Country in a Box:

Mongolia

Mongol uls

Genghis Khan Statute at Tsonjin Boldog

Geserjav

A Teachers Guide
Compiled by the Center for Eurasian, Russian and East European Studies
Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
http://ceres.georgetown.edu
1

Mongolia in a Box: Table of Contents

Facts at a Glance

3-7

History of the Mongols

8-10

Timeline of Major Events in Mongolian History

Mongolian Culture

11
12-14

Folklore: Morin-Khuur

15

Additional Resources

16

Chinzorig

Mongolian Ger (Yurt)

Mongolia: Facts at a Glance

_______
Text and map taken directly from Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Mongolia.
Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html
Country Name: Mongolia
Capital: Ulaanbaatar
Background: The Mongols
gained fame in the 13th century
when under Chinggis KHAAN
they established a huge Eurasian
empire through conquest. After
his death the empire was divided
into several powerful Mongol
states, but these broke apart in the
14th century. The Mongols
eventually retired to their original
steppe homelands and in the late
17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet
backing and a communist regime was installed in 1924. The modern country of Mongolia,
however, represents only part of the Mongols' historical homeland; more ethnic Mongolians live
in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China than in Mongolia.
Following a peaceful democratic revolution, the ex-communist Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but was defeated by the
Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996 parliamentary election. The MPRP won an
overwhelming majority in the 2000 parliamentary election, but the party lost seats in the 2004
election and shared power with democratic coalition parties from 2004-08. The MPRP regained a
solid majority in the 2008 parliamentary elections but nevertheless formed a coalition
government with the Democratic Party that lasted until January 2012. In 2009, current President
ELBEGDORJ of the Democratic Party was elected to office and was re-elected for his second
term in June 2013. In 2010, the MPRP voted to retake the name of the Mongolian People's Party
(MPP), a name it used in the early 1920s. Shortly thereafter, a new party was formed by former
president ENKHBAYAR, which adopted the MPRP name. In the 2012 Parliamentary elections,
a coalition of four political parties led by the Democratic Party, gained control of the Parliament.
Location: Northern Asia, between China and Russia
Area: Total: 1,564,116 sq km
Country comparison to the world: 19
Land: 1,553,556 sq km
Water: 10,560 sq km
Area - Comparative: Slightly smaller than Alaska
3

Terrain: Vast semidesert and desert plains, grassy steppe, mountains in west and southwest;
Gobi Desert in south-central
Elevation extremes: Lowest point: Hoh Nuur 560 m
Highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) 4,374 m
Natural Resources: Oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc,
fluorspar, gold, silver, iron
Environment - Current Issues: Limited natural freshwater resources in some areas; the policies
of former Communist regimes promoted rapid urbanization and industrial growth that had
negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of
enforcement of environmental laws severely polluted the air in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation,
overgrazing, and the converting of virgin land to agricultural production increased soil erosion
from wind and rain; desertification and mining activities had a deleterious effect on the
environment
Population: 2,953,190 (July 2014 est.); Country comparison to the world: 139
Urbanization: Urban population: 68.5% of total population (2011)
Life Expectancy at Birth: Total population: 68.98
Country comparison to the world: 158
Male: 64.72 years
Female: 73.45 years (2014 est.)
Ethnic Groups: Mongol (mostly Khalkh) 81.9%, Kazak 3.8%, Dorvod 2.7%, Bayad 2.1%,
Buryat-Bouriates 1.7%, Zakhchin 1.2%, Dariganga 1%, Uriankhai 1%, other 4.6% (2010 est.)
Religions: Buddhist 53%, Muslim 3%,
Christian 2.2%, Shamanist 2.9%, other 0.4%,
none 38.6% (2010 est.)
Education Expenditures: 5.6% of GDP
(2009); Country comparison to the world: 39
Government Type: Parliamentary
Democracy
The flag of Mongolia: Centered on the hoist-side
red band in yellow is the national emblem
("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract
and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon,
earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue
represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and
prosperity

