications to power systems, Int. Journal Control, Vol. 73, No. 18, pp. 1686-1691, 2000. R. Ortega, A. Stankovic and P. Stefanov, A passivation approach to power systems stabilization, Proc. of IEEE Symp. on Nonlinear Control Systems, June 1998. R. Ortega, M. Galaz-Larios, A. S. Bazanella, and A. Stankovic, Excitation Control of Synchronous Generators via Total Energy-Shaping, Proc. of the American Control Conference Arlington, VA June 25-27, 2001. H. Tsai and C. Chu Nonlinear STATCOM Controller using Passivity-Based Sliding Mode Control, Proc. of APCCAS 2006, Singapore, 2006. H. Tsai, C. Chu and S. Lee, Passivity-based Nonlinear STATCOM Controller Design for Improving Transient Stability of Power Systems, Proc. of IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exhibition: Asia and Pacific, Dalian, China, 2005. H. Huerta, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Passivity-based sliding mode control of power systems. Proc. of VSS08, Antalya, Turquia, June, 2008. H. K. Khalil, Nonlinear systems, Prentice Hall, Inc. Simon and Schuster, New Jersey, 1996. M. A. Pai, Energy Function Analysis for Power Systems Stability, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989. A. S. Bazanella, A. S. Silva and P. Kokotovic, Lyapunov Design of Excitation Control for Synchronous Machine, in proc. 36th IEEE CDC, pp. 211-216, San Diego, California, USA, 1997. J. Machowsky, S. Robak, J. W. Bialek, J. R. Bumby and N. Abi-Samra, Decentralized Stability-Enhancing Control of Synchronous Generator, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 15, No. 4, November 2000. Y. Hsu and L. Cheng, Tuning of Power System Stabilizers Using an Artificial Neural Network, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 6, pp. 612- 619, 1991. P. Shamsollahi and O. P. Malik, An Adaptive Power System Stabilizer Using On-Line Trained Neural Network, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 382-387, December 1997. G. K. Venayagamoorthy, R. G. Harley and D. C. Wunsch. Dual Heuristic Programming Excitation Neruocontrol for Generators in a Multimachine Power System, IEEE Trans on Industry Applications, Vol. 39, No. 2, March/April 2003. S. Mohagheghi, Y. Valle, G. K. Venayagamoorthy, and R. G. Harley, A proportional-integrator type adaptive critic design-based neuro-controller for a static compensator in a multimachine power system, IEEE, Trans. On Industrial Electronics, Vol. 54, No. 1, February, 2007. P. Dash, S. Mishra and A. Liew, Design of a Fuzzy PI Controller for Power System Applications, Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 3, pp. 155-163, 1995.

