Fundamentals

This section of the course will review and introduce fundamental concepts that are central to the operation of electrical machines. The concepts include reviewing electromagnetic theory and three phase systems and introducing the principles behind dc machines and ac machines.
Review of Electromagnetic Fields

Electrical machines are based on the electromagnetic principles that produce force or induce voltages and currents. Electromagnetic fields provide the link between mechanical systems and electrical systems. Consider the following:

Current flowing in a conductor will produce a magnetic field around the conductor. Transformer Action: If the magnetic flux passing through a coil changes, there will be a voltage induced in the coil. Motor Action: If current flows in a conductor subject to an external magnetic field, a force will be exerted on the conductor. Generator Action: If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field a voltage will be induced in the conductor.

Production of a Magnetic Field

Ampere's Law states that:

i.e. the total current enclosed by the path c is equal to the integration of magnetic field intensity along that path. Note that denotes that magnetic field intensity is a vector, H is the magnitude of the vector.

Consider Ampere's Law applied to the simple magnetic core shown above. Here, there is a core with average length lc with a coil of N turns on one side. The coil carries a current i. In this case the total current enclosed by the path following the dotted line is given by Applying Ampere's Law we get:

We can think of Ni as the driving force which drives flux around the magnetic circuit. Ni is the magnetomotive force, or mmf, denoted by . Assuming that all the flux stays in the iron

core and that the core has a cross section A, then we can say that the magnetic flux density can be written as:

is magnetic flux and is magnetic permeability. = 0r where 0 is the permeability of free space and r is relative permeability. For unsaturated steel, r is about 10,000. Rearranging the above equations, we get:

where is called the permeance of the magnetic circuit. Comparing the magnetic circuit to an electrical circuit, flux is analogous to current, permeance is analogous to conductance and mmf is analogous to emf, or voltage. Finally, defining reluctance as the the inverse of permeance,

Recap

So far:

We can create a magnetic field using current and conductors. If we coil the conductors with N turns, the magnetic field intensity will increase by the factor N. We can direct the path of the magnetic field using ferromagnetic materials (with high relative permeability). We can consider an electromagnetic circuit as analogous to an electrical circuit.

Saturation

Unfortunately, steel has a nonlinear magnetic characteristic. Typically the magnetisation characteristic, or BH curve, for steel is similar to the one below.

Increasing the magnetic field intensity will initially cause a rapid rise in flux density. At some point (typically about 1.0 T in steels used in machines) the rate of increase of flux density with field intensity is reduced. This is called the knee of the saturation curve. As the field intensity is increased further the steel is said to be saturated and larger changes in field intensity result in smaller changes in flux density. As a result, the flux density in electrical machines is limited. We will see later that force and torque are functions of flux density and

dimensions. Since flux density is limited higher torque requires a larger machine. This is an important general result. It means that higher speed machines are smaller for a given power rating (power is torque times speed). It also means that to reduce the size of a machine for a given torque, you must somehow increase the flux density.
Transformer Action

Faraday's and Lenz' Laws state that

If the flux passing though a a single turn of a wire changes with time, there will be an emf induced in across the turn, and the emf induced will act to induce a current opposing the change in flux. If a single wire is arranged so as to form a closed loop, it is called a 'turn'. A number of turns of wire together form a 'coil'. Coils can often be though of as having 2 'coil-sides', i.e. positive current may flow away from you in one side of the coil and towards you in the other side of the coil. A number of coils may be connected form a 'winding'. In a coil the total flux passing through the coil (linking the coil) will be the sum of the flux linking each turn of the coil. Often this is approximated as the number of turns multiplied by the flux linking one turn. However, it is more correct to think of the total flux linkage of a coil, denoted by . Flux linkage has units of Weber-turns. In this case we re-write the induced voltage as:

Motor Action

A force is produced when current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field. Note that if the current flow parallel to the direction of the magnetic flux, the force will be zero. Force is a maximum when current flow is perpendicular to flux density.
Generator Action

Moving a conductor through a magnetic field will cause a voltage to be induced in the conductor. Note that in the above equation, v denotes linear velocity.
Summary

The ability to create a magnetic field using coils and electric current can be combined with ferromagnetic materials to direct and focus magnetic flux. Combined with transformer action, generator action and motor action, these concepts form the foundation of electrical machine design and operation.
Basic Machines - Stationary Fields

