Fire Protection by the WBDG Secure/Safe Committee Last updated: 08-12-2011

OVERVIEW The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of any modern technological society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and automatic fire protection systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved in all aspects of the design in order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to reduce the potential loss from fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning for fire protection in/around a building involves knowing the four sources of fire: natural, manmade, wildfire and incidental and taking an integrated systems approach that enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package. The analysis requires more than code compliance or meeting the minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes are intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do not necessarily protect the mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to creatively and efficiently integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other design strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety (evacuation, recovery, egress/smoke. Identify critical systems: diesel generators, etc.).

PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN (PBD) The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners, designers, special consultants, and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE Code Official's Guide to Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in collaboration with ICC). BACK TO TOP RECOMMENDATIONS Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include: Design TeamIt is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire Protection Engineer with adequate experience and knowledge in fire protection and life

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safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in all phases of design, from planning to occupancy. Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)to be utilized by the design team, including statutory requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes imposed by insurance carriers on commercial projects. Site RequirementsA quality site design will integrate performance requirements associated with fire department access, suppression, and separation distances and site/building security. Fire department access Design buildings with uncomplicated layouts that enable firefighters to locate an area quickly. Provide rapid access to various features such as fire department connections (FDCs), hose valves, elevators and stairs, annunciators, key boxes, etc. Accommodate the access of fire apparatus into and around the building site Comply with local authorities having jurisdiction to accommodate the access of fire apparatus into and around the building site and to coordinate access control point layout. Fire hydrants Coordinate with security measures Building Construction Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements: Construction type, allowable height, and area Exposures/separation requirements Fire ratings, materials, and systems

Occupancy types Interior finish Exit stairway enclosure Egress Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements: Exit stairway remoteness Exit discharge Areas of refuge

Accessible exits Door locking arrangements (security interface) Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements: Detection Notification Survivability of systems

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Fire Suppression Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements: Water supply Type of automatic fire extinguishing system Water-based fire extinguishing system Non-water-based fire extinguishing system Standpipes and fire department hose outlets Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following elements: Survivability of systems Electrical Safety Distributed Energy Resources Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements: Engineered smoke control systems Fireproofing and firestopping Atrium spaces Mission critical facility needs BACK TO TOP RELATED ISSUES Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements The concern for terrorist attacks has caused design and engineering professionals to address integrated fire protection and security measures for the building site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection measures must be well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another example is

the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic emergency operations in the event of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR) event. Virtually every project that requires fire protection must also meet sustainability goals. Thus, it is important to balance security/safety goals with those for sustainability for example, specify fire resistant materials that are durable and can meet green products standards whenever possible. Further, consider life-cycle cost when making decisions on materials, equipment and systems. Mass Notification Notifying building occupants and visitors both inside and outside facilities of hazardous events has become a critical aspect of personnel safety and health. Whether it is a fire, chemical spill, criminal activity, or act of terrorism, everyone in the vicinity of such events must be warned so they know whether to shelter in place or fleeincluding which direction to go. Mass notification systems can be employed in single buildings or on campuses and military bases. Notices can be sent over loudspeakers, to computer monitors and to cell phones. See UFC 4-021-01 Design and O&M: Mass Notification Systems Bollard Spacing Bollard spacing for accessibility related to access for fire vehicles and personnel. The Americans with Disabilities (ADA) Act calls for bollards to have 36 inch clear space between them to meet clear opening requirements. Site security designers need to balance security with access, considering bollard location and spacing respective to vehicular traffic, bus stops, hardened street furniture, and pedestrian traffic. BACK TO TOP RELATED ISSUES Green Roofs With the proliferation of vegetative roofs on buildings to reduce heat island effect and control stormwater runoff, consideration must be given to firefighters having to ventilate a structure during a major fire event. Provide adequate roof hatches and other access points for firefighters. Permeable Pavement Permeable pavement is being specified more frequently as a means of controlling stormwater runoff from building sites. Not all types of permeable pavement are designed to hold emergency fire and rescue vehicles. Coordinate with site designer/landscape architect to ensure permeable pavement selected will meet load requirements of emergency vehicles. Another option to consider is to use permeable pavement in parking lots for passenger vehicles and standard pavement for access roads, loading docks and driveways to building entrances. Occupant Emergency Plan Occupant emergency plans are an integral part of an emergency management program. Properly developed plans can reduce the risk to personnel, property, and other assets while minimizing work disruption during and immediately following an emergency. See U.S. Department of Energy Model Occupant Emergency Plan.