Independence: 11 July 1921 (from China)

Legal System: Civil law system influenced
by Soviet and Romano-Germanic legal
systems
Executive Branch: Chief of state: President
4

Tsakhia Elbegdorj (since 18 June 2009); Head of Government: Prime Minister Norov
Altankhuyag (since 9 August 2012); Deputy Prime Minister Dendev Terbishdagva (since 20
August 2012)
Legislative Branch: Unicameral State Great Hural 76 seats; members elected by popular vote
to serve four-year terms
Judicial Branch: Supreme Court (serves as appeals court for people's and provincial courts but
rarely overturns verdicts of lower courts; judges are nominated by the General Council of Courts
and approved by the president)
Political Parties and Leaders: Civil Will-Green Party or CWGP (Sanjaasuren Oyun);
Democratic Party or DP (Norov Altanhuyag); Mongolian People's Party or MPP (Miyegombo
Enkhbold); Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP (Nambar Enkhbayar)
National Anthem: Name: "Mongol ulsyn toriin duulal" (National Anthem of Mongolia)
lyrics/music: Tsendiin Damdinsuren/Bilegiin Damdinsuren and Luvsanjamts Murjorj
note: music adopted 1950, lyrics adopted 2006; the anthem's lyrics have been altered on
numerous occasions
Economy - Overview: Mongolia's extensive mineral deposits and attendant growth in miningsector activities have transformed Mongolia's economy, which traditionally has been dependent
on herding and agriculture. Mongolia's copper, gold, coal, molybdenum, fluorspar, uranium, tin,
and tungsten deposits, among others, have
attracted foreign direct investment. Soviet
assistance, at its height one-third of GDP,
disappeared almost overnight in 1990 and
1991 at the time of the dismantlement of the
USSR. The following decade saw Mongolia
endure both deep recession, because of
political inaction and natural disasters, as
well as economic growth, because of reformembracing, free-market economics and
extensive privatization of the formerly staterun economy. The country opened a
fledgling stock exchange in 1991. Mongolia
joined the World Trade Organization in 1997
The Togrog: Genghis Khan introduced gold and
and seeks to expand its participation in
silver coins called Sukhes and later, in the year of
1227, introduced the world's first paper money
regional economic and trade regimes.
/banknote into circulation. Mongolian People's
Growth averaged nearly 9% per year in
Government released a historic currency reform
2004-08 largely because of high copper
act on February 22, 1925 establishing the Togrog.
prices globally and new gold production. By
(From:
late 2008, Mongolia was hit hard by the
http://www.mongolbank.mn/eng/listbanknote.aspx?did=1)
global financial crisis. Slower global
economic growth hurt the country's exports,
notably copper, and slashed government revenues. As a result, Mongolia's real economy
5