Induced Voltage

The figure above shows a loop of wire (a single turn) which is free to rotate about an axis perpendicular to a constant uniform magnetic field ( is constant). If the coil rotates, then a voltage will be induced across the ends of the coil. We will assume that the coil is rotating in the positive direction, i.e. counter-clockwise, and that the linear speed of the conductors is given by v
Generator Action

We will consider the application of the generator equation to each branch of the coil (a-b, b-c, c-d, d-a). Wire a-b. Using the right hand rule for cross product, the wire is moving upwards, the flux density vector is left to right, so the cross product must be positive away from the reader. Due to the arrangement of the coil, the conductor is parallel with the result of the cross product, so there will be a voltage induced such that the voltage at b is positive with respect to a. Therefore:

Wires b-c and d-a . This segment is always parallel to the flux density. Therefore the cross product will always be perpendicular to the conductor giving zero as a result of the dot product. Wire c-d. Using the right hand rule for cross product, the wire is moving downwards, the flux density vector is left to right, so the cross product must be positive towards the reader. Due to the arrangement of the coil, the conductor is parallel with the result of the cross product, so there will be a voltage induced such that the voltage at d is positive with respect to c. Therefore:

Now, if the coil is rotating at an angular velocity

we can re-write the voltage equations as:

Here, denotes the maximum possible flux linking the coil, when the coil is perpendicular to the flux density ( = 0). is equal to the area enclosed by the coil multiplied by the flux density over the coil area. (In a non-uniform field it would be the integral of flux density over the area).
Transformer Action

Consider the flux linking the coil. When = 0 , (flux linkage) =

. Now,

Summary

Transformer action and generator action give the same result. Induced voltage is a function of Flux Density, coil size, rotational speed and turns.
Torque Production

We now consider the the loop with current flowing. If a load, e.g. a resistor, is connected to the terminals when the voltage is positive d-a then current will flow out of d, through the load and return to a. In the current loop, positive current will flow from a to d. This may seem counter intuitive at first, but can be thought of as similar to the current in a battery which flows into the negative terminal and out of the positive terminal.

Again, we will consider each each section in turn: Wire a-b current flows away from the reader. Using the right hand rule, the force will be down and constant independent of position. Force =ilB. Wires b-c and d-a. These conductors are in a plane perpendicular to the flux density and are perpendicular to the axis of rotation, giving a cross product along the axis of rotation. Since the direction of bc is opposite da, the resulting forces will cancel. No net axial force is exerted. Wire d-c current flows towards the reader. Using the right hand rule, the force will be upwards and constant independent of position. Force =ilB. Torque is defined as force multiplied by the distance perpendicular to the force from the pivot. In this case, the forces are constant in the (positive or negative) y direction. Distance from the pivot is a function of angle so we find:

This torque will act in a clockwise direction. If current is constant, then the torque will be a sinusoidal function of area, flux density, current and the number of turns. Note that if the current is produced using a resistor connected to the generator terminals then the current will be sinusoidal and torque will be unidirectional, acting against the direction of motion.
Torque as a product of Flux Densities

It is often useful to think of torque in terms of two flux densities acting in air rather than force acting on discrete conductors. The current flowing in the loop will produce its own magnetic field, which will interact with the stationary magnetic field. From the EM Fields Review we know that the flux density can be defined in terms of a permeance function (which is a function of the flux path length and cross section) and an mmf function. In our simple machine, there is only one turn so the flux density due to the current may be written as:

This equation may be rearranged and substituted for current in the torque equations. Remembering that reluctance is the reciprocal of permeance:

Using this expression, we can see that torque may be described as the cross product of two flux densities. Torque is a maximum when two magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. If the two magnetic fields are parallel (or in phase) then the torque will be zero.
Towards a DC Machine

In the basic machines material it was shown that rotating a pair of conductors in a constant magnetic field will produce an induced sinusoidal voltage. The electromagnetism review also showed how it is possible to create a constant magnetic field using direct current. There are two stages remaining before a dc machine can be produced:

Produce a steady voltage Rectify the voltage to produce a direct, non-alternating, current

The basic machine structure has been modified, taking advantage of our knowledge of how to direct magnetic fields. The stationary stator core is made from magnetic steel, but the conductors are now positioned on the surface of a rotating steel rotor core. In addition, the stator pole face surfaces are concentric with the rotor: there is a uniform air gap length between the stator and the rotor. Due to the difference in relative permeability between steel and air, the magnetic flux will take the shortest route in air between the rotor and stator. It can be seen that

flux lines enter and leave the stator and rotor surfaces perpendicular to the surface. flux density under the pole surface is uniform.

