Beck home Summary and Evaluation This chapter is part of the book Ancient Wisdom And Folly, which

is now in print . Ordering this book Near East India China Greece Rome Evaluating Ancient Civilization Planet earth is a place of ever-changing experience. Yet of all the diversity of living species only the humans have developed artificial civilization that domi nates the environment and uses sophisticated means of communication with art, te chnology, and writing that are passed on to future generations. To discuss the e thics of early humans before the appearance of this evidence is very speculative and uncertain. Nonetheless to understand ourselves better it is useful to have some ideas as to our origins. Readers may disagree or agree about the spiritual aspects of our being and its source in God or a creator, but the long process of evolution is fairly well proven now by the scientific research of the last cent ury or so. What does the nature of our bodies and how they evolved reveal about our values? The second law of thermodynamics indicates that the physical universe is meant t o be used. As warm-blooded mammals our bodies must be constantly fed and protect ed from cold weather. To do this requires using resources of the environment. In our time excessive exploitation of the environment threatens our very survival, but in the ancient world with a small human population this was only rarely the case. The extension of childhood development and dependence on the mother for l onger periods stimulated family values. The enjoyment of sexual relations at any time by creatures with brains large enough to make conscious choices brought gr eater emotional attachment, rivalry, jealousy, and social customs in mating. Muc h of human ethics is concerned with the morals of mating and the raising of chil dren to understand the customary behaviors of the social group. A few million years ago the need to gather more food led a resourceful primate t o begin eating the flesh of other animals as other predators do. This led to the aggressive behavior of hunting in which group cooperation was found to be succe ssful. The success of hunters and gatherers in some areas eventually brought abo ut crises, which stimulated the development of agriculture, opening the great so urce of reliable sustenance that would bring about the birth of civilization in villages, towns, and cities. Instead of following herds, more people began to se ttle down in one place and tend their own animals as possessions. Animal food co uld be used especially in emergencies or between crops. Only recently are scient ists discovering that eating animal products is less healthy for the human body, but old social habits are hard to break. The domestication of large animals als o provided an interim technology to assist human labor and transportation before the industrial age replaced them with machines. Before force was organized for warfare, women were very likely equal partners with men; mothers may even have b een worshiped for their ability to bear children and nurture them. Skill using weapons in hunting animals could be turned against fellow humans in violent social conflicts and so was also valued by many aggressive humans in bat tles between one group and another even if individual violence within the group was discouraged. As clans of families and eventually tribes joined together to p rotect developing property such as animals, houses, fields, and irrigation syste ms, war became an organized activity to defend against marauding raiders. Strong er males naturally became leaders in these aggressive confrontations. Thus patri archs developed sexist values in a male-dominated society. Cultures where the nu rturing skills of women made them equal or superior tended to be those societies

which were more "primitive" in the sense that they did not develop as much surp lus wealth that needed forceful protection or were in isolated places where they did not have to fear encroachment. Those aggressive bands of raiders, who perve rted hunting skills into plundering other human settlements, were surely the mos t violent and probably the most dominated by men. The development of language and storytelling increased social cohesion that coul d now be passed on to other generations through oral tradition. Tribal loyalties gained continuity, and rituals were celebrated to strengthen emotional attachme nts to the group's cultural values. As population increased with successful agri culture, tribes with a common language interacted in cities and were often unite d by a social hierarchy headed by kings and priests. The lessons of Atlantean de struction, though attempts were made to pass them on through the Egyptians and G reeks, are controversial and mostly lost. Outside of the Mediterranean area, Europeans in the ancient world remained triba l and did not leave behind writing. Many, such as the Scythians and Germans, wer e warrior cultures dependent on hunting or raiding; for them bronze and iron cou ld be made into better weapons. Africa south of the Sahara desert also remained pre-literate and tribal so that little is known about the ethics of their cultur es beyond the Nubians, who were influenced by the Egyptians. In the western hemi sphere cultures were isolated and independent. Hunting and gathering continued, and farming occurred in some places. In the areas of Mexico and Peru (America) l arge populations built cities, but little is known of their laws and government in this period. Similarly lack of writing from east Asia outside of China preclu des evaluating their early cultures. Near East The earliest cities were built in the fertile crescent from Jericho to Catal Huy uk in Anatolia and especially along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Sumer. He re and concurrently in Egypt along the Nile developed the first great civilizati ons. Agriculture was enhanced with the use of metal, pottery, and the wheel. Wri ting promoted economic and political development in business, trade, law, govern ment, education, and literature. Sumerian religion was important, and priests ga ined great power and wealth, while women were exploited as temple prostitutes. M en dominated as kings and governors although women could hold important position s in the temples. The three classes distinguished in the laws of Sumerian societ y were the nobles (government administrators, army officers, and priests), worke rs in business, crafts, farming, and education, and slaves who could earn their freedom. The development of written codes of criminal law and civil contracts we re outstanding ethical developments for justice. Governments were organized by city, and conflicts between cities and neighboring cultures led to the organized violence of war that eventually destroyed Sumeria n civilization. The earliest historical Sumerian king, Mebaragesi of Kish, attac ked and plundered Elam. The epic hero Gilgamesh first became famous as a king wh o successfully defended Uruk against an attack by Kish. According to the poem hi s using his office for the primitive sexual exploitation of women was stopped by the other hero Enkidu. The Uruk dynasty was overthrown by Ur's first king Mesan nepadda. Ur's Lagash king Ur-Nanshe was constructive, and Ur experienced a centu ry of great wealth. However, his grandson Eannatum fought and won wars with neig hbors while killing many. Eannatum's nephew Entemena won back a disputed canal f rom Umma, made a treaty with united Uruk and Ur, and reigned so well that he was worhsiped for a millennium, as people of Umma were allowed civil liberties in L agash. The corruption of greedy priests was reformed by Urukagina, who reduced taxes an d stopped religious extortion. Unfortunately his Lagash was invaded by the army of Umma governor Lugalzagesi, who conquered most of Sumer and ruled with fifty g overnors. Nonetheless he was defeated and captured by Sargon, who built the new

capital of Agade and installed Akkadian governors. The Semitic Akkadian replaced Sumerian as the official language. Sargon expanded his empire by conquest of El am, Mari, and Ebla. The reigns of Sargon, Rimush, Manishtusu, and Naram-Sin from 2390 to 2274 BC were filled with wars for copper, tin, silver, timber, stone, a nd slaves. Naram-Sin was criticized for bringing on the destruction of Agade by the Guti, because he devastated the temple of Nippur. The Guti ruled Mesopotamia for a century, during which Lagash governor Gudea was known for building temples and purifying the city. In 2176 BC Uruk overthrew th e Guti, but seven years later they were replaced by the third dynasty of Ur that lasted a century. Ur-Nammu rid the land of robbers and established written law codes based on equity and truth. His building projects were continued by his son Shulgi, who also campaigned militarily in the north and used diplomacy by marry ing his daughters to governors in the east. His Sumerian government reached its height of power, even subduing the influence of the temples and private wealth, as the state took over land and businesses. Sumerian literature celebrated anthr opomorphic gods and goddesses and the divine gifts of civilization. However, in the 21st century BC the empire of Ur broke up, as power shifted in the next cent ury to cities such as Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Mari, Assur, and Babylon. Hammurabi made Babylon the capital of a large empire by armed conquest, and he p romulgated a strict law code with much capital punishment and retaliatory mutila tion. The three Babylonian classes were the free awelu, the commoners dependent on the state, and slaves. Babylonians adopted most of the Sumerian religion and culture but added the powerful war god Marduk. After the death of Hammurabi, reb ellion and wars soon reduced the Babylonian empire. Ammisaduqa reformed economic oppression by canceling debts and back taxes and by punishing officials and cre ditors who disobeyed. After the Hittites invaded Babylon and left, the Kassites took control and ruled fairly peacefully there for about four centuries, preserv ing Akkadian literature. Wars and power struggles still occurred in the region w ith the Assyrians, Mitanni, Hurrians, Hittites, and Egyptians. Babylonian litera ture emphasized creation stories, conflicts between deities, and the triumph of the new god Marduk. Ishtar (representing the planet Venus) stood for feminine qu alities of love and friendship, and some poets expressed the value of justice an d of returning kindness even to enemies. Hittite civilization grew in Anatolia, beginning with much violence but eventual ly developing law codes and a council to advise the king. A Hittite army pushed back the expanding Egyptian empire at Kadesh about 1300 BC. The Hittites also ad ded Sumerian and Babylonian deities to their own violent storm gods. Egyptian civilization probably learned the use of seals and writing from the Sum erians. Being more isolated, their wars with the Asiatics in the east, Libyans t o the west, and Nubians in the south were infrequent and less threatening. When the north and south was united under one king, a powerful empire arose and conti nued for many centuries, as people prospered around the fertile Nile. As early a s the 27th century BC the kings demonstrated their power by exploiting thousands of laborers in constructing the great pyramids, the largest buildings on earth. These immense projects could not be sustained though, and later kings reduced t heir ambitions to more modest building. Egyptian religion was obsessed with the life after death, though this did give people an incentive to be just. The Old K ingdom period degenerated into violent strife, turmoil, and revolution until the Theban king Mentuhotep II re-united Egyptians about 2040 BC, founding the Middl e Kingdom era. Once again Egypt exploited its Nubian, Libyan, and Syrian neighbo rs for building materials, and Asiatic nomads were forced out of the eastern Del ta. Egypt was stable for about three centuries before the Bedouin shepherds with improved weapons took over Memphis and ruled most of Egypt for a century, a con quest resented by Egyptians for turning their society upside down. In the 16th century BC the Hyksos rulers were expelled, as Ahmose established th