contracted 1.3% in 2009. In early 2009, the International Monetary Fund reached a $236 million
Stand-by Arrangement with Mongolia and the country has largely emerged from the crisis with
better regulations and closer supervision. The banking sector strengthened but weaknesses
remain. In October 2009, Mongolia passed long-awaited legislation on an investment agreement
to develop the Oyu Tolgoi mine, considered to be among the world's largest untapped coppergold deposits. Mongolia's ongoing dispute with a foreign investor over Oyu Tolgoi, however, has
called into question the attractiveness of Mongolia as a destination for foreign direct investment.
Negotiations to develop the massive Tavan Tolgoi coal field also have stalled. The economy has
grown more than 10% per year since 2010, largely on the strength of commodity exports to
nearby countries and high government spending domestically. Mongolia's economy, however,
faces near-term economic risks from the government's loose fiscal and monetary policies, which
are contributing to high inflation, and from uncertainties in foreign demand for Mongolian
exports. Trade with China represents more than half of Mongolia's total external trade - China
receives more than 90% of Mongolia's exports and is Mongolia's largest supplier. Mongolia has
relied on Russia for energy supplies, leaving it vulnerable to price increases; in the first 11
months of 2013, Mongolia purchased 76% of its gasoline and diesel fuel and a substantial
amount of electric power from Russia. A drop in foreign direct investment and a decrease in
Chinese demand for Mongolia's mineral exports are putting pressure on Mongolia's balance of
payments. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad, particularly in South Korea, are
significant.
GDP (Purchasing Power Parity): $17.03 billion (2013 est.); Country comparison to the world:
140
GDP - Real Growth Rate: 11.8% (2013 est.); Country comparison to the world: 6
GDP - Per Capita (PPP): $5,900 (2013 est.); Country comparison to the world: 152
GDP - Composition by Sector: agriculture 16.5%, industry 32.6%, services 50.9% (2013 est.)
Labor Force: 1.037 million (2011 est.); Country comparison to the world: 141
Agriculture - Products: Wheat, barley, vegetables, forage crops; sheep, goats, cattle, camels,
horses
Industries: Mining; oil; processing of animal products, cashmere and natural fiber
manufacturing
Current Account Balance: -$3.639 billion (2013 est.); Country comparison to the world: 162
Exports - Commodities: copper, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides,
Exports - Partners: China 89%, Canada 4.1% (2012)
Imports - Partners: China 37.5%, Russia 25.6%, US 9.4%, South Korea 6.1%, Japan 4.9%
(2012)
6

Debt - External: $4.954 billion (31 December 2013 est.); Country comparison to the world: 120
Exchange Rates: Togrog/Tugriks (MNT) per US dollar - 1,444.3 (2013 est.)
Military Service Age and Obligation: 18-25 years of age for compulsory military service;
conscript service obligation - 12 months in land or air defense forces or police; a small portion of
Mongolian land forces (2.5 percent) is comprised of contract soldiers;
Military expenditures: 1.12% of GDP (2012)
Country comparison to the world: 92

Mogolian History
_______
Text taken directly from Library of Congress Website:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mntoc.html

madexpat
The Origin: Archaeological evidence
places early Stone Age human habitation
in the southern Gobi between 100,000
and 200,000 years ago. By the first
millennium B.C., bronze-working
peoples lived in Mongolia. With the
appearance of iron weapons by the third
century B.C., the inhabitants of
Mongolia had begun to form tribal
alliances and to threaten China. The
origins of more modern inhabitants are
found among the forest hunters and
nomadic tribes of Inner Asia. They
inhabited a great arc of land extending
generally from the Korean Peninsula in
the east, across the northern tier of China
to the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
and to the Pamir Mountains and Lake
Balkash in the west. During most of
recorded history, this has been an area of
constant ferment from which emerged
numerous migrations and invasions to
the southeast (into China), to the
southwest (into Transoxiana--modern
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, Iran,
and India), and to the west (across
Scythia toward Europe). By the eighth
century B.C., the inhabitants of much of
this region evidently were nomadic IndoEuropean speakers, either Scythians or
their kin. Also scattered throughout the
area were many other tribes that were
primarily Mongol in their ethnologic
characteristics. (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn001
3)