Induced Voltage

The conductors on the rotor surface are arranged so that the conductor direction is perpendicular to both the direction of motion and the flux path. Therefore, when a conductor is under the pole face, in the uniform field, the induced voltage will be constant. Mathematically, becomes and with two conductors in series, the voltage induced in a loop is given by

Now, if the speed of rotation is defined as

For a 2-pole machine, if we assume that the gap between the poles is negligible (the gaps at the top and bottom of the diagram) then the surface area of the pole can be written as

And for the simple 2-pole machine:

Torque

Now, if the induced voltage in the loop is positive, assume that a current flows into the positive terminal and through the loop. This may seem counter-intuitive at first, but is what happens in a DC motor. Remember that torque is the cross product of the vector distance from a pivot with the force applied. Since the force applied is the cross product of conductor length and flux density the force will be constant and tangential to the rotor surface when the conductor is under the pole face. For 2 conductors we can find the total torque and follow the same procedure as for voltage:

Single Phase Power Review

Voltages waveforms in a power system are typically sinusoidal. In single phase power systems the voltages in the system can be described as

where is the phase angle of the voltage. V is a phasor defined in terms of the rms voltage. Unlike other areas (e.g. signal processing, communications) phasors in power systems are always defined in terms of rms magnitude, not peak magnitude. The rms of a sinusoidal quantity is given by

and the phasor notation is

Note that is often set to zero and voltage phase angle is used as the reference for the rest of the system. Currents flowing in a linear system will also be sinusoidal:

Power flow in a system is the rate of change of energy past the point in the system where voltage and current are measured. Instantaneous power is the product of the voltage and current functions of time:

The graph below plots voltage, current and power waveforms as functions of time. In the graph, the voltage waveform is 10V rms, current is 5A rms and the current lags voltage by 45 degrees.

From the above equation and plots, it can be seen that the power is comprised of two components, a steady value and a component oscillating at twice the supply frequency. It can also be seen that at certain points, the instantaneous power is negative. Negative power

indicates that energy flow is in the opposite direction to the defined direction of positive current flow. To obtain the average power flow with time, it is necessary to integrate power over one supply cycle:

It should be clear that there is a current flow and instantaneous power flow which is not associated with actual power transfer. This occurs when a circuit contains energy storage components including capacitors and inductors. With these components, energy is transferred back and forth between the system and the component each cycle, with no net power transfer. To quantify the current and energy flow due to these component we make use of Voltamperes, S, (also called apparent power), Voltamperes-Reactive, Q, (also called reactive power) and power factor. Complex Voltamperes are defined using them product of the voltage phasor and complex conjugate of the current phasor:

S, the magnitude of S, is the magnitude of the oscillating component of instantaneous power with units of VA, and Q is proportional to the energy stored in the system, with units of VAR. (Note that Watts are reserved for real power flow). The relationship between Voltamperes and power is given by the power factor:

The cosine of the angle between voltage and current is sometimes called displacement power factor (DPF) or fundamental power factor (FPF). In a system with only fundamental current, power factor equals displacement power factor.

Three Phase Power Review

In a three phase power system there are three voltage phasors, separated by 120 electrical degrees.

In balanced three phase systems supplies can be connected to loads in either wye (also called star) or delta configuration, as shown below. (It should be noted that it is not possible to determine if a load is wye or delta connected from the power system)

The currents in each phase leg of a balanced linear load are also phasors:

Instantaneous power flow in each leg of the load is the product of instantaneous voltage and current:

and the total power flow can be found from the sum of the power in each leg. In balanced systems, the total power is constant as the oscillating components cancel

Apparent and reactive power are given by

Up to this point the three phase system has been considered in terms of the individual phase legs of the load. The power system line quantities can be found from the phase quantities, depending on the load configuration. In a wye load the line current equals the phase current. The relationship between phase voltage and line-line voltage can either be determined mathematically or graphically.