Options to Prospective Owners of Fixed Fire Protection Systems Excerpted and edited from Status of Industry Efforts to Replace Halon Fire Extinguishing Agents - A 57 Page .PDF Report While the list may get longer as time goes on, end-users who 15 years ago would have employed halon 1301 systems to protect their facilities or equipment have four clear options in fire protection systems today: 1. Use an in-kind halon 1301 alternative such as a halocarbon, inert gas or carbon dioxide based system, .. 2. Use a not-in-kind alternative like water mist or pre-action water sprinkler system, .. 3. Use a very early detection system with no specialized fire suppression or .. 4. Do nothing. Available Fire Protection System Alternatives to Halons in Fixed Systems Gaseous Extinguishing Agents for Fixed Systems During the halon era (late 1960s to late 1980s), two halons emerged as the market leaders: halon 1301 for total flooding systems and halon 1211 for use as a streaming agent in hand portable and hand hose line extinguishers. The decision about what agent to use where and when was rather straight forward. Today there is a proliferation of at least 13 different gaseous agents in various states of commercialization vying for a place in the markets once served by halon 1301. Indeed, there are even more under review at the US EPA for possible addition to the SNAP 16 list. For a halon alternative to reach commercial acceptance in the US, there are at least 4 steps in the process and until all four are achieved, the agent will see little or no success. These steps, in the chronological sequence one would likely approach them, are: 1. Inclusion in the US EPAs SNAP 19 list as an acceptable alternative where the focus is primarily on the health and environmental effects of the agent. 2. Inclusion of the agent in a technical standard of the National Fire Protection Association which is intended to provide guidelines to the users concerning the design, installation, operation, testing and maintenance of fire protection systems or extinguishers employing the agent. 3. Component listing or approval of the agent itself by a nationally recognized testing laboratory such as Underwriters Laboratories or Factory Mutual. 4. Listing or approval by a nationally recognized testing laboratory of a fire protection system or hand portable extinguisher incorporating the agent. Water Mist Systems To many, water is perceived as a tremendous fire extinguishing agent, its readily available, its inexpensive and its environmentally non-problematical. Further, the

concept of using it in a mist form makes water even more attractive as a fire extinguishing agent since:

The high effective surface area of the water mist particles makes it more capable (than a heavy stream of water) in its process of cooling the fuel and the surroundings and in readily evaporating (turning into steam) and diluting the oxygen, thus inhibiting the fuel burning rate and .. That increased effectiveness then translates into requiring very small quantities of water to achieve extinguishment (when compared to more conventional water application methods) thus minimizing the largest single objection to water systems - the collateral damage done by the water.

Water mist has made in-roads into 3 major market applications: the protection of turbine and diesel powered machinery, the protection of machinery spaces aboard ships and the protection of passenger cabins aboard ships. There are accepted test protocols (Factory Mutual Research 20 for the turbines and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) 21, 22, 23 for shipboard) for these market applications and those who have their systems successfully tested have achieved the right to participate. While the technology is certainly developing, there are two things that are really holding water mist back from gaining wide market acceptance:

First, the water mist fire protection systems have been found to have difficulty extinguishing small fires in large volumes even to the point that they fail to extinguish those small fires. Second, the water mist industry has been unable to effectively bridge the gap between theory and practice, thus requiring that applications be limited (in size and characteristics) to those where fire test protocols have been developed against which system performance has been determined empirically. The economics of this approach are unattractive to systems manufacturers and end users.