e 18th dynasty and the New Kingdom, which expanded the Egyptian empire. Pyramids were no longer built, as temples were separated from tombs, probably indicating more emphasis on life than on death, although the spiritual instructions in the Book of the Dead remained popular. The military leader Thutmose III conquered e xtensive territory in Asia as far as Kadesh in Syria and even crossed the Euphra tes to defeat the Mitanni. Increased Egyptian wealth was based on imported slave labor. Egyptian society reflected a pyramid-like structure headed by the king o r pharaoh, who ruled as a god over a militarized state governed by authoritarian administrators. Obedience was the rule unless bribery could corrupt. The needs of the people seem to have been met by their labor, but education was only for t he elite. The failed religious revolution of Akhenaten did not seem to affect th e ethics of the culture, as the empire continued though perhaps a little weaker; his successors eradicated his reforms, though it can be argued that the weakeni ng of empire was a benefit to humanity's freedom. The military leader Horemheb t ried to instill discipline with harsh punishments. Although Ramses II fought boldly at Kadesh in 1300 BC, the Egyptian empire was b eginning to shrink, as he had to accept co-existence with the Hittites in Syria. Invasions by the mysterious Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC not only devasta ted the Hittite empire but also forced the Egyptians back to their traditional N ile kingdom. Egypt continued as a regional power for several centuries until the y were conquered by Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 671 BC, but it revived under Psa mtik fifteen years later; they were defeated by Babylonians under Nebuchadressar in 605 BC, fought back under Amasis, and were taken into the Persian empire for two centuries by Cambyses in 525 BC. Much ancient wisdom came from Egypt, and it probably influenced the origins of J ewish culture more than people realize. Their spiritual view of psychology and r ecognition of the divine as an invisible God (Amen), who ruled according to just ice, must have encouraged ethical behavior. However, its authoritarian monarchy did little to promote human freedom, and their empire was based on military powe r and slavery. Egyptians excelled in architecture, building, and surgery; yet th eir belief in magic did little to promote science, although it had some charm in literature. Egypt was a stable though static society with apparently little int erest in historical process or the human interactions portrayed in theatre. The Hebrew Bible has had a tremendous impact on religion and ethics and tells us much about the people of Israel. Genesis combined ancient folktales with a reli gious message to produce a scripture of great influence. The story of Adam and E ve reflects the increase in awareness that made the human species responsible fo r its ethical behavior. Violent conflicts between shepherds and farmers are indi cated by Cain's killing Abel. The story of the primeval deluge taught obedience to God, as did the account of Abraham's sacrifice of a ram. The tale of Jacob's twelve sons explained how the Hebrews became enslaved in Egypt, and the account of Moses' leading them out of bondage was obviously not written from the Egyptia n point of view. In the Torah God comes across not only as a jealous God but a c ruel one as well. Nonetheless the ideas of following God's guidance and practici ng ethical laws, such as the ten commandments, are great contributions to civili zation. Yet justifying the violent conquest of Canaan led by Joshua is questionable, and the intolerance of other religious beliefs and practices caused many needless c onflicts and problems. The attempt to live by God's guidance through prophets ha d to give way to the traditional monarchy, as Saul and David were made kings. Da vid fought so successfully as a terrorist that he established a kingdom ruled in glory by his son Solomon. The religious poetry of David and the wisdom of Solom on have inspired many. Many precepts of Israel's wisdom literature resembled tho se of Egypt's. The poignant story of Job attempted with religious faith to resol ve the disparity of why the innocent and virtuous sometimes suffer. Yet the freq uent wars between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, even though they shared the

same faith, indicate serious ethical and political limitations in this violent e ra. That even exalted prophets like Elijah could try to prove their "holiness" b y causing many deaths reveals lack of respect for the value of human life. Not h aving learned ways of peace, Israel and Judah had to suffer from the greater pow er of empires like Assyria and Babylon. Yet the messages of prophets like Amos, Hosea, Isaiah and Micah attempted to tea ch people justice and mercy. Jeremiah suggested they not resist what was inevita ble with violence, which would only make things worse; but he was imprisoned for his effort. Taken captive to Babylon, there Jews discovered and edited their re ligious writings, as Ezekiel and second Isaiah presented them with inspiring vis ions of redemption and a return, which was fulfilled by the generosity of the Pe rsian emperor Cyrus. After a remnant came back to Jerusalem, conflicts of religi ous customs still occurred, as Ezra would not tolerate "foreign" wives, though N ehemiah showed charity. Jewish culture clung to its sacred scriptures and surviv ed. Assyria used the force of and 7th centuries BC, but r debt. Armed authorities in a society with little specially confined. military power to establish a large empire in the 8th it was also based on slaves captured in war or sold fo taxed the people to pay for the military establishment opportunity for social mobility; roles of women were e

Babylonians took over the Assyrian empire in 609 BC; they conquered and deported people from Judah and elsewhere. Although Babylonians tolerated diverse culture s and religious views, their empire was soon overthrown by the Persians as Cyrus entered Babylon in 539 BC. The Persians practiced a religion enlightened by the teachings of Zarathushtra, whose philosophy emphasized the wisdom of learning a nd following the good truthfully while avoiding the evils of injustice, lying, a nd harm. After Cyrus had conquered western Asia to the Aegean coast, conflicts d eveloped with Greek colonies in Ionia. Massive invasions of Europe under Darius in 490 and Xerxes in 480 BC were defeated by Greeks fighting on land and sea. Fr equent rebellions in the western portions of the Persian empire eventually culmi nated in the conquest by Alexander's Macedonian army of the entire Persian empir e before his death in 323 BC. The great wealth Persians had used for so long to hire Greek mercenaries and interfere in Greek conflicts was eventually captured and appropriated by the Hellenizers. India The pre-Aryan Harappan civilization in the Indus valley seems to have had many f eminine and egalitarian qualities, but unfortunately without writing little is k nown of their history and beliefs. Floods and over-grazing may have made them mo re vulnerable to conquest. The invasion of white-skinned Aryan conquerors of the dark natives in India is documented in the Vedic scriptures of the Hindus. Powe rful religious beliefs similar to the Iranians' were used to justify the establi shment of a caste system based on skin color and occupations. Hindu society was dominated by the Brahmin priests and Kshatriya warrior-kings, supported by artis an, merchant, and farming Vaishyas, all of whom exploited the labor of the nativ es. Aryan ways were patriarchal and violent. Yet somehow in India the western religion combined with the eastern methods of y oga and meditation to develop a remarkable spiritual philosophy and ascetic way of life based on inner awareness and renunciation of the world. The sages of the Upanishads left teachings that written would inspire millions with their mystic al wisdom. The doctrines of karma and reincarnation explained how spiritual just ice transcended one lifetime, and the mystical methods offered seekers a path of liberation from the cycle. An ethical life of nonviolence was only the first st ep in such an awesome endeavor, while renouncing worldly success made the societ y more inward than other materialistic cultures.

The practice of nonviolence by Parshva was developed into a major religion by th e noble Mahavira, whose extraordinary ascetic disciplines and spiritual awarenes s attracted devoted followers. Adding chastity to the ethical disciplines of non violence, truthfulness, not stealing, and freedom from possession, Mahavira esta blished a religious community that spread Jainism. Yet the extremity of the asce ticism, which some believed required nudity, did not become as popular as a simi lar but more moderate religion founded in the same era by Siddartha the Buddha. The life of Siddartha Gautama and his teachings as the Buddha have inspired mill ions of people seeking peace and enlightenment to live more ethically. His renou ncing princely wealth and power to become an ascetic only to discover that a mod erate path between the extremes of strictness and luxury was the most successful approach to spiritual awareness is an archetypal story of great significance. T he four noble truths of the Buddha are: 1) life is painful; 2) pain is caused by craving; 3) stopping craving stops pain; 4) the way to stop craving is by corre ct understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, attention, concentratio n, and meditation. The Buddha by his counseling prevented a war between the Koly as and the Shakyas. The Buddha refused to discuss speculative and metaphysical q uestions as irrelevant to ending suffering and finding enlightenment. He overcam e attempts by Devadatta to cause a schism in the Buddhist community and refused to harm him even after Devadatta tried to kill him. The teachings of the Buddha offered a practical way to reduce social harm as wel l as personal suffering. The Buddha diagnosed the psychological causality of att achment in his theory of dependent origination. Ethical behavior is an important part of the Buddhist quest for enlightenment. The Buddha's leadership of the co mmunity that formed around his teachings set an example of wisdom. His teachings were passed on orally and then in writing in numerous dialogs analyzing human c onsciousness and ethical conduct. One of the greatest Buddhist works on ethics i s the poetic Dhammapada, which emphasized compassion, self-mastery, and awarenes s. The Questions of King Milinda has the Hellenistic Bactrian king, who converte d to Buddhism, ask many difficult questions, which are answered by Nagasena. Tho usands of people were profoundly influenced by Buddha's teachings in his own lif etime, and Buddhism spread throughout India in the next five centuries, influenc ing the policies of kings as well as individual seekers. Although the injustices of war and the caste system were certainly not eliminated, there can be little doubt that efforts to practice Buddhist compassion by so many greatly improved t he ethics of Indian society. After he killed his father to become king of Magadha, Ajatashatru was influenced by the Buddha, built a new capital at Pataliputra, and sponsored the first Budd hist council. Nonetheless he was followed by murderous kings, who were eventuall y replaced by the Nanda dynasty. Although Indian culture developed a rich litera ture, they were more interested in spiritual truths than historical events. Thus little is known about political history in India except for Alexander's brief i nvasion in 326 BC, which was described by Greek historians. According to them In dians never marched outside of their country for war. Some kingdoms defended the mselves against the Macedonian army, while others who surrendered were killed fo r refusing to fight fellow Indians. Alexander experienced the fiercest military resistance to his conquests in India and was nearly killed there himself. Indian philosophers and naked Jainas discussed justice and other issues with the aggre ssive Greeks and influenced Pyrrho, who later founded the Skeptical school. This warfare stimulated Chandragupta to raise an army that enabled him to unite Indi a in the Mauryan empire. The 500 elephants he provided in a treaty helped Seleuc us to hold his west Asian empire against other Greeks. The Mauryan empire was inherited by Ashoka in 273 BC. Though before his conversi on to Buddhism he was responsible for many people being killed and deported, Ash oka's implementation of Buddhist teachings made him one of the greatest monarchs of all time. He ruled with wisdom and compassion as he renounced war, promoted