Genghis Khan: After the migration of the Jurchen, the

Borjigin Mongols had emerged in central Mongolia as the
leading clan of a loose federation. Temujin (Genghis), by the
age of twenty, had become the leader of the Kiyat subclan
and by 1196, the unquestioned chief of the Borjigin
Mongols. Sixteen years of nearly constant warfare followed
as Temujin consolidated his power north of the Gobi. In
time Temujin emerged as the strongest chieftain among a
number of contending leaders in a confederation of clan
lineages. His principal opponents in this struggle had been
the Naiman Mongols, and he selected Karakorum (westsouthwest of modern Ulaanbaatar, near modern Har Horin),
their capital, as the seat of his new empire.
With the help of Chinese engineers, they gradually
developed the techniques that eventually would make them
the most accomplished and most successful besiegers in the
history of warfare. As a result of a number of overwhelming
victories in the field and a few successes in the capture of
fortifications deep within China, Ghengis had conquered and
had consolidated Jin territory as far south as the Great Wall
by 1213.
In 1218 the governor of an eastern province of
Khwarizm mistreated several Mongol emissaries. Ghengis
retaliated with a force of more than 200,000 troops, and
Khwarizm was eradicated by 1220. A detachment of about
25,000 Mongol cavalry, as part of the Khwarizmian
campaign, had crossed the Caucasus Mountains, had skirted
the Caspian Sea, and had briefly invaded Europe.
Genghiss Successors: In compliance with the will of the
dead khan, a kuriltai at Karakorum in 1228 selected Ogedei
as khan. Ogedei committed the Mongols, whose total
population could not have exceeded 1 million, to an
offensive war against the most populous nation on earth
(Chinese Song Empire), while other Mongol armies were
invading Iran, Anatolia, Syria, and the steppes of western
Siberia and Russia. By this time, ethnic Mongols were a
minority of the Mongol armies. The remainder were Turks,
Tatars, Tangut, Cumans, Bulghars, and other Inner Asian
peoples. Nonetheless, the confidence with which the Mongol
8

armies embarked on these farflung wars was almost as

remarkable as the invariable success of their operations.
The European expedition was to be a major Mongol
effort, comparable in scope to the war against China. It was
to become a catastrophe of monumental proportions for
medieval East Europeans, who were confronted with
devastating wars and serious social disruption. In
December 1237 Subetei and Batu led an army of 600,000
across the frozen Volga River. The Mongols spread
destruction and death through Russia. In December the
army crossed the frozen Danube. Scouting parties raided
into northern Italy toward Venice and Treviso, and up the
Danube toward Vienna. But suddenly the advance halted.
Word had come, by way of the incredibly swift Mongol
messenger service that Ogedei had died on December 11.
Taking seriously the legacy of world conquest,
Mengke (the next great Khan) decided to place primary
emphasis on completing the conquest of Asia, particularly
China; Europe was to be dealt with later. Mengke
prosecuted the war in China with intensity and skill. His
principal assistant was Khubilai, who was appointed
viceroy in China. After the Song Dynasty had been
destroyed, in 1279 Khubilai declared himself emperor of a
united China with its capital at Dadu, and he established the
Yuan ("first," "beginning") Dynasty (1279-1368).
There were a number of reasons for the relatively
rapid decline of the Mongols as an influential power. One
important factor was their failure to acculturate their
subjects to Mongol social traditions. Another was the
fundamental contradiction of a feudal, essentially nomadic,
society's attempting to perpetuate a stable, centrally
administered empire. The sheer size of the empire was
reason enough for the Mongol collapse. Possibly the most
important single reason was the disproportionately small
number of Mongol conquerors compared with the masses
of subject peoples.

Damdin Skhbaatar: His statue

astride a horse dominates the square
named after him in Ulaanbaatar, his
face is on many currency notes and
there is a provincial capital
Sukhbaatar.
Born in 1893, probably in what is
now Ulaanbaatar, Sukh (which means
"axe"), as he was originally named,
joined the Mongolian army in 1911.
Sukhbaatar traveled to Russia to ask
for aid from the Bolsheviks. By 1921,
Sukhbaatar was made commander-inchief of the Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Army.
In July of that year, he declared
Mongolia's independence at what is
now known as Sukhbaatar Square and
a Socialist state was established. This
state continued until early 1991, when
democracy took over.
Today, the legend of Sukhbaatar and
his role in Mongolian history is still
taught. (http://www.mongoliaproperties.com/index2.php?option=co
m_content&do_pdf=1&id=131)