There is a lot of effort on an international scale going into solving these problems and many researchers are confident that the solutions are well within reach. Preaction Automatic Fire Protection Sprinkler Systems A preaction automatic sprinkler system is generally used where there is special concern for accidental discharge of water as in areas containing essential electronics. A preaction valve is placed in the water supply piping and a separate detection system, most often smoke detection, is used to activate the valve to allow water to flow into the sprinkler piping. The sprinkler piping is much like that found in a conventional system with closed head sprinklers that do not open until activated by the heat from a fire. When the system is in a standby mode with the preaction valve closed, the sprinkler piping downstream of the valve is often pressurized with air and that pressure is monitored as a continuous supervision of the integrity of the piping. In the event of smoke detection, the preaction valve will be opened but water will not flow into the sprinkler piping until a sprinkler head is operated by the heat of a fire. When the sprinkler head operates, any supervisory air in the system vents through that

open head followed by the water allowed into the piping by the opened preaction valve. Much of the damage reported over the years caused by water to essential electronic equipment has been as the result of some form of failure of the wet pipe sprinkler system, either in the piping itself or some sort of failure of the sprinkler head itself. In the preaction fire protection system, two separate events consisting of the (1) detection of smoke adequate to cause the opening of the preaction valve and (2) the development of enough heat to open a sprinkler head are necessary before any water would be discharged. Thus the accidental discharge of water from this type of system is highly unlikely. Other Types of Agents for Fixed Fire Protection Systems In addition to the gaseous agents listed in Table 14 and the water based systems, there are several other types of agents being promoted as halon replacements in fixed systems, including inert gas generators, aerosols and some special halocarbon based compositions. Inert Gas Generators Inert gas generators utilize a solid material which oxidizes rapidly, producing large quantities of CO2 and/or nitrogen. The use of this technology to date has been limited to specialized applications such as dry bays on military aircraft. This technology has demonstrated excellent performance in these applications with space and weight requirements equivalent to those of halon 1301 and is currently being deployed in the Navys F/A-18E/F "Super Hornet" and the Marine Corps MV-22 Osprey. Aerosols Another technology being developed is the use of aerosols as extinguishing agents. These take advantage of the well established fire suppression capability of solid particulates as demonstrated with dry chemicals - with the possibility of significantly reducing the amount of residue associated with the current dry chemical agents. The NFPA is in the process of forming a technical committee to write a standard for Fine Aerosol Extinguishing Technology which will ultimately provide the guidance to assure these types of systems are employed in a manner that is safe and beneficial to society. Halocarbon Based Compositions There are two compositions that are receiving attention for some specialized fire protection systems applications. Both consist of halocarbon and dry chemical components although neither uses the same halocarbon or dry chemical. a. HFC-227ea and Sodium Bicarbonate. The US Army has done work to develop a new agent for the protection of the crew compartment in new models of armored combat vehicles to take on the role that is being filled by halon 1301 in current vehicles. The composition consists of 95% by weight HFC-227ea halocarbon agent together with 5% by weight sodium bicarbonate dry chemical. They have reported 26 that the sodium bicarbonate additive significantly reduces the generation of hydrogen fluoride normally found with the exposure of halocarbon agents to flames. They attribute this to the quick flame knockdown provided by the sodium bicarbonate. The Army has indicated that it has achieved a 40% increase in performance of the HFC-227ea with the addition of this small amount of sodium bicarbonate. The US EPA is reviewing this composition for addition to the SNAP list as an agent suitable for use in occupied areas. b. Gelled Halocarbon and Dry Chemical Suspension. Similar to the earlier composition, the dry chemical component in this composition enhances the fire suppression