justice, and tolerated all religious faiths. The Mauryan dynasty had ended by ab out 187 BC when Bactrian Greeks invaded and were driven back. After the Greeks t ook over the Punjab, King Menander was also converted to Buddhism. Aryan conques ts had gradually spread south, and Buddhism followed centuries later. The island of Sri Lanka was converted to Buddhism and became a stronghold of that religion . The Hindu Dharma Sutras described the ethical duties of the four castes and the four stages of life as the celibate student, married householder, forest retreat , and the final renunciation. The Laws of Manu offered ethical counsel as well a s law codes, such as avoiding eating meat because of the principle of nonviolenc e. Other principles included truthfulness, non-stealing, purity, and self-contro l. The main duty of the Brahmin is to teach, the Kshatriya to protect, the Vaish ya to trade, and the Sudra to serve. The Artha Shastra by Kautilya gave political advice and lowered the ethical stan dards of the sacred traditions. Although Kautilya claimed to teach justice in pu rsuing power and wealth (artha), he recommended the use of war and the employmen t of spies and deceit for calculated advantage. Kautilya valued wealth above all , thinking that could be used to buy everything else. The fourth value of Hindu culture after liberation (moksha), justice (dharma), a nd wealth (artha) was pleasure (kama). The Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana presented vi ews on how pleasure can be attained, particularly erotically. Sexual morals vari ed, some abstaining from adultery; others considered it a risk worth taking. The attitudes of ancient India toward sexuality seemed to be quite practical and op en-minded. As a minority view, materialists did exist in ancient India. Although they empha sized worldly pleasures, they did teach ethical values; one Carvaka was even mar tyred for opposing the violence of the great Bharata war, according to the epic Mahabharata. Of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy the Nyaya emphasized logic and d iscerning knowledge. Yet ethical living was important in the process of spiritua l liberation. Vaishesika focused on individual responsibility for one's actions (karma). Liberation was achieved by freeing the soul from the body. Progress was mainly by virtue (dharma). Mimamsa also emphasized dharma and soul transcendence, and they recommended pray ers, rituals, and sacrifices as methods. Humans are free, but dharma supports th e universe. Mimamsa focused on making one's action (karma) virtuous (dharma). It s complementary school was Vedanta, which suggested meditation and liberation by awareness as taught in the Upanishads, the end of the Vedas. The Samkhya and Yoga schools also worked as a pair. Samkhya taught how to discer n the spirit and soul from nature, the field of knowledge and manifestation, in order to attain independence. Samkhya's ethics differentiated the good (sattva) from the passion of activity (rajas) and ignorance (tamas). Yoga was the practic al method used for achieving independence and is brilliantly outlined in the cla ssic text by Patanjali called the Yoga Sutras. The ethical foundation is found i n the first two steps of restraint (not injuring, not lying, not stealing, not l usting, and not possessing) and the observances (cleanliness, contentment, disci pline, self-study, and surrender to the Lord). Physical postures and breath cont rol then prepare one for the psychological steps of withdrawal from the senses b y attention, concentration, and meditation. The value of these disciplines is st ill demonstrated by the yoga many practice in the world today. In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna also taught various yogas for increasing spiritual awareness, although his justification of the war and urging of Arjuna to fight i

n battle can be questioned. The wisdom in this famous book is extensive and incl udes how not to be attached to the fruits of action by practicing ways of action , knowledge, intuition, renunciation, devotion, and meditation. The qualities of goodness, emotion, and ignorance are differentiated, and the liberation beyond all of them is held up as the ultimate goal. The imaginative literature of ancient India excelled in two great epic poems and in folktales. In the Ramayana by Valmiki virtue is exemplified by the noble cou ple Rama and Sita. In their adventures every man and woman could find nearly ide al behavior portrayed in challenging circumstances, as Rama survives exile and r egains his kingdom in the great monkey war, while his wife Sita endures captivit y by the enemy and a difficult reconciliation. Vyasa's tremendous Mahabharata depicts two quarreling families and culminates in a great war between them for the kingdom. Justice (dharma) is indicated this ti me by Vidura and the oldest Pandava brother Yudhishthira, whose weakness for gam bling though puts the Pandavas in a difficult position. The war is nearly fatal for the entire human race, but in the epilog Yudhishthira and his enemies are re conciled in heaven. Although nonviolence (ahimsa) is exalted as the highest virt ue, the heroes of this war epic have difficulty practicing it. The Jataka tales present Buddhist teachings set in stories of the Buddha's previ ous lives as humans, spirits, and animals. The lessons illustrate his sermons an d show how karma can work from life to life. In them the power of goodness is ve ry uplifting, and virtue always triumphs. The Panchatantra contains animal fable s with more worldly messages, demonstrating how creatures can survive the danger of being eaten in a competitive world by cleverness and cooperative friends. China The long tradition of Chinese civilization goes back about 7,000 years. Deforest ation may have been a problem near the end of the Xia Dynasty, which was replace d by the warlike Shang Dynasty that developed bronze artistry and lasted about f ive centuries. The Zhou Dynasty claimed the mandate of heaven in the 11th centur y BC as they criticized the drunkenness and oppressive policies of the last Shan g king. Chinese kingdoms operated as a feudal system under the sovereignty of th e Zhou king for centuries. Several early literary classics indicated a sophisticated culture. The Book of C hanges applied philosophy to the art of divination, developing the ideas of yin and yang and other natural symbols, as they sought to live in harmony with natur e. Songs and poetry expressing human feelings were collected and passed on in th e Book of Odes. Courtesy and manners were precisely delineated in the first of m any works on propriety (li). China's early interest in history was recorded in t he Book of Documents, which developed a political philosophy of following the wi ll of heaven under hereditary monarchs. Government became bureaucratized under t he Prime Minister and the ministries of Instruction, Religions, War, Crime, and Works. Many wars occurred in China in the half millennium from 722 to 221 BC, the first half known as the Spring and Autumn Era and the second as the Period of Warring States. Small feudal states were taken over by expanding kingdoms; then a few k ingdoms struggled for power until the western state of Qin overcame the rest. A commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals made moral judgments and drew politic al lessons from this ancient strife. Guan Zhong's political skill was later admi red by the Legalists. A brief respite from these wars occurred when Heang Seu co nvened a meeting in 545 BC that was able to organize a league of states to keep the peace for a few years. Cheng prime minister Zichan encouraged open discussio ns of his government's policies. The state of Wu was militarized by following th e advice of Sun-zi, who wrote The Art of War. Yet Wu's rapid rise to power was f ollowed by its even faster decline and destruction in 473 BC.

The intrigues of active advisors caused frequent conflicts between states. Wu Qi was another whose military advice stimulated violence. Legalists later emulated the harsh punishments of Shang Yang, who was killed in 338 BC. His contemporary Shen Buhai was influenced by Daoist ideas and developed subtle techniques of ad ministration. Su Qin and his brothers tried to use diplomacy to form alliances a gainst the powerful Qin, while Zhang Yi negotiated with other states for Qin. Hu ndreds of thousands were killed in these battles, as warlords like the Lord of M eng-chang (who went from Qi to serve Qin and Wei before going back to Qi), Zhao' s Lord of Pingyuan, the Noble Scion of Wei, and Chu's Lord of Chunshen struggled for power. Finally Li Si became prime minister for Qin's King Zheng, enabling h im to overcome all the other states and become the first emperor of China in 221 BC. Amid these troubled and warlike times China experienced its golden age of philos ophers. Confucius (551-479 BC) became the first known professional teacher of ad ults. As a practical humanist Confucius emphasized the goodness and wisdom that produce ethical behavior. An indefatigable learner, Confucius studied the classi cs, particularly the Book of Changes to which he wrote commentaries. His convers ations with his students recorded in the Analects portrayed him as a genial and patient teacher. He would have liked to have been an advisor to kings, but few w ould listen to his humane ideas. Confucius did not consider himself an innovator but one who taught the ancient Z hou wisdom of love, justice, conscientiousness, courage, and filial piety. Most of all he sought goodness (humanity), but he never believed that he or others fu lly attained it. He pointed out the difference between the attitudes and behavio rs of superior people compared to small people. Instead of judging people by bir th or family, Confucius evaluated them by their character and actions. His thoro ugh and life-long teaching enabled individuals to rise in Chinese society throug h education. Although he was more philosophical than religious, Confucius did pr ay and perform rituals sincerely; yet he believed serving people was more import ant than serving spirits. He taught that we should not do to others what we do n ot want them to do to us. He recommended we correct ourselves before we try to c orrect others. For Confucius rectifying language depended on truthfulness and th e integrity of matching actions to words. Confucius focused on political reform as well as self-improvement. He believed studying literature could help prevent one from violating the way and that social relations could be harmonized by prop riety. Confucius showed that virtue could be attained by the love of learning. Of the followers of Confucius, his favorite student Yen Hui died before him; the bold Zilu died serving his prince; Ran Qiu was criticized for raising taxes; Zi gong became one of the first active diplomats; Zeng Shen emphasized filial piety ; the well educated Ziyu gained a position; Zi Xia became the master of his own school. The grandson of Confucius wrote a book or two and was the teacher of Men cius. Mencius (371-289 BC) was the next great Confucian philosopher, and his book beca me a Confucian classic. Mencius advised the aged King Hui to avoid war and impro ve his kingdom with education and other reforms. Good government would reduce ta xes and the violence of punishments and war. The king could become great and mak e his kingdom great by practicing kindness. The people need to be nurtured and p rovided with education. After King Hui died, Mencius went to Qi to counsel King Xuan, but he loved money and women and would not listen when Mencius implied cri ticism of him. Mencius recommended consulting the people in decisions that affec ted them. Mencius also advised Duke Wen of Teng to do good. Mencius emphasized goodness and believed that in the heart of everyone there is good. Every human would naturally go to save a baby about to fall into a well. T his human goodness can also be applied in government. He recommended a middle pa