Mongolia in Transition
In the early fifteenth century, the Mongols split into two groups, the Oirad in the Altai
region and the eastern group that later came to be known as the Khalkha in the area north of the
Gobi. Early in the sixteenth century, the Mongols in Central Asia were overwhelmed, however,
by the Uzbeks who earlier had broken loose from Mongol authority. Altan Khan (1507-83)
concluded a treaty with the Ming emperor in 1571, ending a struggle that had lasted more than
three centuries.
Later in the seventeenth century, a new effort toward Mongol unity was attempted by
Galdan Khan of the Dzungar. The Manchus had sent a large army into northern Mongolia to
9

confront Galdan in an effort to preempt any attempts at establishing a new Mongol empire. The
employment of artillery had a decisive effect, and the Dzungar were routed. In May 1691, the
principal Khalkha chiefs acknowledged Manchu overlordship in return for protection against the
Dzungar. The Russian and the Chinese empires continued their expansions into Inner Asia
during the eighteenth century. They found it expedient to delimit the borders between the
respective areas of ancient Mongolia that they had conquered in the seventeenth century. This
was done by the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727, which established the border between the portions of
Mongolia controlled by China and those controlled by Russia.
With the end of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China in
1911, revolutionary ferment also emerged in Mongolia. As early as July 1911, participants in an
anti-Chinese meeting in Yihe Huree had petitioned the Russian government--which long had
sought the independence of Outer Mongolia--for help against China. On September 14, 1921, the
independence of Mongolia was proclaimed, and on October 26 a legislative assembly, the
National Provisional Little Hural, opened. The formalization of Mongolian-Soviet relations then
was accelerated. On November 5, 1921, a bilateral Agreement on Mutual Recognition and
Friendly Relations was signed in Moscow. It recognized the People's Government of Mongolia,
and it facilitated the exchange of diplomatic representatives. In addition to concluding defense
treaties with the Soviet Union, Mongolia concentrated on building its army with Soviet guidance
and military aid. In 1936 military expenditures were doubled, and by 1938 more than half of
Mongolia's budget was for defense.
The birth of perestroika in the
former Soviet Union and the democratic
movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored
in Mongolia. The shift toward reform
started in early 1990 when the first
organized opposition group, the Mongolian
Democratic Union, established. In the face
of extended street protests demanding faster
reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned
in February 1990. Mongolia's first multiparty elections for the People's Great Hural
were held on July 29, 1990. The new
constitution was adopted on January 12,
1992. The last parliamentary elections were
He was one of the leaders of the peaceful democratic
held in 2008 and presidential elections in
revolution in 1990 that ended more than 65 years of
2009, resulting in the election of
communist rule in the country. He founded Mongolias first
Democratic Party candidate Tsakhiagiin
independent newspaper Democracy, worked as its first
editor-in-chief and helped to establish the countrys first
Elbegdorj. In January 2012, the Democratic
independent TV station. Elbegdorj holds Master of Public
Party also dominated parliamentary
Administration from Harvard Universitys John F.Kennedy
elections. In the 2013 Mongolian
School of Government (2002) and Bachelors Degree in
Presidential election, incumbent Elbegdorj
Journalism from Land Forces Military Academy, Lviv,
was reelected for a second term.
former USSR (1988), and served in the army. He was elected
the President of Mongolia on May 25, 2009, and sworn in on
June 18, 2009.
(http://www.president.mn/eng/president/biography.php)

