INTRODUCTION When defining what it means to be a good leader, it is important to consider the meaning of the term good, and

whether this refers to effectiveness or the application of ethics when leading others. Yukl (2002) , recognize that influence is the essence of leadership, from which the fate of followers is determined. From this, the question must be asked; is a good leader a person who does the right thing when exercising their influence over others, or is a good leader a person who is simply effective in influencing others, and gets the job done? According to Gini (1998, cited in Yukl, 2002), a good leader is not a person whom you question if they will use their power, rather whether they will use it wisely and well. Alternatively, Goleman (2000) recognises that an effective leader is simply a person who gets results, but the question is; does this include at the cost of ethics? This paper will examine the issues involved with each perspective of effective leadership and ethical leadership, and what it means to be a good leader. The criteria to judge whether a decision was ethical requires consideration of three aspects (Yukl, 2002). Firstly, the purpose needs to be taken into account, then the extent to which the means is consistent with moral standards, and the consequences of the action to the decision maker and those effected by the outcome of the decision. Essentially, these three questions aim to determine if the outcome is justified by the means. Dubrin (2001) developed six unethical tactics, which resulted in the demise of many great leaders. Back stabbing, embrace or demolish, setting a person up for failure, divide and rule, and playing territorial games, these are all unethical behaviors which can be seen to be a common denominator for many leaders that resulted in their demise (Dubrin, 2001). Such behaviors can be identified in the demise of Sir Thomas Albert Blamey, when he was accused of demolishing those troops who he thought were a threat to his power. This unethical behavior shown by Blamey, and other tactics mentioned by Dubrin (2001) have arguably become almost common amongst our business and political leaders today. Over the past three decades there has been a dramatic decline in the publics trust in our business and political leaders (Kouzes & Posner, 1993, cited in Yukl, 2002). While most of our business and political leaders may be successful in acquiring and accumulating their power, many have failed to maintain a public perception of using their power ethically. A lack of ethics has often contributed to the demise of the general publics trust towards these leaders. For Bill Clinton, publicized scandals of his unethical behavior can be seen to contribute to the demise of his reign of leadership. Clintons infidelity in his private life lead to distrust in his personal ethics influencing his political behavior, which can be seen to have resulted in conclusion of his presidential term. (http://polsc.anu.edu.au/) A successful leader is a leader who has the ability to inspire confidence in and support among the people who are needed to achieve their set goals (Dubrin, 2001). If this is what it means to be a successful leader, is it possible to be unethical but still an effective leader? The answer is yes (Yukl, 2002), however, there are conditions to this response. While a leader may not be ethical in their behavior, their behavior must be perceived as ethical by their followers. According to Kerns

(2003), leaders are able to adopt certain tactics to dilute or disguise their unethical behavior. By using euphemisms to justify their unethical behavior, followers are lead to believe that their actions are still ethical. For example, using words or phrases such as helped him make a career choice when justifying firing someone unnecessarily, or inappropriate allocation of resources to describe what is commonly known as stealing. Kerns (2003) even lists overconfidence as unethical leader behavior, which is a trait that can be identified in many great leaders such as Helen Clarke, Sir Thomas Blamey, Indira Gandhi, and Margaret Thatcher. Kerns (2003) describes overconfidence as having a tendency to perceive their abilities to be better than they actually are. These leaders can discount others perceptions and thus easily overlook the insights and talents of other people. Without benefit of input from those around them, overconfident leaders may be blind to the most appropriate ethical choices in given circumstances and may consider only their own ideas regarding the best course of action. Overconfident leaders can act as though they are above it all, relegating their people, while pursuing their own courses of action. Although overconfidence is arguably an unethical trait for a leader to possess, provided they are able to use tactics to disguise their unethical behavior, as suggested by Kerns (2003), they are then still able to be a successful leader. Dubrin (2001) proposes that unethical leadership behavior can be placed on an ethical continuum, which determines the grade of seriousness of the unethical behavior, ranging from one to nine. The continuum begins which Deliberate Machiavellianism, which is seen to be blatantly unethical. Deliberate Machiavellianism is the use of ruthless, manipulative tactics to obtain and/or maintain a position of power. The next level on the continuum, which is seen as a slightly less serious form of unethical behavior is gentle manipulation of people and situations. This is followed by level three, which is undue pressure, this is described as the use of bribes and mild punishment to motivate others. At the opposite end of the scale, joking and kidding are considered to be only slightly unethical. Joking and kidding are described as a dishonest way of communicating criticism. The ethical continuum proposed by Dubrin (2001) essentially identifies that unethical behavior by leaders can range in the degree of seriousness. So, while a leader may be unethical, the insignificance of their unethical behavior in some instances could perhaps be excused, such as when joking or kidding. Alternatively, a leaders unethical behavior may be so extreme, such as Deliberate Machiavellianism, that it can perhaps limit a leaders effectiveness.
TOPIC Lets talk and define deeply about the seven continuum