In the phasor diagram, it can be seen that the magnitude of the line-line voltage is given by

In a delta connected load the phase voltage equals the line-line voltage, the relationship between line currents and phase currents can be seen in the phasor diagram:

and is given by

Three phase power equations

Power flow in a three phase system can be defined in terms of either phase or line quantities:

Voltage induced in a single phase

The rotor in the generator illustrated above produces a flux which passes radially from the rotor surface into the stator. The circumferential variation of this radial flux density around the rotor can be described using

where is the angle around the surface. If the rotor of the machine rotates at constant speed t then the flux density seen at a position 0 on the stator will be given by

Using the generator law

the voltage induced in each side of the coil can be obtained. Considering the conductor at 0=0, the velocity of the conductor with respect to the flux is down (the flux density is moving up relative to the conductor), the flux density is left to right, the cross product is

parallel with the conductor. If we take the conductor to be oriented with positve direction out of the page then the induced voltage is given by

Relating linear velocity to angular velocity

the induced voltage becomes

For the return side of the conductor at 0=,

Therfore, the total voltage induced in the loop formed by the two conductors is

Now, if there are NC loops forming a coil,

Noting that the area enclosed by the coil is given by 2rl the voltage can also be written as

A multi-coil machine

In the simple example with only one coil, there is a significant waste of space in the machine. It is possible to add additional coils to the stator and make full use of the available space. If there are Ncoils coils, all capable of carrying equal current, I, the maximum available power is available in an Np phase machine with Np = Ncoils. In this csae, the maximum available power is given by given by

Unfortunately, to access this power, each phase (each coil) would need to be connected to a load by its own transmission line. This is unacceptably expensive for a transmission and distribution system. As an alternative, all the coils could be connected together in series to form a single phase voltage. If all the coils are connected in series the total available voltage is given by the phasor summation of the individal coil voltages:

and the available power is

In the case where Ncoils is large, the series connected power is 2/ times the availble maxiumum power (about 64%).
A Three-phase machine

Clearly some compromise between generator utilization and power delivery cost must be reached. This compromise is the three-phase power system. In a three-phase generator, there are still many coils in the machine, but the coils are now connected in three distinct groups, called phases. Noting that the sum of all the coil voltages must equal the sum of the phases, the rms phase voltage can be obtained:

Now, if each phase is connected to a load by its own transmission line, the total available power is given by

and if the number of coils is large:

General 3-phase voltages

In general in the course we will think of a three-phase winding as being made up of only three coils, separated by 120 degrees. However, it is important to realise that a real machine has many coils which are grouped in to three phases. As shown above, the fundamental voltage induced in a phase comprised of a number of distributed coils will be slightly lower than that produced by a single coil with the same total number of turns. Distributed windings can also reduce the magnitude of higher harmonics which may be induced in a coil. Detailed infomration about distributed windings is beyond the scope of the course, more information can be found in the appendices of the textbook. In a simple ac machine constucted using only three coils, the three-phase induced voltages can be written as:

Producing Rotating Fields

Mathematical Description

In the diagram above there are three coils, arranged around the stator of a machine such that the angle betweem each of the phases is 120. Assuming that the steel in the rotor and stator is infintely permeable, the mmf produced in the airgap between the two sides of a coil will be constant. Each coil will produce a square wave mmf function, phase shifted by 120. The mmf functions for each phase are:

Now, if the currents the phases are a sinusoidal balanced three-phase set

then the mmf functions will vary with both time and space

Although the above mmf functions may seem quite long, the mmfs simplify significantly when summed to find the total mmf.

It can be seen from the above equation that:

1. the three pulsating mmf functions combine to create a rotating mmf function, with consant magnitude fundamental frequency component 2. the magnitude of the rotating mmf is 1.5 times the magnitude of the pulsating mmf components 3. all mulitples of the third harmonics are eliminated 4. the magnitude of a higher space harmonic is inversely proportional to the harmonic number 5. harmonic numbers 6n+1 where n is an integer rotate in the positive direction 6. harmonic numbers 6n-1 where n is an integer rotate in the negative direction

The first three harmonics in the series are animated below:

Simplifications

For the rest of the course we will neglect higher space harmonics and assume that a simple three coil arrangement is capable of producing a sinusoidal air gap mmf. This assumption is aided by the fact that most real machines are constructed with distributed windings which have been designed to minimse space harmonic components.
Rotation Speed

