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(aq)
+ H
+
(aq)
In your Notebook, write a complete reaction for aqueous sulfur dioxide and water. You may want
to use a polyatomic ion chart to help you predict this reaction.
14. Other gases have different effects on the pH of the solution. Complete the following equation for
aqueous ammonia (NH
3(aq)
), using a polyatomic ion chart as a guide:
NH
3(aq)
+ H
2
O
15. In your table, fill in your predictions for what would happen if ammonia was bubbled into universal
indicator. Use the equation above and your knowledge of pH to help you in your prediction.
III. Solubility of Organic Compounds (Expert Group III)
Natural waters interact with a number of organic compounds, some from natural sources and others
from human interaction with the environment. All of organic compounds are formed by the sharing of
electrons by non-metal atoms. In other words, organic compounds have covalent bonds between the
non-metal atoms. In addition, organic compounds contain the element carbon covalently bond to
hydrogen or other elements such as oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen.
1. Obtain the sample vials of the organic compounds from your instructor. Each vial contains
approximately 0.10g of the organic compound.
2. Copy the following table into your Notebook. If your instructor has given you extra or different
organic compounds, add or substitute their names and chemical formulas.
Tabl e 1. 3: Sol ubi l i t y of organi c compounds
Organic
Compound
Chemical Formula
Observation of
Solubility
Ethanol CH
3
CH
2
OH
1-hexanol CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
OH
n-hexane CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
n-octane CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
Urea (NH
2
)
2
CO
Glucose CH2(OH)CH(OH)CH(OH)CH(OH)CH(OH)CHO
oleic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
ethylene glycol CH
2
(OH)CH
2
OH
The structural formula is being used here. As the chain of molecules gets longer, the solubility decreases
and if you increase the number of hydroxyl units (-OH) the solubility will increase.
3. Add 3.0 mL of water to the 0.10g sample of each compound provided in a vial by your instructor.
Cap with a stopper or top and carefully mix each vial.
4. Record the appearance of the mixture in your notebook, noting if the substance is soluble, slightly
soluble, or insoluble.
5. Review each result and the corresponding chemical formula. In your Notebook, write a
suggestion for why some of these organic compounds are so much more soluble than others.
5
IV. Fertilizers in Water (Expert Group IV)
Plants require three primary mineral nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Those in agriculture
provide these primary nutrients to plants through soluble ionic compounds. Some commercial fertilizers
containing these elements are: ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
), calcium superphosphate (Ca(H
2
PO
4
)
2
) and
potassium carbonate (K
2
CO
3
).
In your expert group, you will first need to know how we measure the amount of a substance dissolved in
water. The most common way to refer to the amount of a substance in water is to give the mass in
milligrams of the substance (solute) in each liter of water. We use the unit notation mg/L and call this
amount the concentration of the substance. Another unit used for expressing the concentration is parts
per million, ppm. It turns out the concentration expressed in mg/L has the same numerical value when
expressed in ppm for water solutions.
Each of the ionic compounds in fertilizer has its own solubility in water at a specific temperature. You will
experimentally determine the solubility of one of these compounds.
1. Add 10.0 mL of deionized water to a clean, large test tube.
2. Measure the water temperature and record it in your notebook.
3. Mass the container of fertilizer with the lid and record this in your notebook.
4. Carefully add solid fertilizer to the water until no more solid will dissolve.
5. Measure the temperature of the solution. If the temperature changed as the solid dissolved, wait
for it to settle close to its initial value.
6. Try adding a little more solid until no more will dissolve, again.
7. Determine the mass of the solid added by re-massing the container of fertilizer and subtracting
from the original mass of the fertilizer container.
8. If you have time, repeat.
9. Convert your g/10mL of water values to ppm (mg/L of water) and M (mol/L). Show your
mathematical steps and your value in your notebook.