CHAPTER 8

Influence Tactics of Leaders

The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with a wide range of influence tactics that he or she may need to persuade others. A secondary purpose is to sensitize the reader to the difference between ethical and unethical influence tactics.

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES

Influencing group members to achieve a worthwhile goal is a leaders quintessential responsibility. To become an effective leader, a person must be aware of the specific tactics leaders use to influence others. Although this chapter focuses on influence tactics, other aspects of leadership, such as projecting charisma and coaching, are also influence processes. Influence is defined here as the ability to affect the behavior of others in a particular direction. Power is the potential or capacity to influence. (Power can also be regarded as the ability to influence others.) Influence tactics have grown in importance because so often a leader or corporate professional has to influence others without having formal authority over them. I. A MODEL OF POWER AND INFLUENCE The model shown in Figure 81 illustrates that the end results of a leaders influence outcomes are a function of the influence tactics he or she uses. The influence tactics are in turn moderated, or affected by, the leaders traits and behaviors and the situation. The three possible outcomes are commitment, compliance, and resistance. Commitment represents the highest degree of success; the target of the influence attempt is enthusiastic about carrying out the request and makes it a full effort. Compliance means that the influence attempt is partially successful. The target person is apathetic (not overjoyed) and makes only a modest effort to carry out the request. Resistance is an unsuccessful influence attempt. The target person is opposed to carrying out the request and finds ways to either not comply or do a poor job. Traits, including personality and intelligence, impact the effectiveness of influence tactics. The leaders behaviors affect influence tactics in a variety of ways. Also, the situation, such as the organizational culture, can help decide which influence tactic will be effective. For example, in a high-technology environment, rational persuasion and expertise may be more effective than an emotional appeal. II. DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF INFLUENCE TACTICS Influence tactics are classified here as those that are essentially ethical and honest versus those that are essentially manipulative and devious. Several of the tactics, however, fall into a gray area. A. Essentially Ethical and Honest Tactics Used with tact, diplomacy, and good intent, the tactics described in this section can facilitate getting others to join you in accomplishing a worthwhile objective. These tactics vary in complexity and the time required for their development. 1. Leading by Example and Respect. A simple but effective way of influencing group members is leading by example, or leading by acting as a positive role model. Being respected facilitates leading by example. Using Rational Persuasion. To implement this tactic, the leader uses logical arguments and factual evidence to convince another person that a proposal or request is workable and likely to result in goal attainment. Rational persuasion is likely to be the most effective with people who are intelligent and rational. A major moderating variable in rational persuasion is the credibility of the influence agent. A subtle factor is that credible people are perceived as having higher power. Developing a Reputation as a Subject Matter Expert. Becoming a subject matter expert (SME) on a topic of importance to the organization is an effective strategy for gaining influence. Being an SME is a subset of rational persuasion.

2.

3.

4.