The rotating magnetic field in the earlier example can be thought of as two rotating magnetic poles, a north pole and a south pole. As the supply current waveform moves through 180 degrees, the 2-pole field moves through 180 degrees, and the locations of the north and south poles is reversed. When the current waveform has moved through 360 degrees, the 2-pole field has moved through 360 degrees. There is no reason to limit the number of poles in a machine to two. If the number of coils is increased, the coils can be arranged so that the winding pattern occurs more than once around the circumference of the air gap. The original functions describing mmf variation with angular postion

can be replaced with

In the above equation, p is the number of poles in the machine. The p/2 term indicates that the fundamental mmf repeats p/2 times around the circumference of the machine. Assuming sinusoidal supply with a balanced three-phase set, the analysis for the two pole field can be repeated to find a new functions describing mmg in terms of space (theta) and time (t)

The above formulation may seem cumbersome at first. Defining mechancial angle m, electrical angle e, mechanical speed m and electrical speed e; it is possible to re-write the above equations in two forms. First, we must note that up to now, has been used for mechanical angles around the circumference of the machine and has been used to describe electrical supply frequency. Re-writing the above equation with the new symbols to differentiate between electrical and mechanical terms the fundamental mmf becomes

Now, to obtain the above equation in terms of ony mechanical or electical angles, we can write

where the relationships between electrical and mechanical quantities are:

Finally, there can be a number of different mechanical speeds under consideration in an electrical machine. The mechanical speed of rotation of a magnetic field due to the fundamental electrical current, frequency fe is given a distinct name, "synchronous speed". Synchronous speed in radians per second is defined as:

It is common to use units of revolutions per minute, (rpm) to describe rotational speed. Speed in rpm is described using the symbol n and is related to radians per second using

therefore

Flux Density and Air Gap shape

From the basic equation of flux as a function of mmf and reluctance

it is possible to obtain an expression for air gap flux density. Assuming that flux cross the air gap perpendicular to the stator surface

where g is the air gap length. Simple examples of a round rotor and variable length air gap rotor are shown below:

In the case where the air gap length is constant (a round rotor) the flux density has the same shape as the mmf function. If the air gap length varies as shown above, assuming mmf is sinusoidal the air gap flux density can be found using

The above equation assumes the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator mmf and in the illustration above, p = 2. Simplification of the above expression in to a Fourier series is

non trivial. The flux density function is plotted below, together with functions for the gap length and mmf.

Variable air gap lengths are typically found in certain types of low speed synchronous generator. Higher speed turbogenerators and induction machines are typically constructed using 'round rotor' designs. If a machine has a variable air gap length it is often described as having salient poles. Details of salient pole machines are out of the scope of this course. For the majority of this course, we will only consider machines with constant air gap lengths (round rotor machines). The exception will be when we consider reluctance machines at the end of the course.
Torque

Up to now, we have considered torque due to stationary fields from the point of view of force on a conductor. Since a real machine may have many conductors distributed throughout the stator and rotor, it is often helpful to be able to view torque from the point of view of magnetic fields. The energy density of a magnetic field in air is given by

therefore, the total energy stored in the air gap of a machine can be found by integrating the energy density over the volume of the air gap

Alignment Torque

Alignment torque is the torque due to a single magnetic field attempting to reach a lower enegy state. It is the rotational equivalent of the force that you feel if you place a magnet near a fridge. Consider the expression for flux density in a machine with salient poles. It can be seen that flux density is a function of angle and rotor position . The torque exerted on the rotor can be found by differentiating the stored air gap energy with respect to rotor position, under constant flux conditions.

This is again non-trivial for the above flux desnity function. However, it can be shown that there is a torque exerted on the rotor that varies as a sinusoidal function of 2. This torque is an alignment or reluctance torque due to the magneitc field trying to reach its lowest energy state. We will consider alignment torques when we consider reluctance motors later in the course.
Excitation Torque

Excitaion torque is the rotational force due to the interaction of two magnetic fields. Most machines work primarily on the principle of excitation torque. Suppose that there are two magnetic fields present in the air gap of a machine: a p-pole field due to the stator and a q-pole field fixed to the rotor, which is at position

Calculating the stored energy and differentiating with respect to rotor position, it can be shown that the torque is non-zero only if the magnetic fields are stationary with respect to each other and if the magnetic fields have the same number of poles, p=q.