th between negligence and too much meddling. For Mencius virtue is more importan t than profit. People can help each other and live in harmony. Mencius admired C onfucius and criticized Yang Zhu for teaching selfishness. Mencius suggested see king and thinking in order to find the answer. Everyone loves, but the wise love what is more important. Goodness is like water and can overcome the cruelty of fire. If virtue is put before profit, human relationships will be mutually benef icial. Mencius criticized advisors who pandered to the evil desires of rulers. M encius found no just wars in his era and thought that military experts were grav e criminals. Xun-zi (Hsun-tzu) lived almost a century (310-212 BC) in a violent era. He studi ed and taught at the academy in Qi but had to flee during the massive invasion o f 284 BC. In Qin-dominated Chu Xun-zi was influenced by Daoism and wrote about e ducation, returning to the Qi academy after eight years. Slandered there, in 265 BC Xun-zi traveled to Qin and Zhao to advise rulers that support of the people was most important. He criticized military methods and profit motivations, empha sizing propriety and moral education. Unity is better than deception. Xun-zi bel ieved that war was only justifiable as a punitive expedition and that a good per son does not contend for spoil. Li Si, who became prime minister of the Qin empi re, and the Legalist philosopher Han Fei-zi both studied with Xun-zi. As a Confu cian he recommended the use of virtue over that of force or wealth. In his native Zhao Xun-zi was appointed magistrate of Lanling by Chu prime minis ter Lord of Chunshen, but he was removed for doing such a good job that he threa tened the ruler's power. Reconciled, he returned to serve there until Chun-shen was assassinated in 238 BC. Xun-zi's book was influential but never became a cla ssic like that of Mencius. Xun-zi also valued education; but he believed human n ature is basically selfish and evil, and thus people need to be taught how to be have. He recommended the classics and aimed at self-improvement. The virtuous ar e not subverted by power or the love of profit. Xun-zi also contrasted the gentl eman of moral conduct and the petty person. He taught the Confucian virtues of j ustice, truthfulness, humanity, courage, and propriety. Xun-zi criticized the ut ilitarian Mo-zi and believed followers of Mencius were deluded. In government Xu n-zi advised promoting the worthy, dismissing the incompetent, punishing the inc orrigibly evil, and teaching the people. Xun-zi was admired for teaching moral v alues in an era when humanity was degraded. The Classic of Filial Piety ascribed to Zeng-zi emphasized family loyalty and ba sed all love on parental love. Additional books were written on propriety and ce remonies, and one of these collections contained two outstanding Confucian class ics - Higher Education and The Center of Harmony, both attributed to the grandso n of Confucius. The first described learning as manifesting clear character, lov ing the people, and living in the highest good. These can be achieved by directi ng purpose, calm clarity, peaceful poise, and careful deliberation. The eight st eps are investigating things, extending knowledge, a sincere will, setting the h eart right, cultivating the personal life, making families harmonious, governmen t orderly, and resulting in peace in the world. The Center of Harmony recommende d finding one's center through self-observation and harmony through sincere and conscientious reciprocity based on understanding. During the Han Dynasty Confucian philosophy was promoted by Dong Zhongshu, who u rged Emperor Wu to open an imperial university for the study of the five traditi onal classics. His own Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals combined t he yin-yang cosmology with Confucian values. Confucianism had emerged as the dom inant philosophy in China and was already greatly influencing government and soc iety, promoting education and humanistic values in all relationships. Lao-zi in his famous book, Dao De Jing, taught the mystical ideas of the way and its virtue, founding the Daoist philosophy and religion. In the receptivity of the feminine principle (yin) he experienced peace without competing. Valuing sim

plicity, the natural flow of water, and the mystical source, Lao-zi transcended strife and taught loving people without interfering. Troubles come from being se lfish, but those who value the world as themselves may be trusted. Observing the folly of much striving, Lao-zi saw unity in simplicity, and he criticized the d estructiveness of war. His way of love and frugality without ambition would be v ery influential, as his enigmatic book has been translated more times than any o ther book in history. Mo-zi lived about seventy years and died about 390 BC. Mo-zi taught universal lo ve and following the will of heaven in his writing. He believed that mutual love would lead to mutual respect. He not only advised rulers, but he and his follow ers actively attempted to stop wars with counsel and defensive techniques. Mo-zi went from Qi and persuaded Gong Shu Ban of Chu to stop his threatened attack on Song, where 300 of Mo-zi's disciples were prepared in defense. The frugal Mo-zi asked only for necessary food and clothing for his political work. He also advi sed the leaders of Qi and Lu not to attack each other, and he suggested that the small state of Wei focus on defense rather than luxuries. Mo-zi was imprisoned in Song. In 393 BC Mo-zi persuaded Prince Wen of Lu Yang not to attack Zheng. Se veral of his disciples gained political positions. Mo-zi argued that universal love is most useful for everyone. The universal pers on will feed the hungry, clothe the cold, care for the sick, and bury the dead. Who would not prefer the person of universal love to the selfish person? Mutual benefit is most profitable. He suggested that when the wise rule, they will hono r the worthy so that the people will be well served. Mo-zi condemned offensive w arfare as the greatest crime for causing so much killing, destruction, and waste of resources. The utilitarian Mo-zi also criticized excessive expenditures on l uxuries, elaborate ceremonies, and funerals. The will of heaven is to love peopl e; this will be rewarded, because heaven is just. Mo-zi looked to the wisdom of the ancient sages, the current evidence, and the pragmatic test of future result s. Mo-zi criticized the Confucians for their elaborate funerals, social distinct ions, and hypocrisy; but after two centuries of rivalry Moism was overcome by th e Confucian scholars. Song Keng also worked to check aggression and proposed disarmament. Zhuang-zi ag reed with him but chose not to enter politics; he and Lie-zi were two other Daoi sts who left charming writings. Their reclusive lives had little political affec t, but their humorous stories amused many. Like Lao-zi, Zhuang-zi transcended wo rldly ambitions, and he satirized the meddling of Confucius. In the Songs of Chu the poet Ju Yuan expressed his sorrow at being dismissed fro m government, found consolation in Daoist simplicity and mysticism, and composed beautiful songs before drowning himself. Other poets continued his themes and e xalted the shamanistic travels of the Daoists. In the Han era a collection of writings called the Huai-nan-zi expressed Daoist ideas, condemning militarism and valuing the inner life of joy over outer desire s and ambitions. Like the short-lived Qin empire, a state disordered by harsh pu nishment cannot last long, while the virtue of Han culture resulted in prosperit y. These Daoists believed that violence can be prevented by using troops to stop oppressive behaviors, but they should not be allowed to burn crops, destroy pro perty, rob animals, or enslave people. When soldiers are just, there is no war. The realistic Legalist philosophers based their writings on the reforms of Guan Zhong and Lord Shang. The Guan-zi believed in Confucian virtues but considered t he use of force inevitable. The Book of ShangYang tried to reduce everything to agriculture and warmaking, advocating strong government based on strict laws and punishments in an authoritarian philosophy that led to the tyranny of the Qin e mpire.