capability of the HFC-236fa halocarbon component and reduces the generation of HF during fire suppression. This product is marketed under the name Envirogel. There are various compositions but one reported 27 is made up of 40% by weight of the gelled ammonium polyphosphate and 60% by weight HFC-236fa. The agent is on the US EPA SNAP list for use in occupied areas. It is not listed in National Fire Protection Association Standard 2001, Standard on Clean agent Fire Extinguishing Systems. Interest has been shown in several applications for this type of material, most notably in aircraft lavatory bottles and aircraft portable extinguishers. Peripherals Aerosol generator represents a dramatic advancement in fire protection over Alternative, Halon, Carbon dioxide, Dry chemical, and Water systems. It is environmentally friendly, both non-toxic and non-corrosive (even in the presence of high humidity). It is the most cost effective fire suppression system available. It requires no expensive installation of pressure vessels - pipe work and extensive manpower to install. What is it? The Aero-K generators is a patented design manufactured in a USA ISO9002 facility, using a unique potassium based Aerosol using pyrotechnic-based chemistry: the Aerosol generators are virtually maintenance free and have a guaranteed shelf life of over 10 years. Each unit is self contained which produces an aerosol stream when activated. How does it work? Upon detection of a fire, Aero-K generators can be activated either manually or electrically from a suitable releasing device. The generator produces an exceptionally effective, ultra-fine, potassium based aerosol. Unlike gaseous systems, which operate at pressure, aerosol generators are very cost effective to install and maintain. They do not require the pressure vessels, piping or expensive installation costs associated with other extinguishing systems. Space and weight requirements are minimal. On an agent weight basis, the aerosol is ten times more effective than gaseous agent alternatives. Complete Details

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A - Sources of water for fire Fighting Systems 1- Water Sources

This provides the minimum requirements for the design, construction, installation, and maintenance of tanks and accessory equipment that supply water for private fire protection. Types: This addresses elevated tanks on towers or building structures, water storage tanks that are at grade or below grade, and pressure tanks. Designed: The minimum thickness of any part of the structure shall be 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) for parts not in contact with water contents and 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) for parts in contact with water contents. The controlling thickness of rolled shapes for the purposes of the foregoing stipulations shall be taken as the mean thickness of the flanges, regardless of web thickness. The minimum thickness of tubular columns and struts shall be 1/4 in. (6.4 mm). Round or square bars used for wind bracing shall have a minimum diameter or width of 3/4 in. (19.1 mm). Bars of other shapes, if used, shall have a total area at least equal to a 3/4-in. (19.1-mm) round bar.

2- Fire Pumps This deals with the selection and installation of pumps supplying water for private fire protection. Items considered include water supplies; suction, discharge, and auxiliary equipment; power supplies; electric drive and control; internal combustion engine drive and control; steam turbine drive and control; and acceptance tests and operation. This standard does not cover system water supply capacity and pressure requirements, nor does it cover requirements for periodic inspection, testing, and maintenance of fire pump systems. This standard does not cover the requirements for installation wiring of fire pump units. Types: Centrifugal Pumps, Vertical Shaft Turbine-Type Pumps, Positive Displacement Pumps. Design: Centrifugal pumps shall be of the overhung impeller between bearings design, The overhung impeller design shall be close coupled or separately coupled single- or two-stage end suction-type or in-line-type pumps, The impeller between bearings design shall be separately coupled single-stage or multistage axial (horizontal) split-case-type or radial (vertical) split-case-type pumps.

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B - Hand Tools 1- Systems with a rubber hose reel "Hose Reel"

This shall define the design and construction requirements for new fire hose, the testing required to verify the design and construction, and the inspection and testing required of all new fire hose. Types: This shall apply to new attack hose, occupant use hose, forestry hose, supply hose, and suction hose.

Technical equipment:The hose shall have an internal diameter of not less than the trade size of the hose. - The length of the hose shall be between -2 percent and +4 percent of the nominal stated length of the hose. - Hose reinforcement shall be made from one of the following materials, and the material shall be approved. -All fire hose shall be lined. - The material selected for the construction of attack hose shall be capable of being manufactured into a hose. - Each length of fire hose shall be indelibly marked in letters and figures at least 25 mm (1 in.) high with the manufacturer's identification, the month and the year of manufacture, and the words.