The torque is the product of the magnitudes of the two phasors and the sine of the angle between them. If the angle is positive (rotor flux density leads stator flux density) then the torque is negative. If stator flux density leads rotor flux density then the angle is negative and torque is positive. This relationship can also be written as the cross-product of the two phasors:

Losses in AC machines

Losses in AC machines can be grouped as:

1. Resistive losses (I2R) in the stator circuit 2. Resistive losses (I2R) in the rotor circuit

3. Iron losses due to fundamental frequency ac flux in the core. These are mostly in the stator core. 4. Mechanical losses. These include friction in the bearings and a term called windage. (wind (like the weather) -age) Windage is due to air turbulance and shear as the rotor and stator move past each other 5. Stray losses. The other parts that aren't easily calculated. These include harmonic losses in the core and current flow throuhg the core (rather than staying in the conductors where you would like it to be) Motor power flow

In a three phase motor, the input power is the electrical power flow at the terminals. Power is then lost in the stator circuit, and the stator core. The remaining power is transferred to the rotor. Deducting the rotor losses, one obtains the power converted to the mechanical system. At this point stray losses and mechanical losses are deducted and the remaining power is the output power available to the mechanical load. In reality, core losses occur on both the rotor and stator and stray losses are usually electrical losses distributed throughout the motor. Core losses are allocated to the stator since this is where most of the core losses usually occur and stray losses must be taken off after the mechanical power is converted as there is no way to include them in the electrical model. In some cases, to simplify matters stray, core and friction and windage losses are grouped as "rotational losses" and all deducted after calculating the power converter to the mechanical system. These two loss calculation techniques are illustrated below.

Generator power flow

In a generator the power flow is reveresed, as illustrated below:

Towards a DC Machine

In the basic machines material it was shown that rotating a pair of conductors in a constant magnetic field will produce an induced sinusoidal voltage. The electromagnetism review also showed how it is possible to create a constant magnetic field using direct current. There are two stages remaining before a dc machine can be produced:

Produce a steady voltage Rectify the voltage to produce a direct, non-alternating, current

the basic machine structure has been modified, taking advantage of our knowledge of how to direct magnetic fields. The stationary stator core is made from magnetic steel, but the conductors are now positioned on the surface of a rotating steel rotor core. In addition, the stator pole face surfaces are concentric with the rotor: there is a uniform air gap length between the stator and the rotor. Due to the difference in relative permeability between steel and air, the magnetic flux will take the shortest route in air between the rotor and stator. It can be seen that

flux lines enter and leave the stator and rotor surfaces perpendicular to the surface. flux density under the pole surface is uniform.

Induced Voltage

The conductors on the rotor surface are arranged so that the conductor direction is perpendicular to both the direction of motion and the flux path. Therefore, when a conductor is under the pole face, in the uniform field, the induced voltage will be constant. Mathematically, becomes and with two conductors in series, the voltage induced in a loop is given by

Now, if the speed of rotation is defined as

For a 2-pole machine, if we assume that the gap between the poles is negligible (the gaps at the top and bottom of the diagram) then the surface area of the pole can be written as

And for the simple 2-pole machine:

Torque

Now, if the induced voltage in the loop is positive, assume that a current flows into the positive terminal and through the loop. This may seem counter-intuitive at first, but is what happens in a DC motor. Remember that torque is the cross product of the vector distance from a pivot with the force applied. Since the force applied is the cross product of conductor length and flux density the force will be constant and tangential to the rotor surface when the conductor is under the pole face. For 2 conductors we can find the total torque and follow the same procedure as for voltage:

Increased Poles & Conductors

Realistic designs for dc machines usually have more than 2 poles. Increasing the number of poles for a particular flux per pole will increase the induced voltage at a given speed and increase the torque available per amp. The figure below gives an illustration of the layout of a stator with 4 poles. Each pole will carry a coil forming part of a field winding. The flux pattern will be similar to the flux lines shown, alternating north and south poles.

For the general case with p poles, the field pattern will repeat every 180/p degrees. In the original basic machine that has been considered, there are only 2 conductors, or one loop on the rotor. If the number of coils (and split-ring commutator segments) is increased then the brushes can be designed to always be in contact with a conductor that is under the pole face
Equations for a general machine

Each conductor on the rotor of a machine has an average induced voltage given by

eav is the average induced voltage and Bav is the magnitude of the average flux density under the pole face. Using the general equation for the surface area of a pole

an equation for average voltage induced across a conductor under the pole face can be found in terms of flux and speed:

Now, if instead of a single loop of wire there is a coil with a total of Z conductors (Z/2 turns) connected in series at any one time :

The winding in the machine where the voltage is induced is called an armature winding. In a dc machine, the armature winding is the winding on the rotor. Defining the DC machine constant k:

results in the armature voltage equation.

