EXPERIMENT 1 (101): Force Table

Objective: To show the resolution of force vectors into X and Y components for the case
of static equilibrium.
Apparatus: Force table, pulley clamps (3), weight holders,weight set, graph paper.
Theory: When several forces act at one point and the net force is zero, then the point
is in equilibrium: its acceleration is zero. In this experiment the forces are due to a mass on
the end of a string. The strings pass over the pulleys and are connected to a point (knot)
in the center of the table. If the net force due to all the forces is zero, the point will be at
rest in the center of the table. If the point is pulled away and released, it will come again to
rest at the table center. The magnitude of each force is F
i
= M
i
g where F
i
has the units of
newtons when M
i
is in Kg, and g = 9:8 m=sec
2
:
The angular position of each string
i
can be measured by a scale along the rim of the
table so each force is recorded as a pair of numbers ( F
i
,
i
) .
Each force can also be written in a rectangular (X; Y )coordinate system. The Xcomponent
is F
i
cos
i
and the Y component is F
i
sin
i
. If there are nforces acting at a point, that
point will be in equilibrium if:
a)
P
F
X
=
P
i=n
i=1
F
i
cos
i
= 0;
b)
P
F
Y
=
P
i=n
i=1
F
i
sin
i
= 0:
Writing forces as ( F
i
,
i
) is more useful when forces are to be entered on a graph.
Procedure:
1) The instructor will give each table a card on which is written the forces to use in their
experiment.
2) First set the two pulley clamps to 90

angle . On the two weight hangers put the

masses M
1
and M
2
as given on your card.
3) Experimentally nd the third force which brings the central point to rest on the table.
Record all three angles and masses. Remember to include the mass of the weight hanger
itself.
Analysis:
1) Calculate each force in Newtons by F
1
= M
1
g; F
2
= M
2
g; and F
3
= M
3
g in which
g = 9:8 m=s
2
:
2) The forces
!
F
1
;
!
F
2
and
!
F
3
will be arranged as shown in Fig.2 .
!
F
1
and
!
F
2
are given while
!
F
3
and
3
will be determined so that
!
F
1
;
!
F
2
and
!
F
3
will be in balance. From the diagram we
have
jF
1
j = jF
3
j cos
3
(1)
jF
2
j = jF
3
j sin
3
(2)
From here we obtain upon division
tan
3
=

F
2
F
1

(3)
and we nd
3
theoretically. Compare this
3
that you found from the formula (3) with the

3
that you found experimentally. Also check from 2a (or 2b) that the magnitude of
!
F
3
,
i.e.

!
F
3

is correct.
1
3) The three forces will be added graphically on a graph paper as follows
(Fig. 1.1)
The result must satisfy
!
F
1
+
!
F
2
+
!
F
3
= 0 (4)
vectorially, which is equivalent to
F
1X
+ F
2X
+ F
3X
= 0 (5)
and
F
1Y
+ F
2Y
+ F
3Y
= 0: (6)
2
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EXPERIMENT 3 (101): Static and Kinetic Friction Co-
ecients
Objective: To test several of the laws of friction by sliding objects on an inclined plane
and to measure the static and kinetic friction coecients.
(Fig. 3.1)
Apparatus: Inclined plane with variable angle, sliding objects (carts) electronic timer
to nd speed, ruler.
Theory: The laws of friction are empirical - that is they are based on experimental stud-
ies. What really happens when two surfaces that are in contact slide is not well understood.
There are some general rules which seem to be true and will be tested in this experiment.
These rules are only approximate in that they hold only over a limited range of applications.
The rules:
1) The forces of static and kinetic friction are proportional to the normal force.
2) The force of friction does not depend on contact area.
3) The force of friction does not depend on the relative velocity of the two surfaces.
An incline will be used which can be set to any angle o . On this incline are put heavy
carts with bottom surfaces covered with dierent materials. The force due to gravity on the
cart is :q where : is the mass of the cart. This force is directed vertically down as shown
in g 1. This force can be resolved into its components along the incline and normal to the
incline. Rule 1 says there will be a frictional force proportional to the normal force. The
direction of this force is against the direction of motion so it is directed up the incline. The
proportionality constant j between the normal force and the force of friction is known as
the coecient of friction. In mechanics there are two coecient of friction: one for the case
when the object is moving (j
K
) and one for when the object is at rest (j
S
).
These are known as the kinetic and the static coecients of friction. Suppose a cart is
1
placed on the incline as in g.1
(1)
and the incline angle o is slowly increased from o = 0 . At some critical angle the cart will
start to slide. At that angle , the force of static friction must be just equal to the force down
the incline :q sin o
:q sin o = j
S
:q cos o (2)
which implies
j
S
= tan o (3)
For dierent carts you will read dierent angles and dierent j
S
. To nd the coecient of
kinetic friction j
K
our procedure will be as follows ( we shall do only for one of the carts):
Set each cart into motion with zero initial speed from dierent heights measured by . The
formulas