10

Timeline of Major Events in Mongol History

_______
Text taken directly from BBC News. Timeline: Mongolia. Available at:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1235612.stm
1206-63 - Following unification of the Mongol tribes, Genghis Khan launches a campaign of
conquest. His sons and grandsons create the world's biggest land empire.
1380 - The Golden Horde is defeated by the Russian Prince Dmitriy Donskoy. Ming troops
destroy the Mongol capital, Karakorum.
1727 - The Treaty of Kyakhta fixes the western border between the Russian and Manchu
empires, confirming Qing dominion over Mongolia and Tuva.
1911 - The Qing dynasty falls and Outer Mongolia declares its independence. Russia and the
Republic of China recognize its autonomy.
1921 - With Red Army support, Mongolian revolutionaries drive out Chinese and Tsarist forces
and install the Mongolian "people's government"
1939 - Mongolian and Soviet troops commanded by General Zhukov defeat an invasion by
Japanese and Manchukuo forces in the Battle of Halhyn Gol (Nomonhan).
1945-46 Yalta conference agrees to preserve the status quo - Soviet control - in Mongolia.
Mongolians vote for independence in a UN plebiscite. Mongolia is recognized by the Republic
of China.
1973-81 - Mongolia accuses China of planning annexation, protests against Chinese leaders' call
for withdrawal of Soviet troops, accuses China of "aggressive intentions" and expels some
Chinese residents.
1986 - Gorbachev's Vladivostok speech opens the way to detente with China and the withdrawal
of Soviet troops from Mongolia.
1990 - Street demonstrations force resignation of the MPRP Politburo. Political parties are
legalized. Elections to the Great Hural (parliament) are won by the MPRP, but 19 of the 50 seats
in a new standing legislature go to non-communists.
1993- The first direct presidential elections are won by Ochirbat, nominated by the National and
Social Democrats.
2005 November - President George W Bush becomes the first serving US leader to visit
Mongolia.

11

Mongolias Culture
Mongolian Cuisine
Text and pictures taken directly from: http://www.mongolfood.info/en/library/faq.html#monbarb
What some restaurants in the west offer as "Mongolian Barbeque" is completely
unknown in Mongolia. In most cases, it means to grill on a hot slab of steel. In fact, this type of
cooking has its roots in the Japanese Teppanyaki. A restaurant in Taiwan redeclared such an
offering as "mongolian" for the first time in the 1970-ties, probably because the "exotic"
designation promised better marketing potential. The Idea caught on internationally and is today
implemented worldwide primarily through franchise chains. However, the explanations typically
given about "historic Mongolian traditions" are entirely made up.
Many people still live as nomadic herders. The staples here derive from the milk or meat
of Mongolia's "five snouts": horses, camels, sheep, goats, and cattle/yaks--plus the occasional
blow-torched marmot. Summer is milk-rich, winter in Mongolia means meat. In an article about
Mongolina cuisine, Michael A. Parks notes the taste of Mongolian food is proportional to how
cold you were before eating it, Outside, it was fifteen
below. Sheep fat and salty tea hit a spot I didn't know I
had.1
Traditional Dishes:
Buuz - - Small filled pasta pockets. Buuz are cooked
under steam, and usually have an opening at the top.
Airag - - Airag is the traditional national beverage of
Mongolia. The most important animal of the Mongols is the
horse. Horses don't only serve as riding animals, the mare's
milk also has a special status.

Buuz

Chanasan Makh - - This is the most

traditional, simplest, and ubiquitous dish of the
mongolian nomads. The meat of an animal (usually
mutton) is cut into handy chunks together with the
bones, and boiled in salted water until ready.
Originally, this was the full meal, today some
vegetables or a condiment like Ketchup are usually
added. The meat is eaten with the fingers, using a
sharp knife.
The head of the family or the guest of honor
gets the first and largest portion, then the others may
help themselves. A strengthening meal like this is
Chanasan Makh
considered mandatory especially before departing on
a journey. An early morning departure turns this
specific dish into a breakfast, which may take some getting used to for foreign visitors.
1

Michael A. Parks. Hearty Food of Mongolian Winter The Atlantic, May 21, 2009
http://www.theatlantic.com/life/archive/2009/05/hearty-food-of-mongolian-winter/17923/

12

Mongol Arts
Morin Khuur: With its name translating to "horse
fiddle" in Mongolian, the Morin Khuur is instantly
recognizable by its distinctive carved horse-head
pegbox. The tuning pegs on either side are known
as the "horse's ears." The instruments two string
and bow are traditionally made of horsehair,
although they are now often made of synthetic
material.