Han Fei-zi wrote more elegantly about Legalism and urged Qin to dominate China, but he was forced to take poison before Qin united China under its imperial powe r. His philosophy made the ruler most powerful and discussed techniques for usin g ministers to govern the people with clearly defined laws using carefully calcu lated rewards and punishments. Power and authority are concentrated at the top i n the ruler. Han Fei-zi taught how ministers could effectively persuade a powerf ul ruler to follow their advice. Although his aim was to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, his method of accomplishing that was to make the governmen t headed by one man very strong, a dangerous formula. Ministers should be punish ed for disobeying orders even if their actions were virtuous and successful. All private interests must be subordinated to public order. Han Fei-zi thought that even small crimes could be deterred by severe penalties, and he criticized a duke for eliminating some laws that were resulting in too m any foot amputations, for he believed that any leniency to criminals harmed the good and the political order. Rewards and punishments must not be delayed and sh ould be dispensed with praise and censure. The coldly logical Han Fei-zi believe d that penalties should not be made light out of compassion nor severe from crue lty. These Legalist ideas would be tried out in the Qin empire. When Qin king Zheng became the First Emperor of China in 221 BC, he divided the empire into 36 provinces with military commandants, confiscated local weapons, a nd instituted strict laws with harsh penalties. Large building projects used con vict labor, and an attempted assassination stimulated a repressive and widesprea d investigation. A half million men, who had evaded conscription or taxes, were put to work completing the Great Wall. In 213 BC all books not considered practi cal were ordered burned. Scholars resisting this were tattooed and put in labor camps. The next year the Emperor ordered 700,000 castrated convicts put to work building his new palace complex. The escape of two scholars led to an investigat ion and the execution of 460 others in the capital. The First Emperor died in 211 BC, and the intriguing eunuch Zhao Gao controlled power under the Second Emperor. Two years later the leader of 900 convict labore rs rather than be executed started a revolution using plow handles and sticks. Z hao Gao contrived the execution of chancellor Li Si, whom he replaced, got the S econd Emperor to commit suicide, but was killed himself by his replacement, Ziyi ng. Only 46 days later the Qin imperial armies were defeated by the widespread r ebellion. Eventually the governor of Pei, who became king of Han, defeated Xiang Yu to found the Han dynasty in 202 BC as Emperor Gao-zu. Confucian scholars persuaded Emperor Gao-zu that the Qin empire had failed becau se of its harsh Legalist policies, and he called for men of virtue in his govern ment, though he made his relatives kings in the provinces. When he died in 195 B C, the Chinese empire was allowed to experiment under the Daoist policies of the Empress Lu while she was busy with violent intrigues in the capital. Emperor We n reigned 180-157 BC, and he was acclaimed a great exemplar for his benevolent p olicies that abolished cruel punishments, reduced taxes, and instituted civil se rvice examinations. Emperor Jing (157-141 BC) had to deal with a rebellion after he reduced the size of several kingdoms. The martial emperor Wu Di began ruling at 16 and often during his 54-year reign had his army fighting the barbarian Xiongnu in the northwest; other military cam paigns attacked Korea, Manchuria, and Mongolia. Wu Di established an imperial un iversity for the study of the classics, but in the second half of his reign the Legalists had more influence than the Confucians. Laws became more strictly enfo rced, and criminals were pardoned if they served in the army. Corruption led to larger and larger bands of robbers; the army attacked them and cut off 10,000 he ads at a time. Commandant of justice Du Zhou always had at least a hundred offic ials in prison and arrested 60,000 people. Even the great historian Sima Qian wa s arrested in 99 BC and castrated, because he could not pay. Eight years later t

ens of thousands were arbitrarily executed for witchcraft. A public debate on the salt and iron monopolies was conducted in 81 BC, indicati ng a free exchange of ideas. Emperor Xuan reigned using Confucian principles fro m 74 to 48 BC. Emperor Yuan during his fifteen years also followed Confucian way s, but the emphasis on family led to the problem of nepotism. Emperor Cheng took over in 33 BC and abolished the palace writer so that the eunuchs would not hav e so much power. Chinese civilization had stabilized in a monarchical empire gui ded by Confucian ideas, though intrigues would soon bring the fall of the Former Han dynasty. Greece Preliterate Minoan civilization on Crete seemed respectful to women and probably suffered less violence than most until they had to contend with the warlike Myc enaeans. Greek culture glamorized warrior heroes in their myths and the epic poe ms of Homer. The brutality of the Trojan War was depicted heroically in the Ilia d, and the adventures of Odysseus culminated in his bloody revenge against the s uitors of his loyal wife Penelope in the Odyssey. Hesiod's poetic version of the gods' origins was extremely violent, though he urged hard work and virtue in hi s Works and Days. Hades' rape of Persephone symbolized for the Greeks the death and rebirth of seeds in agriculture, which suggested life after death in the Ele usinian mysteries. Even the god Hermes had to learn not to steal when he was tou ched by the culture of music, and the promiscuous behavior of Aphrodite and othe r gods and goddesses was only curtailed with difficulty. After the dark iron age, tyrants began to spring up in Greek city states as aris tocratic oligarchs struggled for power. Poets commented on war, drinking, and lo ve, while early sages attempted to make peace and establish justice by means of written laws. In the Peloponnesian peninsula invaded by the Dorians, the Lacedae monians subjugated the Messenians as Helot serfs. Lycurgus gave Sparta militaris tic laws that disciplined the male citizens for politics and war. Athens took ov er Attica and with annually elected leaders favored democratic politics. Dracon instituted a severe law code, which was moderated and reformed in 594 BC by the wise Solon, who made popular the Greek axiom of "nothing excessive." However, Pe isistratus and his family managed to control Athenian politics until his son Hip pias was expelled in 510 BC. Cleisthenes re-organized Athenians into ten tribes and widened participation to include foreigners and ex-slaves. Much folkloric wisdom was put into animal fables by Aesop. Philosophy began with speculation on the nature of the universe by the astrologer Thales of Miletus, who promoted the Delphi advice to know yourself. Anaximander noted that everyone pays a penalty of retribution to others for any injustice. Pythagoras of Samos started a spiritual community in Crotona in southern Italy based on initiation i nto esoteric doctrines such as immortality and reincarnation of the soul, the th ree parts of the psyche as mind, emotions, and appetites, their virtues of wisdo m, courage, and temperance, and to which were added justice and friendship. Pyth agorean practices included vegetarianism, self-examination, music, and mathemati cs. However, the Pythagoreans were resented for being aristocratic, and the comm unity was attacked and destroyed, though the influence of its philosophy continu ed, especially through Socrates and Plato. Xenophanes criticized anthropomorphic religious beliefs, and Heraclitus of Ephesus taught a dry wisdom of change, cha racter, and the importance of reason and laws. Greek cities of Ionia and the eastern islands of the Aegean broke away from the domination of the Persian empire in 500 BC, and with Athenian help they burned S ardis in Lydia before their revolt was put down. Persian emperor Darius sent for ces to conquer European Greeks, but they were defeated by the Athenians at Marat hon in 490 BC. Ten years later an enormous Persian army led by Xerxes invaded Gr eece and burned Athens, but a coalition of Athenians and Spartans once again was victorious by sea at Salamis and on land at Plataea. Greeks had defended their

independence from Persian imperialist aggression. Athens was quickly rebuilt and took leadership of the Delian league to protect G reek cities, collecting tribute from their allies until an Athenian empire threa tened its rival Sparta. The democratic reforms of Pericles were accompanied by a n ambitious building program and sponsorship of the arts. Conflicts between Cori nth and its colony of Corcyra pulled Athenian naval supremacy into a defensive a lliance, and soon another Corinthian colony at Potidaea revolted from the Atheni an empire. This and Athens' boycott of Megara caused the beginning of the Peloponnesian War that would go on for 27 years between Sparta and Athens. Spartans invaded Attic a, and Athenians crowding into the city suffered a devastating plague that also killed Pericles. An aggressive Athenian policy advocated by Cleon killed the men in the cities of Mytilene and Scione and enslaved the women and children, while the Spartan general Brasidas could claim he was only fighting against Athenian imperialism, and Hermocrates of Syracuse wisely kept Sicily out of the war. In 4 21 BC the Athenian general Nicias made peace with Sparta, but the influence of t he bold Alcibiades led Athens to launch an ambitious invasion of Syracuse in 415 BC. Accused of impiety, Alcibiades went over to the Spartans for a while and th en negotiated with the Persians; he returned to fight for Athens, won some victo ries, but was soon dismissed. Eventually Persian aid helped the Spartan general Lysander defeat the Athenian alliance and starve Athens itself into surrender in 404 BC. Sparta took over the Athenian empire and began forcing cities to adopt oligarchi c governments supported by Lacedaemonian garrisons led by a harmost. In Athens t he Thirty led by Critias acted tyrannically, executing without trials about 1500 citizens before they were thrown out. For eighty more years Athenians governed themselves with a slave-supported democracy. Yet battles between various Greek c ities were frequent. Elis had to surrender to the Spartan confederacy. Ten thous and Greek mercenaries tried to help young Cyrus take over the Persian empire; bu t after they failed and their generals were murdered, they had to return on thei r own. Agesilaus became a Spartan king and invaded Asia Minor in 396 BC. The Ath enian admiral Conon, supported by the Persians, defeated Spartan mercenaries at Cnidus, expelled Spartan harmosts from Asia Minor, and helped Athens rebuild its walls. Greeks agreed to the treaty of Antalcidas in 386 BC even though it ackno wledged Persian sovereignty over Greeks in Asia Minor. Spartans marched against Mantinea and were criticized for taking over the citadel of Thebes for a time. P elopidas led the liberation of Thebes, and by 371 BC the Boeotian league had gai ned enough power to defeat the Spartans at Leuctra. More Greek cities expelled Spartan harmosts, and Arcadians joined together and b uilt the city of Megalopolis. Boeotians led by Epaminondas invaded and raided La cedaemonian territory. Athens tried to help defend Sparta, which was now fightin g many of its old allies. The power of Thebes waned after Epaminondas was killed at Mantinea in 362 BC, and the military adventures of Agesilaus finally ended w ith his death in Africa. Syracuse was taken over by the tyrant Dionysius in 405 BC, and his bloody rule in Sicily lasted 38 years as numerous battles were fough t with Carthaginians and others. Greeks could learn vicariously about ethical issues by seeing them dramatically presented by actors in the theatre. Aeschylus revealed the folly of imperialist war by showing the consequences on the Persian court in The Persians. The dilemm a of whether to offer hospitality to women, who would be forced into marriages, when it could mean war was portrayed in The Suppliant Maidens. The Seven Against Thebes explored the terror of civil strife. The cosmic drama of the suffering c aused by invention and the struggle between power and wisdom was played out in P rometheus Bound. In the only surviving trilogy, the Oresteia, Aeschylus demonstr ated how the chain of murder and revenge could eventually be broken by a nonviol