Exchanging Favors and Bargaining. Offering to exchange favors if another person will help you achieve a work goal is another standard influence tactic. Give the other person as much time as feasible to accomplish the task, and also give a menu of options for different levels of assistance. 5. Legitimating a Request. A legitimate request falls into ones scope of authority and fits organizational policy. Making legitimate requests is an effective influence tactic because most workers are willing to comply with regulations. 6. Making an Inspirational Appeal, Being Charming, and Emotional Display. To inspire others a leader must obviously make inspirational appeals. Such an appeal is reinforced by an emotional display. The influence agent will be more effective when he or she displays personal magnetism, refers to a captivating, inspiring personality with charm and charismatic-like qualities. For an emotional appeal to be effective, the influence agent must understand the values, motives, and goals of the influence target. 7. Consultation with Others. Consultation with others before making a decision is both a leadership style and an influence technique. The influence target becomes more motivated to follow the agents request because the target is involved in the decisionmaking process. 8. Forming Coalitions. A coalition is a specific arrangement of parties working together to combine their power. Coalition formation works as an influence tactic because there is power in numbers. The more people you get on your side, the better. The more powerful the leader, the less the need for coalition formation. Collaborative influence is one of IBMs ten new leadership traits and behaviors. 9. Being a Team Player. Influencing others by being a good team player is an important strategy for getting work accomplished. A leader might be a team player by doing such things as pitching in during peak workloads. Being a team player is a more effective influence tactic in an organizational culture that emphasizes collaboration than one in which being tough-minded and decisive is more in vogue. 10. Practicing Hands-on Leadership. A hands-on leader is one who gets directly involved in the details and processes of operations. The hands-on approach influences subordinates to follow the beliefs, procedures, and processes of the leader.

B.

Essentially Dishonest and Unethical Tactics

The tactics described in this section are less than forthright and ethical, yet they vary in intensity with respect to dishonesty. The first four would be considered unethical and devious by most people; the last three might be within the bounds of acceptable ethics. 1. Deliberate Machiavellianism. Machiavellians are people in the workplace who ruthlessly manipulate others. They regularly practice deception, bluff, and other manipulative tactics. 2. Gentle Manipulation of People and Situations. By making untrue statements or faking certain behaviors, gentle manipulators get another person to comply. A widely used manipulative approach is the bandwagon technique. A manager informs her vice president that she wants an enlarged budget for attendance at a quality seminar because all the other companies are doing it. 3. Undue Pressure. When rewards become bribes for compliance, and threats of punishment become severe, the target person is subjected to undue pressure or coercion. 4. Debasement. A subtle manipulative tactic is debasement, demeaning or insulting oneself to control the behavior of another person. 5. Ingratiation. Getting somebody to like you can be considered a mildly manipulative influence tacticparticularly if you do not like the other person. Ingratiation includes such basic human relations techniques as asking for something in a polite way. 6. Joking and Kidding. Good-natured kidding by the leader is especially effective when a straightforward statement might be interpreted as harsh criticism. 7. Upward Appeal. In upward appeal, the leader exerts influence on a team member by getting a person with more formal authority to carry out the influence act. It is important to recognize that the most severe influence tactics can bring about human suffering.

III. LEADERSHIP INFLUENCE FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE Top-level leaders exert many of their influence attempts in the direction of bringing about changes through the entire organization, often by attempting to overhaul the organization culture. Before plunging ahead with attempts at massive cultural change, the leader needs to study the old culture and understand why it contributed to the prosperity and growth of the organization. Tactics for bringing about change yet assuring that a healthy culture is maintained include the following. A. B. C. D. E. Serve as a role model for the desired attitudes and behaviors. Impose a new approach through executive edict. Establish a reward system that reinforces the culture, such as giving huge suggestion awards to promote an innovative culture. Select candidates for positions at all levels whose values mesh with the values of the desired culture. Sponsor training and development programs that support the desired cultural values.