2
= 2c () (4)
c = q (sin o j
k
cos o)
can be used for our purpose. The speed can be found from Eq. (3). If we plot
2
versus
,the slope will be 2c = 2q (sin o j
k
cos o) . The angle o can also be found easily, and from
the slope the only unknown will be j
K
, which can be determined.
(Fig. 3.2)
2
Procedure: Put each cart ( C
1
, C
2
and C
3
) on the incline and raise the angle until each
one starts to slide. Record each angle as (o
1
. o
2
and o
3
) and make the following table.
Cart No Critical angle o j
s
= tan o
C
1
= o
1
= tan o
1
=
C
2
= o
2
= tan o
2
=
C
3
= o
3
= tan o
3
=
(5)
In this way we shall obtain the static friction coecient for each of the carts.
To nd the kinetic friction coecient j
K
we shall make use of Eq. (3) , to plot the graph
of
2
versus and to nd the slope of the resulting straight line. Note that j
K
for only
one of the carts is enough.
A ag of length | = 10 cm is xed on the cart. As this ag passes through the electronic
timer we shall read the time as t , so that the speed of the cart will be
=
|
t
(6)
By changing each time we shall record a dierent velocity and as a result we shall plot
the graph of
2
versus , ( take at least ve dierent data). Note that can easily be
found by using a ruler. The curve will that you plot must be straight line.
From the slope of the line we shall nd j
K
, since o is known and q = 9.8 :,:
2
.
Question: If you add extra masses to the carts will the result for j
S
and j
K
change?
Does friction force depend on the area in contact? The race cars have large tires, what
must be the reason?
3
EXPERIMENT 4 (101): Finding the value of "g " by
using an Air Track
Objective: To nd the acceleration due to gravity "g " by studying the acceleration of an
object on an air track.
Apparatus: Air track, glider, ags, photo sensor, timer, riser, meter stick.
Theory: An air track can be used to study motion with nearly zero friction. Metal
gliders move along the air track on a layer of air. In this experiment the velocity of the glider
is measured by passing it through a photocell gate which is connected to an electronic clock.
On the top of the glider is mounted a ag of length L. As this ag rst breaks the light beam
in the gate, the clock begins to measure time. When the ag passes the photosensor and the
light beam is again unbroken, the clock stops so the length of time that the ag broke the
light beam is accurately measured. In this experiment the air track is rst carefully leveled.
Then one end- the end with a single support- is lifted by a riser of height H. The air track
will be inclined at a small angle .
sin =
H
L
0
(1)
where L
0
= the distance between the air track suspension points. The glider -with its ag
mounted- is released at the high end of the air track and accelerates down to the other
end. As it passes through the gate the ag breaks the light beam for a time t. So for each
measurement we record t, L, L
0
, H and D. D is the distance between the front edge of the
ag and the photosensor. This is the distance the glider travels before starting the clock.
What can be calculated from this data? Let us see!! For motion in one dimension with
constant acceleration we have the equations:
x =
1
2
at
2
+ v
0
t + x
0
(2)
v = at + v
0
(3)
v
2
v
2
0
= 2a (x x
0
) (4)
1
Q1: What is the velocity of the glider when its ag rst breaks the light beam?
A1: In this case x = D; a = g sin ; x
0
= v
0
= 0: When these are put into Eq. (4) we
nd
v
2
= 2gDsin (5)
or
v
2
=
2gD
L
0
H (6)
The glider then moves through the gate in a time t.
Q2: What is the velocity of the glider as it passes the gate?
A2: The clock reads t, the length of the ag is L so v =
L
t
. By Eq. (3) if v
2
is graphed
against H, a straight line should result with a slope of
2gD
L
0
. Since Dand L
0
are known constant
s, by setting the experimentally found slope equal to
2gD
L
0
we can nd the acceleration due to