Similarly to the general voltage derivation, the torque on a single conductor can be written as

which results in the total torque given by the dc machine torque equation.

Armature Circuit Model

The equivalent circuit model for the armature of a dc machine is shown above. The induced armature voltage, EA is represented by a voltage source, connected via 2 brushes to the rest of the circuit. The armature winding resistance is RA and terminal voltage is VT. The armature circuit behaviour is dependent on the flux in machine, which is traditionally controlled by a field winding. Some DC machines are constructed with a permanent magnet field, which results in a constant flux. In a PM DC machine, the armature circuit model is the complete circuit model. We will consider three types of wound field DC machine. In a wound field machine, the flux is produced by a field winding. The machine types we will consider are:
1. Separately Excited 2. Shunt Excited 3. Series Excited Separately Excited

In a separately excited machine the field winding is independent of the armature winding. The armature and field winding voltage loop equations are

The field resistance RF is made up of the actual winding resistance, Rf and a variable resistance, Radj which can be used to control the field current. The flux produced by the field winding is a nonlinear function of current:

At lower current levels, the flux-current relationship is linear, but as the current increases, the iron in the machine starts to saturate. The field current (and hence flux) can be controlled by either adjusting the field circuit resistance or the field supply voltage. For a separately excited machine, the armature current equals the armature terminal current.
Shunt Excited

A shunt excited machine is essentially the same as a separately excited machine, with the constraint that the field winding supply voltage VF is equal to the armature winding supply voltage, VT. In this case the terminal current is given by

Torque-Speed Characteristic

Substituting the armature voltage and torque equations

into the armature loop voltage equation and re-arranging, the relationship between torque and speed for both separately excited and shunt excited machines is obtained:

This relationship is plotted below for two different flux levels. The blue plot shown is at a lower flux level than the red plot.

Analyzing the torque speed equation, is becomes apparent that the field of a separately excited machine should always be turned on before a voltage is applied to the armature circuit. If the field current and flux are zero, the machine will theoretically accelerate to infinite speed. (In reality, friction will limit the speed, but damage is likely to occur to the motor. If there is zero flux, the armature voltage is zero and the full terminal voltage is applied across the armature resistance, leading to high currents and eventual overheating and burn-out of the machine).

Series Field Connection

The equivalent circuit model for a dc machine with a series connected field winding is shown above. To indicate that the field winding is connected in series, the series field resistance is labelled RS. In a series connected machine, the armature, field and terminal currents are equal: As the armature current of a machine is typically much higher than the field current of a separately excited machine, the field winding in a series machine has fewer turns than the field winding in a separately excited machine. (Remember that mmf is the number of turns multiplied by current). The series resistanceRS is therefore typically much smaller than Rf. In addition, the flux level in series motors can often assumed to be lower, with a linear relationship between flux and current. can be replaced by where c is a constant. This linear relationship can substituted for flux in the armature voltage equation and the torque equation. Analyzing the circuit: The armature voltage equation and torque equation, together with the linear relationship for flux, can be substituted into the series armature loop voltage equation to obtain the torquespeed relationship for a series machine

This relationship is plotted below:

From the plot and equation it can be seen that a voltage should never be applied to a series motor unless a torque is applied. If the torque is zero, the rotor speed will theoretically increase to infinity. Series motors also offer very high torque at low speeds. This characteristic made them a popular choice for railway traction.
DC Motor Power Flow

A separately excited DC motor has two input power sources, to the armature circuit and the field circuit. Shunt and series motors only have one power source, the armature circuit terminals. The power to the armature terminal is:

while the power input to the field circuit is Considering the losses in the circuit, there are losses in the field and armature winding resistances. For shunt and separate excitation, the armature losses are: All of the field power is converted to losses, In a series motor, resistive losses are given by: The power converted to the mechanical system is calculated the same way for both separate, shunt and series excitation. If there are no mechanical losses, then the output power will equal the power converted. If there are mechanical losses, they are deducted from Pconv to give the final output power.
DC Machine Examples

Separately Excited

A separately excited DC motor is rotated at 1000rpm, The variation of armature terminal voltage as a function of field current is measured under no-load conditions and tabulated below:
If VT 0.0 0 0.1 30 0.2 60 0.3 85 0.4 102 0.5 115 0.6 124 0.7 130 0.8 134