IV. RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS AND SEQUENCING OF INFLUENCE TACTICS Influence tactics have been studied here separately, but they must also be understood in relation to one another. A. A Study of the Relative Effectiveness of Influence Tactics Yukl and Tracey studied the relative effectiveness of influence tactics. Included in the survey were 120 managers, 526 subordinates, 543 peers, and 128 superiors, all of whom also rated the managers use of influence tactics. Respondents were asked which of nine influence tactics were used by the manager, and how many tactics resulted in complete commitment. Respondents also rated the managers effectiveness. The most effective tactics were rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, and consultation. The least effective were pressure, coalition, and appealing to legitimate authority. Inspirational appeal, ingratiation, and pressure were used primarily in a downward direction. Personal appeal, exchange, and legitimating were used primarily in a lateral direction. The authors caution that any tactic can trigger target resistance if it is not appropriate for the situation or is applied unskillfully. A study by Wells and Kipnis indicated that both managers and employees used strong influence tactics when they distrusted the other partyeither a manager or a subordinate. The strong influence tactics studied were appeals to higher authority, assertiveness, coalition, and sanctions. Another study showed that when group members perceived a poor relationship with their leader, the leaders use of inspirational appeal and exchange resulted in less of helping of coworkers by members. However, the leaders consultation tactics were positively associated with group members helping coworkers. When group members perceived their relationship with the leader as positive, exchange tactics by the leaders positively related to helping behavior. B. The Sequencing of Influence Tactics In general, begin with the most positive, or least abrasive, tactic. Use stronger tactics only as needed. A sensible approach is to begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics. If the outcome is important enough, the influence agent can then shift to higher cost and higher risk influence tactics. The direction of influence tactics is also important. In general, the more position power an individual exerts over another, the less the need for being cautious in exerting influence tactics.

C.

Implicit Leadership Theories and Leadership Influence People are more likely to be influenced by leaders who match their expectation of what a leader should be. Implicit leadership theories are personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal organizational leader. The assumptions are stored in memory and activated when group members interact with a leader. Prototypes are positive characterizations of a leader, whereas antiprototypes are traits and behaviors people do not want to see in a leader. Prototypes include sensitivity, intelligence, dedication, charisma, strength, and attractiveness. Antiprototypes include tyranny and masculinity.

V.

GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT A study showed that managers tend to use tough follow-up tactics when subordinates refusal of a request related to worked expected in his or her role, and when the subordinate was perceived as malingering. Poor leader-member exchanges are also associated with tougher tactics. Managers withdrew their request when the request was seen as outside the subordinates role, or the request was ambiguous. The guideline here is that tougher influence tactics are more suitable when a request is within a subordinates role, and tougher tactics may be needed if the leader-member relationship is poor.

Synopsis
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Harry has finally come of age, and finally started on his final journey to defeat Voldemort for good. The Durselys are forced to go into hiding so that Voldemorts Death Eaters will not torture them for information, and Harry sets off with Ron and Hermione on a difficult quest to find and destroy the last of Voldemorts Horcruxes. Only once those have been destroyed, Harry knows, can Voldemort truly be killed. Its not easy. Harry is plagued with rumors of Dumbledores past, and begins to wonder if the Headmaster he so long revered might have had a much darker past than he ever let on. The three are frequently without food, and with winter coming their journey is no day at the beach. Because of their lack of plan, lack of food, and lack of progress, their spirits are often low, and Ron especially becomes argumentative. One night he and Harry get into an epic fight and Ron leaves to go back home. Harry and Hermione are devastated that hed abandoned them. They finally decide to revisit Godrics Hollow in search of clues, and once again theyre almost caught by Voldemort. Every step they make, it seems, he is there anticipating them. Theyve almost died too many times to count, and their spirits sink even lower when Harry discovers his wand was broken in the battle. Ron redeems himself a few weeks later by coming back and saving Harrys life in the nick of time. They manage to destroy another Horcrux with Gryffindors sword, and they become excited again as they begin to learn about a mysterious trio of magical objects called the Deathly Hallows. Whomever possesses the three objects will be a master of death, and to Harry, its his one chance to beat Voldemort and live to tell the tale. As his adventures and the danger hes in increases, Harry begins to truly understand what Dumbledore intended him to do. He realizes, almost at the last minute, that his own life will have to be sacrificed in

order for Voldemort to truly be vanquished. Filled with love for his friends, he willingly gives his life so that they may live. His last act of heroism, however, saves his life. He meets Dumbledore again in death, and Dumbledore answers many of his questions. He is given a choice to stay or to go back, and he chooses to go back and fight. Its all over between Harry and Voldemort with just one spell. Harry is left alive, the true master of the Hallows, and Voldemort is killed for good. He now understands more than he ever has about love, and life, and sacrifice, and in spite of the loss of many of his friends during the last battle, is grateful for the second chance hes been given at life, and love.