-Absorption

Aim:1- To study the absorption properties of beta particles. 2- To measure the range of beta particles.

Theory:The types of radiation associated with nuclear energy are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and neutron radiation. Each type can interact with matter, including the human body, but different types of material can effectively stop all of them.

Figure (1) Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons, is halted by an aluminum plate. Gamma radiation is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Beta particles are electrons emitted from the nuclei of many fission products. They can travel a few feet in air but can usually be stopped by clothing or a few centimeters in wood. Beta particle is a charged particle emitted during beta disintegration. It has a mass equal to 1/1837 of the mass of the proton and an electrical charge equal in value. When its electrical charge is negative, it is called an electron. When the electrical charge is positive, it is called a positron. The velocity of the beta particle is dependent on its energy. Classically, the energy of beta particle is given by the expression E = 1/2mv2
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(1)

Beta Radioactivity Unlike alpha radioactivity, which is common only to heavy nuclei, beta radioactivity can be encountered to all nucleus sizes. It consists of emission from the nucleus of light particles. When a neutron rich nucleus is unstable, it emits a negative beta particle (an electron), this is called - decay. In decay, the weak interaction (the weak interaction (often called the weak force or sometimes the weak nuclear force) is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature) converts a neutron (n0) into a proton (p+) while emitting an electron (e) and an anti-neutrino ( )(a particle without rest mass, similar to a quanta of light): .

Figure (2) - decay. When a proton rich nucleus is unstable, it emits a positive beta particle (a positron), this is called + decay. In + decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron (e+ ) and a neutrino (e): , unlike beta minus decay, beta plus decay cannot occur in isolation, because it requires energy, the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. Beta plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles Because beta particles share their energy with an antineutrino or neutrino, the beta energy spectrum is continuous (figure (3)). The energy of the beta particle varies continuously between zero and maximum value, which is specific of the beta emitting radionuclide.
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Figure (3) Beta ray energy spectrum. Interaction of beta particles with matter: ICollisional Interaction 1- Elastic Scattering This process occurs when the work necessary to excite or to remove the electrons in the shells is large with respect to the incident beta particle energy. 2- Inelastic Scattering This process occurs when the energy of the incident particle is sufficient to raise the atomic electrons to higher levels in the atom but small compared to the ionization potential of the atom. 3- Ionization When the energy of the incident particle is larger than the ionization energy, the atoms of the material may be ionized. If the expelled shell electrons have sufficient energy to ionize another atoms of the material, these electrons are called Delta rays. Electrons slow down in matter by three processes as depicted in figure (4). Figure (4a) shows an elastic collision of an electron with a nucleus resulting in Rutherford scattering. For -particles, this process occurs occasionally. Figure (4b) shows an inelastic (having energy loss) collision of an electron with a nucleus resulting in Bremstrahlung (German: braking radiation) production. For -particles, this process effectively never occurs. Figure (4c) shows an inelastic collision of an electron with an orbiting electron resulting in ionization/excitation. For -particles, this process is dominant, but with ~ 180.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure (4) Electrons slow down by (a) Rutherford scattering, (b) Bremstrahlung production, and (c) ionization/excitation.

II-

Radioactive Interaction When a high-energy beta particle passes close to the nucleus (where the coulomb field is very large), it is decelerated and changes its path with the emission of electromagnetic waves (X-rays), i.e. the beta particles loses its energy and the emitted X-rays have a continuous spectrum.

Range of ionizing particles In passing through matter, charged particles ionize and thus lose energy in many steps, until their energy is (almost) zero. The distance to this point is called the range of the particle. The range depends on the type of particle, on its initial energy and on the material which it passes. The range of beta particle is defined as the maximum distance traveled in the medium by the maximum energy beta particles.
absorber material density maximum beta range5

(2.3 MeV) air water (soft tissue) plastic (acrylic) glass (Pyrex) aluminum copper lead 1.2 mg/cm3 1.0 g/cm3 1.2 2.2 2.7 8.9 11.3 8.8 m 11 mm 9.6 5.6 4.2 1.2 1.0

(1.1 MeV) 3.8 m 4.6 mm 4.0 2.2 2.0 0.5 0.4

Table (1) The absorption curve If we plot the logarithm of the transmitted intensity versus the thickness of the absorber, sometimes at the end of the curve appears a tail due to the presence of gamma radiation. This must be subtracted from the total counting rate to get the transmitted intensity due to beta particles only which is called the pure beta absorption curve. The pure beta curve drops steeply and approaches the thickness axis normally at the range corresponding to the maximum beta particle energy. A typical absorption curve is shown in figure (5). The maximum range r is the point where the absorption curve meets the background. You should start by making a careful measurement of background, and you should repeat this measurement after taking the absorption curve to check for constancy.

Figure (5) Beta Absorption Curve Range-Energy Relation There are empirical relations relating the range of beta particles and their energies, one of them is E (MeV) = 1.85 R(gm/cm2) + 0.245 (2)

Procedure:1- Adjust the counter at the operating voltage. 2- Find the counting rate for background (n0) counts/min. 3- Put the counter far from the source and take the counting rate (counts/min). 4- Put the absorber sheets near the counter window and take the counts/min. 5- Repeat step 4 by increasing the absorber thickness until the counting rate reduces to the value close to the background or comes nearly to a constant rate( due to the presence of a gamma radiation). 6- Remove the contribution of the background and plot the relation between log(number of counts) and the thickness of the absorber. 7- If the absorption curve has a tail, we extrapolate this tail to intersect the yaxis (log axis) and subtract the antilog (n+ - n = n) to get the number of transmitted beta particles at different absorber thicknesses. 8- Draw the relation between log n and the thickness (d) and find the range of the beta particles. 9- Calculate the maximum energy of the emitted beta particles using the range-energy relation. E (MeV) = 1.85 R + 0.245 Knowing that the density of Al (Al) is 2.7 gm/cm3.