2- Systems sockets (nozzles) internal fire "Landing Valve"

Standpipe system components and hardware shall be, all devices and materials used in standpipe systems shall be of an approved type, system components shall be rated for working pressures not less than the maximum pressure to be developed at their corresponding locations within the system under any condition, including the pressure that occurs when a permanently installed fire pump is operating at shutoff pressure. Types: All valves controlling connections to water supplies and standpipes shall be listed indicating valves, such valves shall not close in less than 5 seconds when operated at maximum possible speed from the fully open position. Technical equipment:Manual standpipe systems shall not be used in high-rise buildings.- Each hose connection for manual standpipes shall be provided with a conspicuous sign that reads.- Manual standpipes shall not be used for Class II or Class III systems.

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3 - Systems sockets (nozzles) Foreign Fire "Fire Hydrant" This covers the minimum requirements for the installation of standpipes, private hydrants, monitor nozzles, hose systems, and hose houses including methods and procedures of water flow testing for the evaluation of water supplies, this

standard does not cover requirements for periodic inspection, testing, and maintenance of these systems. Types: Permanently Inoperative Hydrants, Temporarily Inoperative Hydrants. Technical equipment: Hydrants shall be set on flat stones or concrete slabs and shall be provided with small stones (or equivalent) placed about the drain to ensure drainage.- Where soil is of such a nature that the hydrants will not drain properly with the arrangement specified, or groundwater stands at levels above that of the drain, the hydrant drain shall be plugged at the time of installation, if the drain is plugged, hydrants in service in cold climates shall be pumped out after usage, such hydrants shall be marked to indicate the need for pumping out after usage.- The center of a hose outlet shall be not less than 18 in. (457 mm) above final grade, or when located in a hose house, 12 in. (305 mm) above the floor.- Hydrants shall be fastened to piping and anchored in accordance with the requirements of NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems.

- Hydrants shall be protected if subject to mechanical damage, the means of protection shall be arranged in a manner that will not interfere with the connection to, or operation of, hydrants. - Check valves, detector check valves, backflow prevention valves, and similar appurtenances shall not be installed in the service stub between a fire hydrant and private water supply piping.

A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting of a water supply system, providing adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories and large commercial buildings, home and small building systems are now available at a cost-effective price. Operation Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive glass bulb or a twopart metal link held together with fusible alloy. The glass bulb or link applies pressure to a pip cap which acts as a plug which prevents water from flowing until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler head. In a standard wet-pipe sprinkler system, each sprinkler activates independently when the predetermined heat level is reached. Because of this, the number of sprinklers that operate is limited to only those near the fire, thereby maximizing the available water pressure over the point of fire origin. A sprinkler activation will do less damage than a fire department hose stream, which provide approximately 900 liters/min (250 US gallons/min). A typical sprinkler used for industrial manufacturing occupancies discharge about 75-150 litres/min (20-40 US gallons/min). However, a typical Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) sprinkler at a pressure of 50 psi (340 kPa) will discharge approximately 100 US gallons per minute (0.0063 m3/s). In addition, a sprinkler will usually activate between one and four

minutes, whereas the fire department typically takes at least five minutes to arrive at the fire site after receiving an alarm, and an additional ten minutes to set up equipment and apply hose streams to the fire. This additional time can result in a much larger fire, requiring much more water to extinguish. [edit]Types

Fire sprinkler control valve assembly. [edit]Wet pipe systems By a wide margin, wet pipe sprinkler systems are installed more often than all other types of fire sprinkler systems. They also are the most reliable, because they are simple, with the only operating components being the automatic sprinklers and (commonly, but not always) the automatic alarm check valve. An automatic water supply provides water under pressure to the system piping. [edit]Dry pipe systems