ent judicial system, such as that of Athens. Sophocles portrayed the madness of foreign war and the folly of military glory i n the dark play Ajax. A woman challenged the power of the state with her religio us conscience in Antigone, as the arrogant pride of Creon was brought down by he r tragic death and his son's. In Oedipus the Tyrant Sophocles commented on the c urrent plague during the Peloponnesian War by showing the tragedy of an ambitiou s political leader who used murder and marriage to gain power, indicating the ne ed for greater self-knowledge and showing how ignorant violence can pollute a ci ty. In The Women of Trachis, a tragedy of lust and jealousy, the heroic Heracles and his wife Deianeira were portrayed as pitiful victims of these human flaws. Perhaps caught up in war fever himself, Sophocles seemed to make murderous reven ge heroic in his Electra as Orestes killed his mother and her husband Aegistheus without guilt. Philoctetes, a complicated play about the intrigues and bitterne ss of war, ended happily after a resurrected Heracles persuaded the hero to part icipate in the war, once again indicating the conservative patriotism of the eld erly Sophocles. In the posthumous Oedipus at Colonus Sophocles dramatized the la st hours of Oedipus amid Theban conflicts and Athenian rescue before his mystica l death. The plays of Euripides explored the psyches of powerful women tested in extremel y adverse situations from the cruel Medea and Phaedra, the suffering Trojan wome n such as Hecuba and Andromache to the adventures of Helen and the Bacchae and t he noble sacrifices of Alcestis and Iphigenia. Several of his plays, such as Alc estis, Helen, Iphigenia in Tauris, and Ion had romantic endings. Although early in the Peloponnesian War The Children of Heracles, Andromache, and The Suppliant Women seemed to support the war effort, many others like Rhesus, Hecuba, The Tr ojan Women, The Phoenician Women, Orestes, and Iphigenia in Aulis exposed the ho rrors of war. The tragedies of Euripides showed how human folly could produce so me terrible situations that could only be resolved by the intervention of a god or goddess. The hilarious comedies of Aristophanes left little doubt of his opposition to th e Peloponnesian War. The Acharnians pleaded for a peace treaty, and The Knights satirized Cleon and his slavish generals Nicias and Demosthenes. In The Clouds p hilosophers were satirized for their atheism and sophists for using wrong logic; but using Socrates to represent them apparently gave Athenians many mistaken id eas about him. The Wasps made fun of Athenians' economic dependence on the court s and politics. In Peace Aristophanes contrasted the violence of war to the joys of peace in heaven and on earth. A peaceful utopia was called for again in the Cloud-cuckoo-land of The Birds. The bawdiest anti-war play, Lysistrata, showed w omen using a sexual strike to seduce the men into making peace. Euripides and tr agedy writers were satirized in The Thesmophoriazusae and The Frogs. A communist utopia was ridiculed in The Ecclesiazusae, and Plutus debated the advantages an d disadvantages of wealth and poverty. Fragments by Empedocles indicate a mystical poet believing the soul reincarnates until it realizes its divinity. Empedocles described the universe as shifting b etween love and strife, and he asked people to avoid bloodshed. The atomist Demo critus also taught justice and finding tranquillity in the soul. Socrates was born at Athens in 469 BC, worked as a stone-mason on the Acropolis, fought in the Peloponnesian War, but spent most of his time discussing philosop hical issues with friends for no fee. He was guided by a divine spirit, which on ly warned him what not to do. Socrates refused to cooperate with the illegalitie s that condemned the Athenian generals at Arginusae and the judicial murder of L eon by the Thirty. In 399 BC Socrates was prosecuted for corrupting the youth an d for violating the state religion by teaching new gods; he refused to escape fr om prison and was the first philosopher to be executed. Although he wrote nothin g himself, much is known about his ideas and how he taught because of the extens

ive dialogs written by his students Xenophon and Plato. Xenophon wanted to defend Socrates from the calumnies that led to his execution and continued after his death. So he published a version of the speech Socrates gave in his defense at the trial. The Delphic oracle had told his friend Chaerep hon that no one was wiser than Socrates. Rather than corrupt the youth, Socrates had done much to improve them by education and urging them to be virtuous. Xeno phon explained that Socrates was not responsible for the evil actions of Alcibia des and Critias, the infamous leader of the Thirty. Xenophon also recorded numer ous conversations of Socrates counseling his friends, showing his sense of humor and humane wisdom in practical ways specifically aimed at the needs of various individuals. Socrates practiced and taught self-control, and he explained the ad vantages of virtue and self-knowledge. The pragmatic Xenophon even has him givin g an extended discourse on estate management. Xenophon also wrote of his own adventure fighting as a mercenary in Persia and a history of Greece from 411 to 362 BC. His works on Socrates, the emperor Cyrus, Agesilaus, and Hiero were the earliest biographies, though some would argue the y were more encomiums than factual lives, especially the Cyropaedia, one of the first historical novels. A short work on economics made some positive suggestion s, although he did not question the injustice of slavery. Plato's dialogs with Socrates emphasized his interest in philosophical issues an d the dialectical process of discussion. The first Alcibiades is an outstanding dialog on self-knowledge, showing Socrates' attempt to educate the ambitious you ng man. Charmides attempted to define the virtue of moderation without success. In Protagoras Socrates discussed virtue and whether it can be taught with the mo st famous sophist, and in Euthydemus he demonstrated an exhortation to virtue, w hile Plato ridiculed the tricky arguments of professional sophists. When asked t o advise about fighting in armor in Laches, Socrates turned the discussion to de fining courage. Friendship was discussed in Lysis, and Menexenus gave an example of a patriotic speech. Socrates tried to define beauty in a discussion with the sophist Hippias. Plato's Meno showed Socrates exploring whether virtue can be taught and demonstr ating his method of getting the soul to recognize what it already knows by his a rtful questioning. In the dialog named after the most famous rhetorician of the time, Gorgias, Socrates considered rhetoric not a science but a flattery or pand ering perversion of justice, as sophistry is of legislation, cooking is of nutri tion, and cosmetics and fashion are of gymnastics. Socrates argued for the impor tance of justice and declared that he would rather suffer injustice than commit it, though he preferred neither. Phaedrus gave another example of rhetoric on th e theme of the lover. Socrates contended that sometimes madness can be inspired by the gods, as in love. Plato presented a myth of how the soul must control the dark side of its animal nature in order to re-ascend to heaven. In the Symposiu m Plato had several prominent men praise Eros, the god of love. Socrates describ ed love as an intermediary between the gods and humans. Plato described the trial, imprisonment, and execution of Socrates in four dialo gs. On the way to court Socrates discussed piety with Euthyphro, who was prosecu ting his father for killing a slave caught for murder. In the trial Socrates des cribed his mission to seek wisdom inspired by the Delphic oracle's pronouncement that he was wisest. When Crito offered to help him escape from prison, Socrates argued that it was more just for him to stay there than to disobey the state wh en he could have chosen exile earlier. Plato's Phaedo describes the last day of Socrates' life when he discussed death and the immortality of the soul. He concl uded that if the soul is immortal, then great care must be taken, because there is no escape from evil except through ultimate justice. In The Republic Plato seemed to reject a simple and healthy society recommended

by Socrates for a luxurious one requiring a military class. Although Socrates el oquently showed that justice is better than injustice, the class society they de signed based on a strong military and deceptive myths leaves much to be desired. Plato did advocate equal education for women, as he included that in his Laws t oo. Analogies and myths describe the good and the philosopher's difficulties in an ignorant society. Political science was inaugurated in an insightful analysis of how aristocracy degenerates into timocracy, plutocracy, democracy, and tyran ny. As with the concept of karma, justice was explained by a series of reincarna tions. Plato himself tried to advise Dionysius II and Dion in Sicily without muc h success, but he founded the Academy in Athens for the study of philosophy, pro bably the first great institution of higher education. Medical ethics was pioneered by the oath and writings of Hippocrates. He did muc h to make healing more scientific and wisely used extensive observation of patie nts and their environment, diet and drugs, fresh air, and rest or exercise as ne eded. Above all, Hippocrates taught that the physician should do no harm. Isocrates wrote speeches for the lawcourts and became the foremost teacher of rh etoric and a proponent of liberal education. His Panegyricus praised the culture of Athens and Greece. He urged Athens to give military aid to Thebes. Isocrates believed in being prepared for war while avoiding unjust aggression. He spoke f or virtue and self-control and often mentioned the golden rule of treating other s as one wishes to be treated. Isocrates pleaded for the Greeks to stop fighting with each other, as he encoura ged them to launch a crusade against the Persian empire. His oration On the Peac e to the Athenian assembly in 355 BC was a masterful critique of Greek foreign p olicy. He showed how the injustice of Athenian imperialism brought great sufferi ng and then how Spartan hegemony failed too. War was expensive and reaped hatred s and trouble; his unpopular speech was needed to cure their ills. Athenian nava l imperialism had undermined their democracy and brought their defeat. He brilli antly pointed out that states, even more than individuals, need to be virtuous, because they have no escape from the consequences of injustice in death. Reflect ing on these disasters, they must refrain from all wars and abhor despotic rule and imperial power. Isocrates favored the peace with Philip in 346 BC, and he ag ain urged a united Greece to liberate the Asian colonies of Greeks. Aristotle studied in Plato's Academy for twenty years and then tutored young Ale xander in Macedonia before founding his own school at the Lyceum in Athens. His extensive writings were probably from his lectures. Aristotle organized and anal yzed human knowledge so comprehensively that his ideas would remain influential for many centuries in disciplines he founded as logic, metaphysics, physics, bio logy, poetics, rhetoric, politics, and ethics. He discussed the art of persuasio n, rhetoric, in terms of character, emotion, and argument and showed the differe nces of political speeches aimed at beneficial legislation, forensic speeches in the lawcourts concerned with individual cases of justice, and public exhibition s that praise or censure. Aristotle critiqued the ethical ideas of Socrates and Plato and suggested his th eory of the moderate mean between lack and excess. He found that virtue was a ch oice based on habit (ethos) which depended on practice. He analyzed justice and the traditional virtues but also added intellectual virtue. He considered friend ship based on equality very important. Aristotle's Politics revealed his prejudi ces against slaves (non-Greeks) and women. He further analyzed the various forms of government and their aberrations his teacher Plato had begun, while criticiz ing Plato's communistic ideas in regard to women, children, and property as cont rary to human nature and unworkable. He justified the class system and slavery a s inherited from ancient Egypt and Crete. He upheld traditional roles for men an d women although he favored education of women. For Aristotle education made a g ood life possible; thus a teacher is even more important than a parent.