gravity g. It is possible that the straight line drawn through the experimental points does
not go through the exact origin on the graph. That means to get v
2
zero seems to require
some small non-zero value of H. Therefore in this case the track was not initially level.
Procedure
1) Carefully level the air track. Make this adjustment with the glider on the track with
the air ON. Adjust the support screw until the glider sits at rest in the center of the track.
2) The wires from the photoelectric gate plug into the back of the timer in the START
position.
3) Set the timer decimal point to 0.001 second. When the ag on the glider passes
through the light beam the timer should operate.
4) Set the gate at the lower end of the track.
5) Fix the ag on the glider so that it will not slide out of position when the glider is
stopped after the gate. Use the 10cm ag. Hold the glider in its position . Record the
position of the edge of the glider, using the scale on the air track. Move the glider to the
position where the counter just begins to count. Record the position of the same edge of
the glider, again using the scale xed on the air track. The dierence of these two readings
should be the distance D.
6) Measure the height H of each riser.
7) measure the spacing of the track supports L
0
:
8) Put one of the riser under the single air track support screw. Zero the timer. Release
the glider from rest and record the timer t through the gate. Repeat this four (4) times.
9) Repeat this procedure for a total of six dierent values of riser height H.
Analysis:
1) In each case, from the average time t calculate the velocity of the glider by v =
L
t
.
2) Make a graph of v
2
(vertical axis) against H (horizontal axis) . Draw the best straight
line through your data points.
3) Find the slope of this straight line, including units.
4) By theory this slope must be equal to
2gD
L
0
. Set this equal to your experimental slope
and nd the acceleration due to gravity g.
5) Does the straight line go through the origin of the graph? If not, decide what this
means.
2
EXPERIMENT 5 (101): Conservation of Linear Mo-
mentum and Kinetic Energy
Objective: In a collision process on an air track to check that linear momentum and total
kinetic energy are conserved.
Apparatus: Air track, gliders with ags, electronic timers monted to gates.( photo
sensors)
(Fig. 4.1)
Theory : We are already familiar with an air track from Experiment 4. On an air
track, in principle, the friction is reduced to zero. For this reason it becomes very suitable to
make collision experiments on an air track. For this purpose we use two gliders with variable
masses on the air track and two photo sensors to record electronically the time intervals.
Each glider has a ag on it with a length of l = 10 cm. (see g.1). Prior to the collision
we denote the speeds of objects ( the gliders) by v
1
(with mass M
1
) and v
2
(with mass
M
2
). After the collision these become v
0
1
and v
0
2
, respectively. Accordingly , the conservation
principle of linear momentum is expressed by
M
1
v
1
+ M
2
v
2
= M
1
v
0
1
+ M
2
v
0
2
: (1)
Since the air track is a one-dimensional object the process takes place in one-dimension only,
say the X-axis. Depending on the directions of velocities , the velocities can at most be in
sign. Similarly , the conservation principle for the total kinetic energy in an Elastic Collision
can be expressed by
1
2
M
1
v
2
1
+
1
2
M
2
v
2
2
=
1
2
M
1
v
02
1
+
1
2
M
2
v
02
2
(2)
Let us remind that each kinetic energy term is automatically positive. In order to make sure
that no potential energy due to gravity is involved the air track must be perfectly horizontal.
This must be checked in the beginning before the experiment is started. The masses of each
glider will be provided by the Assistant in the Laboratory. What we aim in this experiment
essentially is to check the validity of eq.(1) and eq.(2).