The horse-head fiddle, or Morin Khuur

The Morin Khuur plays a prominent role in

Mongolian music and culture. It is used to
accompany folk singers and, less frequently, as a
solo instrument and in small ensembles.
Traditionally, the people of Mongolia are nomadic
herders, and the Morin Khuur's evocative shape
and ability to imitate the sound of neighing horses
reflect the importance of the horse to Mongolian
national identity.2

The Urtiin duu or long song: It is one of two major forms of Mongolian songs, other are
short song (Bogino duu). As a grand ritual form of expression associated with important
celebrations and festivities, Urtiin duu plays a distinct and honoured role within Mongolian
society. It is performed at weddings, the inauguration of a new home, the birth of a child, the
branding of foals or other social and religious festivities celebrated by Mongolias nomadic
communities.
Urtiin duu can also be heard at the Naadam, a festivity celebrating sports competitions in
wrestling, archery and horseracing. Urtiin duu is a lyrical chant made of 32 verses with a highly
ornamented melody praising the beauty of the steppe, mountains and rivers, the love for parents
or close friends, expressing reflections on human destiny. It is characterized by an abundance of
ornamentation, falsetto, a long and continuously flowing melody with rich rhythmical variation,
an extremely wide vocal range and a free compositional form.
Urtiin duu are believed to date back 2,000 years and have been recorded in literary works
since the thirteenth century. A rich variety of regional styles has been preserved until today, and
performances as well as contemporary compositions still play a major role in the social and
cultural life of nomads living in Mongolia and in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Republic,
which is located in the northern part of the Peoples Republic of China.
The rising melody is slow and steady while the falling melody is often intercepted with a
lively triple continuant, imitating the pace of life in the grasslands. Performances and
compositions of Urtiin duu are closely linked to the nomadic pastoral way of life, which is still
widely practiced in Mongolia. 3

2
3

http://www.silkroadproject.org/MusicArtists/Instruments/Morinkhuur/tabid/318/Default.aspx
http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/25apa_uk.htm

13

Literature: The Mongolian nation has a great cultural heritage

of oral and written literature. From early times it was used
widely when educating and bringing up children and this is the
reason that folklore is still known to all Mongolians. It takes the
forms of tales, legends, proverbs, wise sayings, teaching, riddles,
verses, poetic verse, heroic epics and odes. Since it is an oral
form, all of them would be narrated or sung to the
accompaniment of national stringed instruments such as the
Morin khuur (Horse head fiddle).
There are a lot of Mongolian famous epics such as Geser,
Jangar, and Khaan Kharangui. In the 17th and 18th centuries,
translated books on religion, history and literature dominated.
Through these and other efforts, the spiritual life of Mongols was
enriched by the ancient Indian poetry of Kalidasa, the poetical
theory of Dandina and the philosophical treaties of Nagarjuna.
Contemporary Mongolian literature began in the 1920s
and is represented by famous poets and writers D.Natsagdorj,
Ts.Damdinsuren, B.Renchin, S.Buyannemekh, D.Tsevegmed,
D.Namdag, Ch.Lodoidamba, B.Yavuukhulan, Ch.Chimed,
L.Tudev. D.Purevdorj and others. More than a thousand works
by 100 Mongolian writers were translated into 20 foreign
languages. 4

The Secret History of the Mongols,

shown above in traditional script:
"The Secret History of the
Mongols" is the first literary
monument concerning the Mongols.
It is believed to have been written in
the year 1240 A.D. The author of it
still remains unknown. This is the
only immediate source of
information about medieval
mongolian life and selfconsideration and also it is the
invaluable treasure for historians,
linguists, ethnographs and
ethnologist engaged in the field of
oriental studies.
The copy of The Secret History
which has survived to our days
were transcribed with Chinese
characters from some original
manuscript in one of the mongolian
scripts. Some scholars believe it to
be the Uighur script, others
proposed h`Pags-pa script
(Quadratschrift) only few think that
it was originally recorded by
Chinese characters. This copy was
written about 14th century and
contained Mongolian text (in
Chinese phonetic transcription) and
the Chinese translation.