P o a d i n g : P o a d i n g : P o a d i n g : P o a d i n g : W n a t ' s i n t n o W a t o r W n a t ' s i n t n o W a t o r W n a t ' s i n t n o W a t o r W n a t ' s i n t n o W a t o r
Tno Hydrol ogi oal Cyol o Tno Hydrol ogi oal Cyol o Tno Hydrol ogi oal Cyol o Tno Hydrol ogi oal Cyol o
In order to realize what impurities might be present in the water supply before it enters a water treatment
plant, we have to trace the pathways water takes in cycling around the globe. The collection of pathways
is called the hydrologic cycle, and it includes:
flowing surface water in oceans, lakes, reservoirs, rivers and streams,
frozen water in snow and glaciers,
atmospheric water as vapor and as droplets in clouds and rain, and
groundwater in underground aquifers running through porous rocks.
In addition to flowing between regions as a liquid, water can be transported by evaporation or sublimation
from a liquid or solid to vapor, or in the reverse direction by condensation followed by precipitation. As
figure 1.2 illustrates, water available for purification comes from both the surface fresh waters and ground
waters. The water available for purification from groundwater or lakes and rivers is being depleted rapidly
in some regions, largely by irrigation of crops. Once depleted, the aquifers that contained large amounts
A
READI NG WHAT DO YOU THI NK NOW? QUESTI ONS
N L Y Z N G
6
of groundwater are replenished much more slowly through the hydrological cycle than surface water
because of the slow movement of water underground.
Wat or as a Sol vont Wat or as a Sol vont Wat or as a Sol vont Wat or as a Sol vont
Water is a unique molecule because of both its polar covalent bonds between the individual molecules
atoms and its hydrogen bonds that form between different molecules of water in a solution. These
bonds result in water having four properties that allow for life to exist on this planet: the cohesive nature of
water molecules, ability to moderate temperature (heat capactity), the low denisty of ice (ice floats in
water), and, as we have seen from the vast number of solutes in this activity, waters remarkable ability to
act as a solvent.
Specifically, the attraction between water molecules can be attributed to the polarization of the O-H bond,
which aligns the negative O end to be near a more positive H atom in another water molecule. That
partially positive H atom is attracted the partially negative O atom of the other water molecule. That
attraction is referred to as a hydrogen bond. Figure 1.3 illustrates these attractions which make water
such a powerful natural solvent.
Tabl e 1. 4: EN di f f erences and resul t i ng bond t ypes
EN Difference Bond Type
Greater than 2.0 Ionic Bond
1.6 2.0 Polar Covalent (if both nonmetals)/Ionic (if one
is a metal)
0.5 1.6 Polar Covalent Bond
Less than 0.5 Nonpolar Covalent Bond
In general, the more ionic a compound is, the more readily it dissolves in water. This is because of the
strong interaction of the water dipole with either positive or negative ions. We can make predictions about
how ionic a compound is by referring to the electronegativities of each individual atom. The
electronegativity is a semi-quantitative way of assessing the electron withdrawing strength of an
element when it bonds to other elements. Each elements electronegativity can be found in your Active
Chemistry periodic table. A greater difference of electronegativities gives a more ionic bond (See Table
1.1). Ionic compounds with multiple charges on the ions or small ions may have limited solubility because
of the large energy required to separate the ions in the solid.
Covalent bonds are formed between elements when neither element attracts the electrons located
between the atoms much more strongly than the other. Electron sharing is a characteristic of covalent
bonds. Elements with similar electronegativities are likely to form covalent bonds. A compound having
only covalent bonds is called a covalent compound.
7
Since the electrons involved in covalent bonding need not be equally shared, most covalent bonds show
some degree of polarization, which means that one end of the bond is more negatively charged than the
other end. The C-H bond, which is a characteristic of organic molecules, has very little polarization
because the electronegativities of C (2.5) and H (2.1) are similar. Compounds containing mostly C-H
bonds are insoluble or only partially soluble in water because the water molecules are more strongly
attracted to each other than to the compound. Covalent compounds can interact strongly with water if
they have groups like OH and NH that can also form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
The above principles can be used to explain solubility rules that emerge from sampling a large number of
ionic and covalent compounds. Here is a collection of some of the solubility guidelines:
Soluble compounds contain NO
3
, CH
3
COO
, halide ions (F
, Cl
, Br
and I