Study of biological diversity in an environmental context, encompassing taxonomy, involving reconstruction of phylogenetic history/ study of organisms and their

evolutionary relationships is Systematics. Taxonomy is branch of Bio that names/classifies forms of life Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history of a species/group of related species. (a) Explain binomial nomenclature of a species and hierarchical classification. - 2 part latinised name - 1st part genus (genera pl.) - 2nd part species within the genus (b) Describe the classification of species into taxonomic groups and appreciate significance of various concepts of the species. Kingdom Phylum Class Over Family Genus Species (c) Explain relationship between classification and phylogeny - Linnaean scheme is classification based on presumed homologies (anatomical features of similar function or appearance because they were inherited from common ancestor. The more homologies shared, the closer in evolutionary distance.) Goal of systematics is to determine phylogeny, by constructing phylogenetic trees representing hypothesized evolutionary relationships between organisms. To do that, we must have data from classification. (d) Explain why variation is important in selection - Selection is based on heritable variation. When environmental changes occur, variation allows some individuals to survive better, reproduce more successfully to produce Fertile Offspring. This ensures perpetuation of species and safeguards species from extinction. (e) Explain with e.g. how environmental factors act as forces of natural selection. Case study of peppered moth during Industrial Revolution. Melanic moths in polluted areas can better camouflage with blackened tree trunks where they rested during the day. Light-colored moths in distant forests were present in higher frequencies. (f) Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution Natural selection refers to the differential success in reproduction of different phenotypes resulting from interaction of organisms with their environment. Because Species produce large number of offspring, but only a constant fraction of the offspring population will survive, mature and reproduce at reproductive age. This is because there is a struggle for survival and reproduction due to competition for limited resources (selection pressures). In a population, variation exists. Natural selection works upon variation, identifying those better adapted to environment.

Because of selection pressures, there is the survival of the fittest (relative ability of individuals to produce fertile, viable offspring) to reproduce ( reach reproductive age to produce fertile, viable offspring), to pass on inheritable selective and reproductive advantages. Therefore Overtime, the unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to gradual change in population= evolution. Certain favorable/advantageous characteristics/genotypes accumulate. (g) Explain why population is smallest unit that can evolve. Population Group of interbreeding individuals belonging to particular species, sharing common geographic area. Evolution change in allele freq./ mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, random mating, natural selection. Evolution is the collective genetic response of a population determining survival or formation of species. long term effects of natural selection are at gene level of population because members interbreed and exchange inheritable genes Evolution is measured as changes in relative proportions of heritable variations in successive generations of a population.

(h) Explain how homology (anatomical, embryological and molecular) supports Darwins theory of natural selection. Homology is the similarity in characteristics resulting from shared ancestry even though they may have different functions. E.g. Flipper of dolphin, forelimb of human Analogy structures with similar functions but based on vastly different structures, and organisms do not share common ancestry. E.g. Fish fin and dolphin flipper Anatomical homology sharing common ancestry in aspect of morphology in form and structure Embryological homology common ancestry based on similarity of developmental pathways (anatomical characteristics in embryos) e.g. (comparative embryology) 1. all vertebrate embryos have gill pouches on sides of throat. 30-ady old human embryo has pharyngeal gill pouches like developing fish. 2. vertebrate embryos have a notochord and yet is the only primitive protochordates that retain this structure in adult. Early in development, human embryos have notochord that becomes greatly reduced, giving rise to discs

between adult vertebrae. 3. Visceral clefts become auditory canal and tube for mammals. Molecular homology common ancestry in molecular (DNA, Amino Acid Sequences) makeup of related species - it is consistent with other evidence in testifying that evolution is a remodeling process in which ancestral structures that functioned in one capacity becomes modified as they take on new functions. (i) Explain how biogeography and fossil record support evolutionary deductions based on homologies. Biogeography study of past and present distribution of indiv species/ entire communities. E.g. Island Biogeography & Sugar gliders vs. Flying squirrels 1) many species are endemic to islands. Most island species closely related to species from neighbouring islands. Island Hopping is the rise of new species when populations spread out. 2) Species tend to be closely related to other species from same area than to others with same way of life in other areas. Sugar gliders (aus), flying squirrels (north america) are species with similar characteristics due to environmental factors but are not closely related. (Convergent Evolution/ Analogy) 3) By studying distribution of organisms/how they disperse, this determines if they are homologous and traces evolutionary pathway. E.g. Continental Drift, Wallace Line and Lungfish Distribution 4) Lungfish believed to be closest living relatives of tertrapods. Each specie found in different continent continents connected in the past. Fossil Records support evolution by showing sucession of organisms shown within layers. Deeper stratum older organism, transitional forms. Also show depopulation/immigrations/mass extinctions. BUT are often incomplete. (j) State advantages of molecular (nucleotide and amino acid sequences) methods in classifying organisms. Species diverge as changes occur in nucleotide bases, with each specie acquiring their own genetic mutations can predict that species that are phylogenetically closely-related have more simlar nucleotide sequences in nucleic acids/amino acid sequences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Objective, detailed, unambiguous and quantitative. Distant phylogenies share few morphological similarities. electronic databases for comparative study/classification limits set of characters studied Nuclei acids common characteristics of all known life. Generated quickly in single experiment.

(k) Explain how genetic variation e.g. recessive alleles may be presented in a natural population (1) Diploidy Heterozygote protection A gene can be dominant/recessive. Dominant alleles mask or hide recessive alleles so recessive trait requires 2 recessive alleles, one/parent. Recessive Alleles are less favourable in current environment. BUT they persist because they are propagated in heterozygous individuals. (2) Heterozygote advantage E.g. Sickle Cell Anaemia Homozygous recessive individuals usually die, eliminating 2 recessive alleles from population. Possessing a single sickle cell recessive allele have increased resistance to malaria. E.g. Cystic Fibrosis autosomal recessive hereditary disease of lungs/sweat glands/digestive system. Heterozygote advantage is increased survivorship of disease involving fluid loss, e.g. diarrhea. (3) Inbreeding Low chances of inheriting recessive allele for genetic disorder because of high genetic diversity. But inbreeding increases chances of both parents having recessive allele. (l) Briefly describe the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Molecular clock constant rate of evolution of alpha-globin is e.g. of clocklike evolution of genes and proteins. Amount of molecular change between 2 species ensures how long ago they diverged into 2 different species from a common ancestor. = Molecular evolution is constant enough to provide clock for evol. Neutral Theory contends that much evolutionary change at the molecular level of genes and proteins are selectively neutral (no effect on fitness) and is driven by genetic drift rather than natural selection. Genetic drift reduces genetic variation in populations, potentially reducing a populations ability to evolve in response to new selective pressures. Genetic drifts are greater in smaller populations, important effect for endangered species. Genetic drift also contributes to speciation, having small isolated population diverge from larger population. So. Not all allele frequency changes are a result of natural selection. It is often Explained by the Neutral Theory, a neutral selection outcome that does not affect and organisms fitness