80

[40] P. Hoang and K Tomsovic, Design and Analysis of an Adaptive Fuzzy Power System [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58]
Stabilizer, IEEE PES Winter Meeting, p. 7, 1996. A. M. Yousef, M. A. Mohamed, Multimachine Power System Stabilizer Based on Efficient Two-Layered Fuzzy Logic Controller, Transactions on Engineering and Technology V3, December 2004, pp.137-140. V. I. Utkin, Sliding Mode in Control and Optimization, Springer Verlag, London 1992. V. I. Utkin, J. Guldner and J. Shi, Sliding Mode Control in Electromechanical Systems, Taylor & Francis, London, 1999. Y. Wang et al., Variable Structure Facts Controllers for Power System Transient Stability, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No. 1, February 1992. M. Kothari, J. Nanda and K. Bhattacharya, Design of Variable Structure Power System Stabilizers with Desired Eigenvalues in the Sliding Mode, IEEE Proceeding, Part C, 140, pp. 263-268, 1993. R. El-Khazali, G. Heydt and R. DeCarlo, Stabilization of Power Systems using Variable Structure output Feedback Control, in Proc. American Control Conference, pp. 1183-1187, 1994. M. E. Aggoune, F. Boudjeman, A. Bensenouci, A. Hellal, M. R. Elmesai, and S. V. Vadari, Design of Variable Structure Voltage Regulator Using Pole Assignment Technique, IEEE Transaction on Automatic Control, Vol. 39, No. 10, October 1994. Y. Park and W. Kim, Discrete-Time Adaptive Sliding Mode Power System Stabilizer with Only Input/Output Measurements, Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Vol. 18, pp. 509-517, 1996. P. Dash, N. Sahoo, S. Elangovan and A. Liew, Sliding Mode Control of a Static Controller for Synchronous Generator Stabilization, Electrical power & Energy Systems, Vol. 18, pp. 55-64, 1996. A. Soto-Cota, Robust Variable Structure Control of Synchronous Generator Dr. Sc. Thesis, Scientific Advisors: J. M. Caedo, L. M. Fridman, CINVESTAV, IPN, Guadalajara, Mxico, August 2004. J. Cabrera-Vzquez, Control no lineal por Modos Deslizantes del Generador Sncrono en Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia. Dr. Sc. Thesis, Scientific Adviser: A. G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo, CINVESTAV, IPN, Guadalajara, Mxico, October 2001. A. G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo, V. I. Utkin, J. Cabrera-Vazquez, Discontinuous controller for power systems: sliding mode block control approach, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 340-353, April 2004. J. Cabrera-Vzquez, A. G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo and V. I. Utkin, Robust controller for synchronous generator with local load via VSC, Int. J. Electr. Power and Energy Systems, Vol. 29, pp. 348-459, 2007. V. Bandal, B. Bandyopadhyay and A. M. Kulkarni, Decentralized Sliding Mode Control Technique Based Power System Stabilizer (PSS) for Multimachine Power System, Proc. Conference on Control Applications, Toronto, Canada, August, 2005. H. Huerta-Avila, Control no lineal robusto de sistemas elctricos de gran escala por modos deslizantes. M. Sc. Thesis, Scientific Adviser: A. G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo, CINVESTAV, IPN, Guadalajara, Mxico, Sep. 2005. A, G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo and H. Huerta Decentralized Sliding Mode Block Control of Power Systems, Proc. of PES General meeting 2006, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 18-22 June, 2006. H. Huerta, J. M. Caedo, and A. G. Loukianov. Observed-Based Nested Integral Sliding Modes of Electric Power Systems., Proc. of FIE, Santiago, Cuba, 2006. H. Huerta, J. M. Caedo, and A. G. Loukianov, Nested integral sliding modes control for multimachine power systems., Proc. of AMCA06, D. F., Mxico, October, 2006.

81

[59] H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Nested Integral Sliding Mode Control of [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71]
Multimachine Power Sytems, Proc. of IFAC SSSC07, Iguazu, Brazil, October, 2007. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Nested integral sliding modes of large scale power system., Proc. of CDC07, New Orleans, U.S.A., December, 2007. H. Huerta, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control and its Application to Electric Power Systems, Chapter of book: System, Structure & Control, Pro Literatur Verlag, Germany/ARS, Austria, September, 2008. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Multimachine power systems control: Integral SM approach, under review in IEEE, Trans. on Industrial Electronics. Decentralized Sliding Mode Block Control of Multimachine Power Systems., under review in Elsevier. International Journal on Electric Power and Energy Systems. A. G. Loukianov, Nonlinear Block Control with Sliding Mode, Automation and Remote Control, Vol. 59 (7), pp. 916-933, 1998. R. H. Park, Two-Reaction Theory for synchronous Machines Generalized Method of Analysis Part I, AIEE Trans, Vol. 48, 1929, pp. 716-727, Part II , Vol. 52, 1933, pp. 352-355. P. Kundur, Power Systems Stability and Control, Mc Graw Hill, 1993. A. I. Klimushchev and N. N. Krasovskii, Uniform asymptotic stability of systems of differential equations with a small parameter in the derivative terms, J. Appl. Math. Mech., Vol. 25, pp. 1011-1025, 1962. A. Adhami-Mirhosseini, and M. J. Yazdanpanah, Robust Tracking of perturbed systems by nested sliding mode control. Proc. of ICCA2005, Budapest, Hungary, June 2005. EPRI report, Power System Dynamic Analysis Phase I, EPRI EL-484, Project 670-1, July 1977. S. S. Ahmed, L. Chen and A. Petroianu, Design of Suboptimal H Excitation Controllers,

IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 11, No. 1, February, 1996. [72] V. Lakshmikantham,V. M. Matrosov and S. Sivasundaram, Vector Lyapunov Functions and
Stability Analysis of Nonlinear Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 1991.