Garage sprinkler system in New York City Dry pipe systems are installed in spaces in which the ambient temperature may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe system, rendering the system inoperable. Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated buildings, in parking garages, in outside canopies attached to heated buildings (in which a wet pipe system would be provided), or in refrigerated coolers. Dry pipe systems are the second most common sprinkler system type. In regions using NFPA regulations, dry pipe systems cannot be installed unless the range of ambient temperatures reaches below 40F.[7] Operation - Water is not present in the piping until the system operates. The piping is filled with air below the water supply pressure. To prevent the larger water supply pressure from forcing water into the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of check valve) results in a greater force on top of the check valve clapper by the use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the piping air pressure, as compared to the higher water pressure but smaller clapper surface area. When one or more of the automatic sprinklers is exposed, for a sufficient time, to a temperature at or above the temperature rating, it opens, allowing the air in the piping to vent from that sprinkler. Each sprinkler operates individually. As the air pressure in the piping drops, the pressure differentialacross the dry pipe valve changes, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flow from sprinklers, needed to control the fire, is delayed until the air is vented from the sprinklers. For this reason, dry pipe systems are usually not as effective as wet pipe systems in fire control during the initial stages of the fire. Some view dry pipe sprinklers as advantageous for protection of collections and other water sensitive areas. This perceived benefit is due to a fear that wet system piping may leak, while dry pipe systems will not. However, the same potential for accidental water damage exists, as dry pipe systems will only provide a slight delay prior to water discharge while the air in the piping is released from the pipe. Disadvantages of using dry pipe fire sprinkler systems include:

Increased complexity - Dry pipe systems require additional control equipment and air pressure supply components which increases system complexity. This puts a premium on proper maintenance, as this increase in system complexity results in an inherently less reliable overall system (i.e., more single failure points) as compared to a wet pipe system. Higher installation and maintenance costs - The added complexity impacts the overall dry-pipe installation cost, and increases maintenance expenditure primarily due to added service labor costs. Lower design flexibility - Regulatory requirements limit the maximum permitted size (i.e., 750 gallons) of individual dry-pipe systems, unless additional components and design efforts are provided to limit the time from sprinkler activation to water discharge to under one minute. These limitations may increase the number of individual sprinkler systems (i.e., served from a single riser) that must be provided in

the building, and impact the ability of an owner to make system additions. Increased fire response time - Because the piping is empty at the time the sprinkler operates, there is an inherent time delay in delivering water to the sprinklers which have operated while the water travels from the riser to the sprinkler, partially filling the piping in the process. A maximum of 60 seconds is normally allowed by regulatory requirements from the time a single sprinkler opens until water is discharged onto the fire. This delay in fire suppression results in a larger fire prior to control, increasing property damage. Increased corrosion potential - Following operation or testing, dry-pipe sprinkler system piping is drained, but residual water collects in piping low spots, and moisture is also retained in the atmosphere within the piping. This moisture, coupled with the oxygen available in the compressed air in the piping, increases pipe internal wall corrosion rates, possibly eventually leading to leaks. The internal pipe wall corrosion rate in wet pipe systems (in which the piping is constantly full of water) is much lower, as the amount of oxygen available for the corrosion process is lower.[citation needed] [edit]Deluge systems "Deluge" systems are systems in which all sprinklers connected to the water piping system are open, in that the heat sensing operating element is removed, or specifically designed as such. These systems are used for special hazards where rapid fire spread is a concern, as they provide a simultaneous application of water over the entire hazard. They are sometimes installed in personnel egress paths or building openings to slow travel of fire (e.g., openings in a fire-rated wall). Water is not present in the piping until the system operates. Because the sprinkler orifices are open, the piping is at atmospheric pressure. To prevent the water supply pressure from forcing water into the piping, a deluge valve is used in the water supply connection, which is a mechanically latched valve. It is a non-resetting valve, and stays open once tripped. Because the heat sensing elements present in the automatic sprinklers have been removed (resulting in open sprinklers), the deluge valve must be opened as signaled by a fire alarm system. The type of fire alarm initiating device is selected mainly based on the hazard (e.g., smoke detectors, heat detectors, or optical flame detectors). The initiation device signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open. Activation can also be manual, depending on the system goals. Manual activation is usually via an electric or pneumatic fire alarm pull station, which signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open. Operation - Activation of a fire alarm initiating device, or a manual pull station, signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flows from all sprinklers simultaneously. [edit]Pre-Action Systems Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental activation is undesired, such as in museums with rare art works, manuscripts, or books;