Antisthenes was the most ascetic of Socrates' followers, and his student Diogene s continued the mocking criticism of Plato. Diogenes, famous for searching for a n honest person, lived simply and freely in public until he was sold as a slave and became a tutor. He also scorned Demosthenes and Alexander, while considering himself a universal citizen (cosmopolitan). In Sicily Dionysius II succeeded his father and resisted the make him a philosopher king. With the help of some students threw the tyrant but would not allow democracy either. After nthian general named Timoleon helped the Sicilians overthrow off the Carthaginians, and become democratic. efforts of Plato to of Plato, Dion over much turmoil a Cori the oligarchs, fend

The Macedonian king Philip II rose to power through military conquest and exploi tation of gold mines. He fought with Athens in various places, particularly for control of the grain trade from the Bosphorus. After the Phocians took the Delph i treasure and used it for warmaking, Philip's Macedonians punished them in the Sacred War. Macedonia's conquest of northern Greece continued as Olynthus was de feated and enslaved. Athens made a controversial peace with Philip in 346 BC tha t would be debated by Demosthenes and Aeschines as to which Athenians had been b ribed by Philip. Demosthenes continued his warnings against Macedonian aggressio n in his famous Philippic orations. In 338 BC the Macedonian army defeated allie s led by Chares and then captured Thebes. Athens, after failing to stop Philip b y its support of Thebes, submitted to his lenient terms. Two years later Philip was assassinated; his young son Alexander III became king of Macedonia and quick ly secured his Greek empire in the north and with a devastating defeat of revolt ing Thebes. Alexander also succeeded his father as general of a Greek confederation with sup reme power for an invasion of Asia. With a veteran army of about 40,000 the bold Alexander was able to conquer the immense Persian empire including Egypt in les s than a decade. His invasion of India had to turn back when his soldiers refuse d to go any farther. Alexander attempted to merge Greek and Persian cultures by training Persians for his army and supporting marriages of his men to Persian wo men by educating their children. A Spartan revolt against Macedonian rule was cr ushed. Alexander was about to leave on another military expedition of conquest w hen he was probably poisoned in Babylon in 323 BC. After Alexander died, Athens revolted from Macedonian rule and was defeated. The generals succeeding Alexander battled over their portions of the divided empire for about forty years. Eventually after much bloodshed the dynasties of the Pto lemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Mesopotamia, and the Antigonids in Macedonia w ere established. The ambitious Agathocles became king in Syracuse and even attac ked Carthage. The Ptolemies ruled, continuing Egyptian religion while promoting Hellenic culture by supporting the Alexandrian library and the Bucolic poets. Ap ollonius found a home in Rhodes, where his violent epic on Jason and the Argonau ts was appreciated. The Seleucid empire was too large to be ruled effectively fo r long and gradually broke into various kingdoms. The ambitious Antiochus III ov erreached and was defeated by the Romans. Antiochus IV Epiphanes offended the re ligion of the Jews and set off a revolt that led to an independent Judean kingdo m until numerous conflicts resulted in Herod ruling there under the Roman empire . The combination of Hellenic culture with Jewish religion and scholarship produ ced more wisdom and fine literature. Frequent wars occurred among the Greeks fighting for independence against domina tion by Macedonian kings and among each other with the Aetolian and Achaean leag ues. Rome began to intervene more actively after the second Punic War ended abou t 200 BC; they defeated King Perseus of Macedonia in 168 BC and finally crushed the Achaean league and destroyed Corinth in 146 BC. Greek philosophy continued t o flourish as Xenocrates headed the Academy, and Aristotle's Lyceum was taken ov

er by Theophrastus. His student Menander wrote elegant new comedies with urbane humanity. Influenced by his experience in India, Pyrrho founded the Skeptical sc hool. Epicurus taught an intellectual form of hedonism in the Garden at Athens t hat emphasized a calm life free of pain more than pleasure, his main value. Zeno also made philosophy more personal in his Stoicism that concentrated on virtue as the supreme good. Stoics also sought peace of mind but, unlike the Epicureans , were not averse to engaging in politics as a natural process of society. Rome Early Roman history began with legends of Etruscan and Roman kings. Numa Pompili us was credited with developing religious institutions like the fetial priests, who were responsible for seeing that any wars were just and formally declared. T he last arrogant Tarquin caused the expulsion of kings in 509 BC and was replace d by a republican government of patrician senators and two annually elected cons uls. However, the people soon organized to insist on electing tribunes as a chec k on patrician power. The citizen Roman army fought numerous wars with neighbors and incorporated conquered tribes into alliances. With their Latin allies Rome gradually expanded its power over the entire Italian peninsula. Rome's Twelve Ta bles of law were based on the study of Greek institutions. Roman forces successf ully fought off invasion by Gauls and defeated a Greek army led by Pyrrhus of Ep irus. Rome came into conflict with Carthage over Sicily, and having built a strong nav y, was able to win the first Punic War, making Sicily one province and Sardinia and Corsica another. The hatred and conquests of Hannibal in Spain caused anothe r war. Hannibal with his mercenary army crossed the Alps and for fifteen years w on battles and occupied Italy. After the Scipio brothers were killed in Spain, y oung Publius Scipio replaced them, won there, and eventually helped the Romans d efeat Carthage in Africa, as Hannibal returned, lost, and accepted his terms in 201 BC. Macedonia's Philip V had sided with Hannibal and was defeated by a Roman army fo ur years later. At the Isthmian and Nemean games Roman officers announced the li beration of Greece, and two years later Rome withdrew its garrisons. They return ed a few years later to defeat the invading Seleucid king Antiochus III. The Rom ans and their allies defeated the Seleucids again, driving them out of Asia Mino r and forcing them to pay tribute in 188 BC. A Bacchic cult was suppressed, as m any of the revelers were killed. Marcus Cato was elected censor and attempted to restrain the morals of Romans according to his Stoic ideals. The comedies of Pl autus and Terence made fun of the shenanigans of slaves, lust of the young, hung er of parasites, vainglory of soldiers, and avarice of the old in Roman society. The major Roman victory over the Macedonian army led by King Perseus was fought at Pydna in 168 BC. The Roman senate decided the Greeks should be free, though M acedonia had to pay tribute. A third Punic War ended with the complete destructi on of Carthage in 146 BC, while a Greek revolt was also put down when Corinth wa s devastated the same year. Seven years later astrologers and Jews were expelled from Rome. Spanish revolts were defeated when Numantia was destroyed in 133 BC. These wars not only expanded the Roman republic from the Atlantic Ocean to Asia Minor but also greatly increased the number of slaves, and a major rebellion le d by captive Asian workers lasted three years in Sicily. Tribunes Tiberius and G aius Gracchus attempted to bring about land distribution and other reforms; but Tiberius Gracchus was murdered by Roman senators in 133 BC, and his eloquent bro ther Gaius was killed in a riot twelve years later. After becoming wealthy by tax collection, Marius with Sulla's help ended the war against Jugurtha in Africa. Marius replaced Rome's citizen militia with a profe ssional army by hiring proletarians. To meet the crisis of invading Gauls, he wa s re-elected consul five years in a row. Conflicts over rights of the Latin alli es led to a Social War in Italy. Sulla in 88 BC marched his army on Rome; Marius