The most important part of the experiment is to nd the velocities correctly. For this
purpose we use photo sensors that electronically record time passage for each glider . If the
time is recorded by t
1
and the length of the ag on the glider is l
1
then from the relation
v
1
=
l
1
t
1
(3)
1
we can nd the speed v
1
and similarly other speeds. In order to make the experiment
simpler, so that we can conduct better measurements we assume throughout the experiment
that v
2
= 0 , that is one of the objects is at rest initially. This casts our equations of linear
momentum and kinetic energy conservations into the forms
M
1
v
1
= M
1
v
0
1
+ M
2
v
0
2
(4)
1
2
M
1
v
2
1
=
1
2
M
1
v
02
1
+
1
2
M
2
v
02
2
(5)
so that we have to nd only three velocities instead of four.
Procedure: First you have to check that the air track is perfectly horizontal with zero
inclination angle. Then , provide the masses to be located on each glider, the Assistant will
help you in this regard. Make the arrangement as in g.(1). One of the gliders (M
2
) in
at rest is between the two photo sensors while the other one (M
1
) lies outside the photo
sensors. Before we move M
1
with initial speed v
1
we turn on the pump of the air track so
that friction becomes zero. As M
1
passes through one of the photo sensors its time will be
recorded. The two gliders will collide and they will pass through dierent photo sensors. In
this way their times will be recorded and velocities found from eq.(3). We shall be knowing
now, v
1
; v
0
1
; and v
0
2
to be substituted into eq.(s) (4) and (5). If eq(4) is satised this will
mean that in the process of collision linear momentum is conserved. Similarly, eq(5) will tell
us that the total kinetic energy is conserved in the process. In such an experiment we must
admit that a few percent error between the left and right hand sides of eq.(s) (4) and (5)
are tolerable. The students must be able to explain about the possible numerical dierences
in those equations. For example, is the collision exactly elastic? Is there some energy loss
taking place in the collision process? How?
Caution: If the dierence between the left and right hand sides of eq.(s) (4) and (5) are
big that means the data taken is not recorded correctly. So, please repeat the experiment
and reduce your errors as much as possible. For example, if M
1
comes to a step after collision
you should increase its initial speed so that it will gain enough speed to pass through the
time sensors after the collision.
Questions: What are the dierences between, Elastic, Inelastic and completely Inelastic
Collision?
Can you give an example for each dierent case?
2
EXPERIMENT B (101): Finding the value of exper-
imentally
It is known from mathematics that is the ratio of circumference (C) to diameter (D) in a
circle. By simple measurement in the Physics laboratory we shall determine the value of .
The procedure goes as follows:
1) By using a meter stick measure the circumference C of ve dierent round objects.
Record these in a table as shown below.
2) Measure also the diameter D of the same ve objects and add these to your table.
3) From the relation =
C
D
calculate ve values of from your data. ( Note that you
need a calculator for these calculations). Show these also in your table. In this calculation
be careful your result has the correct number of signicant gures.
C D C=D
C
1
= D
1
=
1
= C
1
=D
1
=
C
2
= D
2
=
2
= C
2
=D
2
=
C
3
= D
3
=
3
= C
3
=D
3
=
C
4
= D
4
=
4
= C
4
=D
4
=
C
5
= D
5
=
5
= C
5
=D
5
=
(Table 1)
4) From the ve results for nd the average value and compare it with the true value
of (= 3:14).
From these results nd the average value for ; which is

av
=

1
+
2
+
3
+
4
+
5
5
: (1)
Using the value of which is known to be 3:14 from the formula
3:14
av
3:14
100 =? (2)
nd the percentage error in your experiment for the value of :
1