and Data Centers, for protection of computer equipment from accidental water discharge. Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on the exact system goal. There are two main sub-types of pre-action systems: single interlock, and double interlock. The operation of single interlock systems are similar to dry systems except that these systems require that a preceding fire detection event, typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector, takes place prior to the action of water introduction into the systems piping by opening the pre-action valve, which is a mechanically latched valve (i.e., similar to a deluge valve). In this way, the system is essentially converted from a dry system into a wet system. The intent is to reduce the undesirable time delay of water delivery to sprinklers that is inherent in dry systems. Prior to fire detection, if the sprinkler operates, or the piping system develops a leak, loss of air pressure in the piping will activate a trouble alarm. In this case, the pre-action valve will not open due to loss of supervisory pressure, and water will not enter the piping. The operation of double interlock systems are similar to deluge systems except that automatic sprinklers are used. These systems require that both a preceding fire detection event, typically the activation of a heat or smoke detector, and an automatic sprinkler operation take place prior to the action of water introduction into the systems piping. Activation of either the fire detectors alone, or sprinklers alone, without the concurrent operation of the other, will not allow water to enter the piping. Because water does not enter the piping until a sprinkler operates, double interlock systems are considered as dry systems in terms of water delivery times, and similarly require a larger design area. [edit]Foam water sprinkler systems A foam water fire sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging a mixture of water and low expansion foam concentrate, resulting in a foam spray from the sprinkler. These systems are usually used with special hazards occupancies associated with high challenge fires, such as flammable liquids, and airport hangars. Operation is as described above, depending on the system type into which the foam is injected. [edit]Water spray "Water spray" systems are operationally identical to a deluge system, but the piping and discharge nozzle spray patterns are designed to protect a uniquely configured hazard, usually being three dimensional components or equipment (i.e., as opposed to a deluge system, which is designed to cover the horizontal floor area of a room). The nozzles used may not be listed fire sprinklers, and are usually selected for a specific spray pattern to conform to the three dimensional nature of the hazard (e.g., typical spray patterns being oval, fan, full circle, narrow jet). Examples of hazards protected by water spray systems are electrical transformers containing oil for cooling or turbgenerator bearings. Water spray systems can also be used externally on the surfaces of tanks containing flammable liquids or gases (such as hydrogen). Here the water spray is intended to cool the tank and its contents to prevent tank rupture/explosion (BLEVE)

and fire spread. [edit]Design Temperature Colour of liquid C 57 68 79 93 141 182 227 260 F 135 155 174 200 286 360 440 500 inside bulb Orange Red Yellow Green Blue Mauve Black

This chart from the New Zealand fire safety standards indicates the colour of the bulb and the respective operating temperature. Sprinkler systems are intended to either control the fire or to suppress the fire. Control mode sprinklers are intended to control the heat release rate of the fire to prevent building structure collapse, and pre-wet the surrounding combustibles to prevent fire spread. The fire is not extinguished until the burning combustibles are exhausted or manual extinguishment is effected by firefighters. Suppression mode sprinklers (formerly known as Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) sprinklers) are intended to result in a severe sudden reduction of the heat release rate of the fire, followed quickly by complete extinguishment, prior to manual intervention. Most sprinkler systems installed today are designed using an area and density approach. First the building use and building contents are analyzed to determine the level of fire hazard. Usually buildings are classified as light hazard, ordinary hazard group 1, ordinary hazard group 2, extra hazard group 1, or extra hazard group 2. After determining the hazard classification, a design area and density can be determined by referencing tables in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards. The design area is a theoretical area of the building representing the worst case area where a fire could burn. The design density is a measurement of how much water per square foot of floor area should be applied to the design area. For example, in an office building classified as light hazard, a typical design area would be 1,500 square feet (140 m2)