fled, and the tribune Sulpicius was killed. The same year an Athenian bid for i ndependence was starved into surrender with a siege by Sulla's army. While Sulla was fighting Pontic king Mithridates in Asia, Cinna as consul for three years a utocratically tried to reform Rome. However, when Sulla returned with his army, many were killed in battles and from a list of his enemies. As dictator, Sulla r evived conservative institutions like the senate and then retired and died. When the consul Lepidus sided too much with reformers, his forces were defeated in battle by Sulla's veterans led by Pompey. A slave rebellion in Italy led by S partacus was eventually crushed by Crassus. The army of Lucullus won victories i n Asia, and Pompey's forces defeated the revolt in Spain after Sertorius was kil led. Pompey was then given military authority to eliminate pirates and settle co nflicts in Asia. In 63 BC Cicero as consul was primarily responsible for destroy ing the conspiracy of Catiline. Cato and the senate resisted the growing power o f Pompey and Julius Caesar, but these two became stronger by joining with Crassu s. After serving as consul, Caesar was appointed governor of Gaul for five years , which was renewed for another five, allowing his army to conquer all of Gaul a nd briefly invade Germany and Britain, killing one million and capturing another million. Poets like Lucretius, Catullus, and Virgil criticized the wars caused by ambitious men as they pleaded for justice. Caesar refused to give up his army and face charges Cato threatened, and so a ci vil war broke out between his army and those loyal to Pompey. Caesar became dict ator and consul, won in Spain, defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, and had a child by Cleopatra, whom he made queen of Egypt. Caesar returned to Rome, won in Africa, where Cato committed suicide, and in Spain again. Dictator for life, Caesar was about to be made king before leaving for more military conquests when he was ass assinated by senators led by Brutus and Cassius, whom he had forgiven for suppor ting Pompey. The senate granted amnesty to the assassins but waffled while Anton y struggled with Caesar's heir Octavian for power in Italy, and Brutus and Cassi us went to Greece and Asia to raise armies. Cicero finally opposed Antony's ambi tions and violent methods in a series of orations, but Antony formed a triumvira te with Octavian and Lepidus; Cicero and many others were proscribed and murdere d. The defeat of forces led by Cassius and Brutus at Philippi by the armies of Anto ny and Octavian doomed the last hope of the republic. Antony ruled in the east, Octavian in the west, and Lepidus in Africa. When Antony came under the spell of Cleopatra and began giving away kingdoms to her children, the senate supported Octavian, whose naval victory at Actium was followed by the suicide of Antony an d Cleopatra in Egypt. The young Octavian had consolidated power into his own han ds by 30 BC. In the last few years of his life when his political influence had waned under t he militarism of Pompey and Julius Caesar, Cicero wrote several books on oratory and philosophy. With the exception of Lucretius' poetic version of the philosop hy of Epicurus, these were the main Latin philosophical works of this era to be passed on to the future. Considered by many the greatest orator ever, Cicero's w ork repeated much of Aristotle's ideas on rhetoric but with a depth drawn from m uch practical experience. Cicero considered it the most important art and essent ial in a republic. His works on government and law recapitulated much he found i n Plato, though he commented on Roman history and favored institutions similar t o Roman ones. Cicero's ethical works also summarized the main schools of Greek philosophy, nam ely the Stoics, Epicureans, Academics, and Peripatetics, as his intention was to make Greek philosophy available to readers of Latin. This did provide a service to humanity, as for centuries his work was read by many in western civilization who depended on Latin instead of Greek. Cicero passed on the cardinal Greek vir tues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice along with the value of friends

hip. His book On Duties synthesized much wisdom on the integrity of justice and honesty and was influential for a long time. His eloquent republican zeal was to inspire the American and French revolutions after centuries dominated by monarc hies. Evaluating Ancient Civilization Social ethics developed in family life long before civilization. Groups of peopl e enlarged for greater cooperation and protection in settling conflicts. Familie s helped resolve personal conflicts, as parents settle squabbles between childre n. Family feuds could be lessened by the clan, which could also be called on for help against outside aggressors. Tribes organized clans together and could be u nited under a powerful chief. As population grew in regions by agricultural sett lements, eventually towns and cities formed. The concept of leadership by a chie f led to kingships, but many cities were governed by councils representing the t ribes. As far as I can tell, every culture has some concept of justice or right. Larger societies found that laws could be defined and applied, if not equally t o everyone, at least according to accepted principles. As these larger societies organized to defend themselves against others or take advantage of others, the problem of massive violence in war became the major nemesis of civilization. Eve ry major civilization has been dogged by this hostility, and efforts to develop awareness and effective institutions to solve this problem still even in our tim e have far to go. Civilization developed size and power in the Near East, but the almost continual violence of warfare in societies ruled by kings promoted too much injustice and suffering to be stable and offer many people a good life. The oppression of war was extended by the slaves captured, and economic injustices also resulted in t he poor being enslaved for debt. Governments did attempt to achieve justice with laws, and advances were made in many fields of human endeavor. Occasional relig ious figures like Akhenaten, Moses, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Zarathusht ra, and many others less known to history inspired people with their wisdom, but their teachings were ignored by most amid the massive violence of war and the s ocial injustices prevalent in the ancient Near East. Civilization in ancient India must have had a worthy beginning in the Harappan c ulture of the Indus valley to be able to sustain such spiritual values after the Aryan invasion of the subcontinent established a racist culture based on an inc reasingly rigid caste system. Thanks to Hindu sages, Mahavira, and the Buddha, a ncient India offered outstanding ethical and spiritual teachings. Although world ly politicians still exploited people and caused suffering in local wars, the em phasis on the virtue, justice, and duty they called dharma had a profound affect on their religions, relationships, and literature. In methods and teachings tha t enhance spiritual transcendence in realization of the soul, India is yet to be surpassed. Buddhism, a unique religion without a god, would spread throughout A sia in future centuries and offer spiritual teaching and methods of psychologica l insight that would benefit hundreds of millions of people, and in the twentiet h century many people would turn to the ideas and techniques of ancient India fo r spiritual wisdom. In China the word for civilization meant literate rather than a city-dweller, an d so the Chinese have a long and rich cultural tradition of learning and educati on. Their concept of heaven and the divine was more natural than anthropomorphic , and yet the will of heaven is what they believed authorized a government to ru le. Like the Greeks, the Chinese had an excellent tradition of philosophy during centuries of frequent wars. Clever men often used their oratory to persuade rul ers to form alliances that often resulted in devastating battles. Yet the humane teaching of Confucius and his followers, the peaceful wisdom of Lao-zi, and the universal love of Mo-zi offered alternatives to this strife. Others believed th at people could be manipulated by fear of severe punishments and strict enforcem ent of laws under a supreme authority. As the Period of Warring States culminate

d in Qin's conquest of the other states, this Legalistic philosophy was applied in the first effective Chinese empire since legendary times. Yet the Qin empire could only last a mere 15 years before it was completely overthrown by a popular revolution. About the same time that Rome overcame Carthage's Hannibal and the Macedonian-dominated Greeks, the Han dynasty established its empire and began ap plying Confucian and Daoist principles to government. Like the Roman empire, the y would still have their problems, but the stability would support a certain amo unt of prosperity and population growth. Greeks in admiration of their Homeric heroes were quite competitive and aggressi ve. Yet at the same time as Confucius, Lao-zi, Mahavira, Buddha, Zarathushtra, a nd second Isaiah were teaching, Pythagoras had an esoteric school practicing spi ritual principles. Socrates developed philosophical ideas with his stimulating d ialectic to such a high level of intellectual sophistication that his student Pl ato and Plato's student Aristotle could formulate philosophies as comprehensive as any ever produced. I have found that the similarities between Greek and Chine se concepts of virtue without any known cultural influence is a powerful argumen t that these ideas are universal to humanity. Corresponding to the Chinese Perio d of Warring States was a violent era in Greece beginning with the invasions of the Persians and ending with Rome's conquest. Athenian efforts to defend against Persian aggression with the Delian confederacy led to imperialistic encroachmen ts that stimulated the Peloponnesian War. The solution of Isocrates to unite Gre ece for an invasion of Persia, though successfully carried out by Alexander's Ma cedonian army, still spread the contagion of military methods even as far as Ind ia. The Hellenistic world divided by Alexander's successors was one of frequent wars and the domination of Macedonian kings until republican Rome used its military might and moral imperative to attempt to liberate Greece. Yet Greek philosophy, drama, and literature educated many, including the Romans. Attempting to handle a large empire by militaristic methods that demanded tribute (taxes) to pay for itself naturally brought revolts. Yet Rome was so powerful in these that it was the internal conflicts between the privileges of aristocrats and the desperation of the debtors and slaves that brought civil strife. As powerful military leade rs gained greater glory and power, they came into conflict with each other. Whil e senators like Cicero and Cato pleaded for republican principles of justice, th e ambitions of Pompey and Julius Caesar brought about a civil war. Rome's long r epublican tradition of hating kings almost seemed to be overcome when Caesar bec ame dictator for life, but resentment of this led to his assassination and anoth er civil war between the conspirators and Caesar's legal and political heirs, Oc tavian and Antony. When these two united to defeat Cassius and Brutus, the repub lic was dead. Yet the conflict between the two ambitious men produced one more c ivil war that defeated Antony and his paramour Cleopatra, enabling Octavian to b ecome the first emperor of Rome. The Romans had the wisdom of Greek philosophy p opularized in Latin by Cicero, but they had lost their representative government to a single powerful leader. There would be a Roman peace (Pax Romana), but freedom would be subject to arbit rary Roman laws, taxes, and their soldiers. The world had been blessed by the et hical wisdom of several excellent teachers; yet folly still abounded in every ci vilization. Soon from the religious tradition of the Jews would come an obscure teacher, whose inspired ethics would astonish the world. How long will it be until human beings learn how to treat each other well? This ancient history shows that the folly of exploitation and violence has its conseq uences. So many times did cities and states fight each other because of previous incursions. Other times they went to the aid of states that had aided them in t he past, even when several generations had passed in between. Alexander's conque st of the Persian empire was not accomplished until about 150 years after the Pe rsian invasions of Greece. Yet to me Alexander was not a "great" hero but one of

the greatest criminals ever, because he caused so much needless death and destr uction. When will the teachings of the sages and philosophers, who remind us of the golden rule, be practiced more universally? The golden rule suggests that we treat one another as we would wish to be treated, but too often politicians and military leaders fight violations with more violence. Even children know that t wo wrongs do not make a right. Nations and other social entities are affected by the karma of cause and effect, just as individuals are, perhaps even more so, s ince individuals seem to escape the consequences of wrong in death. I hope that this work has enabled readers to learn from the wisdom of our universal heritage how not to be victims of folly. 1998 -2003 by Sanderson Beck This chapter is part of the book Ancient Wisdom And Folly, which is now in print . Ordering this book Contents History Of Ethics Chronological Index Beck home