http://www.ub-mongolia.mn/mongolia/culture-mongolia/literature.html

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Folklore: Story of Morin-Khuur

_______
From: http://members.tripod.com/Mongolian_Page/stories.html#top
A long time ago, a young man named Skhe was living in the steppes far far away. One winter
night, he was awakened by a awful whining of a horse and he found a dying white mare with a
snow-white newborn foal on her side in the pale light of the winter moon. He raised the white
foal with great care and the foal also had become very fond of him.
A few years later, the white foal became a handsome white racing horse by Skhe's excellent
taming skills.
One day, he heard there would be a Naadam (traditional sport game of the Mongols, including
horse racing, wrestling and archery) in the Khushuu (administrative unit, equal to a County) and
he went to the Naadam to try his luck.
At the same time, the governor of the Khushuu was a very bad man at the time and had many
nice racing horses to win in the Naadam.
Miracle happened, Skhe's white horse defeated all the nice racing horses of the governor and
won the Naadam. However, this was also the beginning of the sad story.
In the very next night, Skhe was awakened by a heartbreaking whining sound In the very next
night, Skhe was awakened by a heartbreaking whining sound of a horse.
He rushed out of his Ger (yurt of the Mongols) and found out his dearly loved white horse was
lying on the ground with arrows all over his body in the pale light of the full moon.
Skhe burst into tears and with his great grief, he suddenly lost his consciousness.
However, in his dream, he was able to meet his horse again. the horse said to Skhe: " Don't feel
sorry, my master, I know you are going to miss me very much, so I give you an instrument,
please use my tail hair as the string and when you are missing me, play it."
Skhe woke up and made the instrument, known as the Morin-Khuur [Image] later, according to
what the white horse had told him.
You can still feel the heart-touching tone of this wonderful instrument which have accompanied
the Mongols for many hundred years.

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Select Bibliography of Sources on Mongolia

Avery, Martha. Women of Mongolia. Boulder, CO : Asian Art & Archaeology ; Seattle, WA :
Distributed in the U.S. by University of Washington Press, c1996
Becker, Jasper. Mongolia: Travels in the Untamed Land. London : Tauris Parke Paperbacks,
2008
Berger, Patricia Ann. Mongolia : the Legacy of Chinggis Khan. London ; San Francisco, CA :
Thames and Hudson in association with Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 1995
Calfee, Julia. Spirits and Ghosts: Journeys through Mongolia. New York : PowerHouse Books,
2003
Chaliand, Grard. Nomadic Empires : from Mongolia to the Danube. New Brunswick, N.J. :
Transaction Publishers, c2004
Heissig, Walther. The Religions of Mongolia. Berkeley : University of California Press, c1980
Jeffries, Ian. Mongolia : a Guide to Economic and Political Developments. London ; New York :
Routledge, 2007
Kaplonski, Christopher. Truth, History and Politics in Mongolia: the Memory of Heroes. London
; New York : RoutledgeCurzon, 2004
Marsh, Peter K. The Horse-Head Fiddle and the Cosmopolitan Reimagination of Tradition of
Mongolia. New York : Routledge, 2009
May, Timothy Michael. Culture and customs of Mongolia Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press,
2009
Micheli, Silvio. Mongolia: in Search of Marco Polo and Other Adventures. London, Hollis &
Carter, 1967
Rockhill, William Woodville. Diary of a journey through Mongolia and Thibet in 1891 and
1892. Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1894
Rossabi, Morris. Modern Mongolia: from Khans to Commissars to Capitalists. Berkeley :
University of California Press, c2005
Weatherford, J. McIver. The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of
Genghis Khan Rescued his Empire. New York : Crown Publishers, c2010
Weatherford, J. McIver. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York :
Crown, c2004

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