and the design density would be 0.1 US gallons per minute (6.3106 m3/s) per 1 square foot (0.093 m2) or a minimum of 150 US gallons per minute (0.0095 m3/s) applied over the 1,500-square-foot (140 m2) design area. Another example would be a manufacturing facility classified as ordinary hazard group 2 where a typical design area would be 1,500 square feet (140 m2) and the design density would be 0.2 US gallons per minute (1.3105 m3/s) per 1 square foot (0.093 m2) or a minimum of 300 US gallons per minute (0.019 m3/s) applied over the 1,500-square-foot (140 m2) design area. After the design area and density have been determined, calculations are performed to prove that the system can deliver the required amount of water over the required design area. These calculations account for all of the pressure that is lost or gained between the water supply source and the sprinklers that would operate in the design area. This includes pressure losses due to friction inside the piping and losses or gains due to elevational differences between the source and the discharging sprinklers. Sometimes momentum pressure from water velocity inside the piping is also calculated. Typically these calculations are performed using computer software but before the advent of computer systems these sometimes complicated calculations were performed by hand. This skill of calculating sprinkler systems by hand is still required training for a sprinkler system design technologist who seeks senior level certification from engineering certification organizations such as the National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET). Sprinkler systems in residential structures are becoming more common as the cost of such systems becomes more practical and the benefits become more obvious. Residential sprinkler systems usually fall under a residential classification separate from the commercial classifications mentioned above. A commercial sprinkler system is designed to protect the structure and the occupants from a fire. Most residential sprinkler systems are primarily designed to suppress a fire in such a way to allow for the safe escape of the building occupants. While these systems will often also protect the structure from major fire damage, this is a secondary consideration. In residential structures sprinklers are often omitted from closets, bathrooms, balconies, garages and attics because a fire in these areas would not usually impact the occupant's escape route. If water damage or water volume is of particular concern, a technique called Water Mist Fire Suppression may be an alternative. This technology has been under development for over 50 years. It hasn't entered general use, but is gaining some acceptance on ships and in a few residential applications. Mist suppression systems work by using the heat of the fire to 'flash' the water mist cloud to steam. This then smothers the fire. As such, mist systems tend to be highly effective where there is likely to be a free-burning hot fire. Where there is insufficient heat (as in a deep seated fire such as will be found in stored paper, no steam will be generated and the mist system will not extinguish the fire. Some tests have shown that the volume of water needed to extinguish a fire with such a system installed can be dramatically less than with a conventional sprinkler system.[8]

[edit]Costs In 2006, the hardware costs of sprinkler systems run from US$2 $5 per square foot ($50/m), depending on type and location. However, specialty systems may cost as much as $10/square foot ($100/m).[citation needed] Systems can be installed during construction or retrofitted. Some communities have laws requiring residential sprinkler systems, where large municipal hydrant water supplies ("fire flows") are not available. Nationwide in the United States, one and two-family homes generally do not require fire sprinkler systems, although the overwhelming loss of life due to fires occurs in these spaces. Residential sprinkler systems are inexpensive (about the same per square foot as carpeting or floor tiling), but require larger water supply piping than is normally installed in homes, so retrofitting is usually cost prohibitive. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), fires in hotels with sprinklers averaged 78% less damage than fires in hotels without them (19831987). The NFPA says the average loss per fire in buildings with sprinklers was $2,300, compared to an average loss of $10,300 in unsprinklered buildings. The NFPA adds that there is no record of a fatality in a fully sprinklered building outside the point of fire origin. However, in a purely economic comparison, this is not a complete picture; the total costs of fitting, and the costs arising from non-fire triggered release must be factored. The NFPA states that it "has no record of a fire killing more than two people in a completely sprinklered building where a sprinkler system was properly operating, except in an explosionor flash fire or where industrial fire brigade members or employees were killed during fire suppression operations." The world's largest fire sprinkler manufacturer is the SimplexGrinnell division of Tyco International[citation needed], other manufacturers / suppliers include The Viking Corporation,Victaulic, NNI Inc, P.u.P. Feuerschutz und Anlagenbau GmbH and Reliable Sprinkler Company.