82

Appendix A Constants used in generators model

ai1 = ai 3 = L ''di lai ; l fi L ''di lai ; lkdi ; ai 2 = ai 4 = L ''qi lai lgi L ''qi lai lkqi ; ;

ai 5 = L ''qi L ''di ; L '' l 1 + Lmdi di ai lkdi l fi L L ''di lai bi 3 = mdi ; 'd 0i L 'di lai bi1 = 1 'd 0 i ci1 = ci 3 = 1 'q 0 i bi 2 = Lmdi L ''di lai ; 'd 0i ( L 'di lai )lkdi

bi 4 = s ; ci 2 =

L ''qi lai Lmqi ; 1 + lkqi lg i ;

(L ' l )l
q a

L ''q la

Lmq
kq

'q 0

Lmqi L ''qi lai 'q 0i L 'qi lai L' l di1 = di ai ; ''d 0i l fi di 3 = L 'di lai ; ''d 0i ; ;

di 2 =

1 ; ''d 0i

ei1 =

L 'qi lai

''q 0i lg i ''q 0i s
L ''di ; 1

ei 2 =

1 ; ''q 0i

ei 3 =
hi1 = hi 2 =

L 'qi lai

L 'di lai L 'di lai L ''di lai L 'di lai 1 + ; 1 + Lmdi l fi L ''di 'd 0i l fi lkdi L ''di ''d 0i L ''di lkdi l fi Lmdi L ''di lai L ''di lai L ''di lai 1 hi 3 = ; L ''di 'd 0i ( L 'di lai ) lkdi l fi L ''di ''d 0i L ''di lkdi

hi 4 = hi 6 =

1 L ''qi lai ; L ''di lgi ;

hi 5 =

L ''qi lai L ''di lkqi

L ''qi L ''di

hi 7 = hi 8 =

s rai
L ''di

Lmdi L ''di lai L 'di lai L ''di lai ( L 'di lai ) L ''di lai ; L ''di 'd 0i l fi l fi L 'di lai L ''di 'd 0i L ''di lkdi ;

s ( L ''di lai )
L ''di l fi

ki1 = ki 2 =

s
L ''di

; L ''qi lai L ''qi lai lgi 1 L ''qi lai 1 L ''qi 'q 0i

ki 5 =

L ''qi 'q 0i ( L 'qi lai ) lkqi

Lmqi

L ''qi ''q 0i L ''qi lkdi L 'qi lai

ki 3 = ki 4 = ki 6 =

s rai
L ''qi

Lmqi L ''qi 'q 0i

L ''qi lai L 'qi lai L ''qi lai lgi lgi

(L'

qi

lai )

L ''qi lai L ''qi lkdi

1 L ''qi lai L 'qi lai ; L ''qi lgi l fi

1 L ''qi lai ; L ''qi L ''qi lkdi

L ''di L ''qi 1 L ''qi 'q 0i L 'qi lai 1 + Lmqi lgi lkqi L 'qi lai L ''qi lai L 'qi lai 1 + ; l L ''qi ''q 0i L ''qi lkdi lgi gi

ki 7 =

84

Appendix B Publications
A, G. Loukianov, J. M. Caedo and H. Huerta Decentralized Sliding Mode Block Control of Power Systems, Proc. of PES General meeting 2006, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 18-22 June, 2006. H. Huerta, J. M. Caedo, and A. G. Loukianov. Observed-Based Nested Integral Sliding Modes of Electric Power Systems., Proc. of FIE, Santiago, Cuba, 2006. H. Huerta, J. M. Caedo, and A. G. Loukianov, Nested integral sliding modes control for multimachine power systems., Proc. of AMCA06, D. F., Mxico, October, 2006. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Nested Integral Sliding Mode Control of Multimachine Power Sytems, Proc. of IFAC SSSC07, Iguazu, Brazil, October, 2007. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Nested integral sliding modes of large scale power system., Proc. of CDC07, New Orleans, U.S.A., December, 2007. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Multimachine power systems control: Integral SM approach.., under review in IEEE, Trans. on Industrial Electronics. H. Huerta-Avila, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Decentralized Sliding Mode Block Control of Multimachine Power Systems., under revision in Elsevier. International Journal on Electric Power and Energy Systems. H. Huerta, A. G. Loukianov, and J. M. Caedo, Integral Sliding Modes with Block Control and its Application to Electric Power Systems, Chapter of book: System, Structure & Control, Pro Literatur Verlag, Germany/ARS, Austria, September, 2008.