The field winding supply VF=24V and the field resistance is adjustable. The armature winding resistance RA = 0.2 and the armature terminal voltage VT = 130 V.
a. Calculate the field current if the motor is operated with no-load at 1000 rpm b. The motor drives a load at 1200 rpm. Calculate the armature voltage at 1200 rpm if the field resistance RF = 60 c. Calculate the torque for the above condition d. The motor supplies a mechanical load of 4000W at 1450rpm. The mechanical rotational losses are 160W, calculate the efficiency Comments

This question is similar to many DC machine questions and falls into two parts. At the start of the question, you are given a reasonable amount of data about a specific operating condition. You need to then take useful information from this operating condition and apply it to the new operating conditions specified in the rest of the question.
Solution

This is a separately excited motor problem:

There are two important pieces of information in the beginning of the question: The information is being given for "no-load " conditions. No-load in machines means no useable power flow out of the machine. If there is no power flow in a dc machine, there is no armature current and therefore the terminal voltage equals the armature voltage: EA = VT. You are being given data on the induced armature voltage at a given speed The data for armature voltage at a given speed allows you to find the nonlinear relationship between flux and field current, which is independent of speed. Knowing how the data in the question is useful is a significant part of the solution process for DC machine questions.
a. This question requires you to read data from the table provided. Under noload conditions, VT = 130V occurs when If = 0.7A

b. Armature voltage is given by

i.e. voltage is a function of (k) and speed. Flux is a function of field current, and since field voltage and resistance are specified in the question, a first step is to find field current:

gives If = 0.4A From the table in the question, when nm = =1000 rpm, EA = 102V when If = 0.4A. We need to find EA when If = 0.4A and nm = =1200 rpm. There are two possible approaches:
i. If field current is constant, flux will be constant. Therefore, armature voltage will be proportional to speed:

Giving EA 1200 = 122.4V ii. Using the armature voltage equation, find (k):

Now, at 1200 rpm armature voltage can be found directly from the armature voltage equation:

Giving EA 1200 = 122.4V c. To find the torque, there are again two possible, equally valid, approaches. Both approaches require the armature current, which can be found from the armature loop equation

IA = (130-122.4)/0.2 = 38.0A i. Using power equations:

Therefore = 122.4 38 &times 30 / (1200 ) = 37.0Nm ii. Using the torque equation directly: = k IA. This approach requires the calculation of (k), if not already done in the armature voltage calculation.

= 0.974 38 = 37.0Nm d. The final part of the question includes mechanical losses. In this case

No information is available on the flux in the machine, so armature voltage or current cannot be directly determined from the armature voltage equation or torque equation. The preferred approach is to consider the power in the armature circuit:

Solving the quadratic for armature current results in two values, IA = 33.75A or IA = 616A. The correct answer will be the one that results in the lowest power loss, IA = 33.75A. Solving the armature voltage loop equation

EA 1450 = 123.25 At this point, the armature losses can be found, but this is a separately excited machine and it is important to remember to account for power flow in the field circuit. To find the field current, calculate the equivalent voltage at 1000 rpm and use the supplied 1000 rpm data.

gives EA 1000 = 85.0V which corresponds to a field current If = 0.3A Finally, efficiency can be found from

giving = 91.0%
Series Motor Example

A series DC motor has combined armature and field resistance of RA + RS = 1.2 . When connected to a supply of VT = 48V at standstill, the motor develops a torque of 1500Nm.
a. Calculate the armature current at standstill and combined motor constant kc b. Calculate the torque when the speed is 500 rpm c. Calculate the output power and efficiency when operating at 500 rpm (neglect mechanical losses) Solution

This is a series motor problem:

a. At standstill, the angular velocity is zero, therefore the armature voltage is zero (EA = kc IA ). The full terminal voltage is dropped across the winding resistances and VT = IA(RA+RS) gives IA = 40A Using the torque equation for a series excited DC machine:

the combined motor constant can be found: kc=1500/1600=0.9375 Nm A-2

b. To find the torque it is possible to either substitute directly into the series motor torque-speed equation, or to first find the armature currents: i.

ii.

Re-arranging the torque speed equation and submitting for kc and speed = nm/30 gives = 0.854 Nm Alternately, EA = kc IA can be substituted in the armature loop equation (VT = EA + IA(RA+RS)) to give IA = 0.955A and using the torque equation = 0.854 Nm

c. To find efficiency neglecting rotational losses: