Chemistry 2AB - 2012

Kinetic Theory
Main assumptions: All matter is made up of particles. These particles vibrate and therefore have kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of a substance depends on temperature. Forces of attractions between solid and liquid phases are stronger than forces of attraction between gases. Collisions between gas particles are repulsive. Boyles Law As pressure increases, volume decreases. This happens due to the fact that particles within a gas phase are easily compressible. Example: - syringe. Indirectly proportional Charles' Law As temperature of a gas increases, volume increases. Average kinetic energy of particles increases as speed increases. Increases distance between gas particles and walls of container. More capacity is needed to contain these particles. Example:- hot air balloon Indirectly proportional Constant Volume Law As temperature of a gas increases, pressure increases. Due to higher kinetic energy (increase in temperature), collisions between particles and walls of container increases. For example:- A car tyre during a hot or cold day. The pressure inside the tyre is more likely to increase on a hot day as particles have gained energy to move and collide with walls of tyre. On a cold day, particles are less active due to less energy being gained by particles. Directly proportional. Change of Phase All particles possess kinetic energy due to motion and potential energy due to position. Solid state ----> very low Ep Gas state -----> very high Ep *Liquid state -->more Ep than solid less than gas

Due to a supply of energy , attractive intermolecular forces between particles are broken during changes in state. Heat substance = increase of kinetic energy of particles

Two key points about changes in Ep and Ek during heating and cooling During a phase change the temperature of a substance remains constant because average Ek of its particles do not change. However Ep does change (as particles change position as bonds are disrupted) Temperature of a substance changes when a solid is heated or cooled without a phase change occurring. Due to the fact that the average Ek of particles change. Average distance between particles does not change so Ep is unchanged. Kelvin Temperature Scale This is the point when particles of a substance have little or no kinetic energy at all. Zero movement, pressure and volume. However, 'ideal' gases are an exception. Evaporation: - a process of liquid phase to gas phase which occurs at any temperature below boiling point. Occurs at the surface of a substance. Particles with higher kinetic energy escape leaving particles with less kinetic energy.

Vapour Pressure: When a liquid is placed in a container and sealed, amount of liquid will decrease. Happens due to particles with higher kinetic energy escaping from the surface to become a gas. However amount of liquid in container remains constant. As number of gas particles build up in container, possibility if gas particles colliding with liquid's surface and being attracted back to the liquid state increases. Two processes occur: Vaporisation (evaporation) Condensation Dynamic equilibrium: This is when two processes (condensation and vaporisation) occur at the same rate. Gas particles evaporating from liquid exert pressure as they collide with walls of container. Equilibrium vapour pressure Equilibrium between pressure of gas and liquid particles in a closed system. Volatile liquids: liquids with high vapour pressures (acetone or methylated spirits) Vapour pressure of a liquid is determined by the strength of inter-molecular forces between particles. Stronger the forces= greater amount of energy required for particles to escape form liquid to gas. Therefore fewer gas particles are produced, leading to smaller vapour pressure. Temperature of a liquid also affects vapour pressure. Boiling Water at 100*C boils. During boiling bubbles of steam rise to the surface. *Bubbles are only formed in hot water when vapour pressure = atmospheric pressure of surroundings.

At the boiling point of a substance continuous vaporisation takes place throughout the liquid. Any vaporisation in atmospheric pressure will lead to a change in boiling point. Lower atmospheric pressure= lower boiling point. Colligative Properties of solutions Colligative properties: the ratio of number of particles of a solute to the number of particles of a solvent to the number of particles of solvent in the solution.

Vapour pressure Melting temperature Boiling temperature The presence of a dissolved solute: Lowers vapour pressure of the solvent Raises boiling point above that of the pure solvent Lowers freezing point below that of a pure substance (water + glycerol prac)

1. Vapour pressure lowering Prevents particles of solvent from escaping. More solute= less and less particles escape from surface. 2. Boiling point elevation Presence of a solute will raise boiling point of solvent. If vapour pressure is lowered by addition of a solute then the solution will need to be heated at a higher temperature than that required of a pure solvent in order for vapour pressure to equal prevailing atmospheric pressure. Energy is also needed to break intermolecular bonds.

AB - The b.p. increases as the solvent boils; thus gradually increasing remaining solution concentration Note: * Boiling point of solution or mixture is elevated. * The amount of elevation is directly proportional to solute concentration. * Boiling does not occur at a definite temperature.

3. Freezing point depression

Process of freezing involves particles of a liquid coming together to form a crystal lattice. Water particles join to one another to form ice. Presence of a dissolved solute interferes with crystallization process requiring temperature of solution to be lowered below freezing point of pure solvent.

AB - solvent is solidifying: concentration of solution increases (lowering the melting point) BC - solute and solvent solidify (concentration is not changing) CD - solid cools. Note: 1. The freezing point/melting point is depressed or lowered for a solution/mixture. 2. The degree of depression is directly proportional to the solution concentration. 3. The freezing point does not occur at a definite temperature (i.e. AB is sloped) Mixtures Matter composed of two or more pure substances. Can contain different proportions of the same component substances. Homogenous mixtures have uniform composition and properties throughout and are known as solutions. (I.e. Sugar solution, air). Heterogeneous mixtures do not have uniform composition and properties throughout. Possible to identify separate components (i.e. concrete, fruit cake)

Atomic Structure Review

All matter is made up of atoms. Nucleus: protons + neutrons very dense, contains the mass of the atom Electron cloud: e mostly empty space

Symbol Relative Actual charge charge protons p e + 0 -

neutrons n electrons

Coulombs: (measure of electric charge) Nuclide representation

1.602 1019 1/1800 0 1

1.602 1019

Relative Actual mass mass 1

1.673 1021 1.675 1021 9.11 103

Atomic number (Z) :number of protons Atomic mass (A): protons + neutrons Isotopes Atoms of the same element with a different mass number due to different number of neutrons. (I.e. of protons, different number of neutrons) Chemical properties are the same but the mass is different.

Ions Atoms that have lost or gained electrons to have a charge. Can occur in groups ( polyatomic ions) Positive charge - more +ve charges than -ve charges - charges therefore have lost electrons Negative charge- more -ve charges +ve charges therefore gained electrons Electron configuration Electrons exist in an electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. They exist in energy levels/shells. Each energy level/shell further is from the nucleus and consists of sub-shells/ orbitals. The maximum number of electrons in a shell:

Energy level (n) Max electrons Preferred number of electrons K L M N 2 8 18 32 2 8 8 2

Orbitals ( regions in shell) S S p S p S p

Examples of electron configuration K: 2, 8, 8, 1 F: 2, 7 Mg: 2, 8, 2 He: 2 Valence electrons: Outer shell-electrons, example number of electrons S (sulphur) has 2, 8, 6. Elements within a group (periodic table column) have the same number of valence electrons (ignoring transition metals). Valence electrons determine reactivity. Naming substances Pure metals are named as the element E.g. sodium metal ( Na) Pure non-metals usually exist as diatomic gases E.g. hydrogen gas (H2) Except C, S, P, Si and noble gases (neon: Ne) Compounds Ionic compounds: non-metal ion + metal ion. The metal element loses its valence electrons to form a positive ion that has a noble gas configuration.

Covalent compounds -2 or more non-metals bonded together. Non-metals found on the upper right hand corner of the periodic table and typically have many valence electrons.

Solutions A solution is a mixture where the particles of a solute are homogenously spread amongst the particles of a solvent (the major component of the mixture by mass). Aqueous solutions are solutions which the solute is dissolved in water.

When a solid state is dissolved in water, the solid crystal structure is broken down and the solute particles mix with the water molecules to form a solution. Ionic compounds When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the lattice arrangement of positive and negative ions is disrupted and the ions separate from one another and mix with the water molecules. As a result, in a solution of an ionic compound, the ions are not bound together but move randomly as separate ions within the solution. Example : - When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the ionic lattice breaks up to separate Na+ and Cl- ions which are surrounded by water molecules. This can be represented as follows: The process involving the breaking apart of an ionic lattice into separated ions as dissociation. Soluble ionic compounds dissociate when mixed with water. 22 Exemption: Polyatomic ions = SO4 or CO3 remain covalently bounded when dissolved in water. Na2SO4(s) Na + (aq) + SO42- (aq) Substances that produce ions in a solution are called electrolytes. These solutions can conduct electricity to varying degrees.

Strong electrolyte: Ionic compounds; substances that break up into ions when dissolved in water.

Covalent molecular substances Covalent molecular substances are bonded together in molecules. When dissolved in water, it breaks away from the lattice arrangement as solute molecules and mixes with the water molecules.

Many molecular substances, molecules remain intact during formation of aqueous solutions. These substances are known as non-electrolytes. C12H22O11 (s) C12H22O11 (aq) However when some molecular substances dissolve in water they form ions. HCl(g) H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) Ionisation: Process in which covalent molecular substances separate before dissolving.

Weak electrolytes are molecular substances which are only partly ionised in aqueous solutions. An equilibrium exists between the un-ionised molecules and the separate ions in the solution. Water is an example of a weak electrolyte. Pure water has little ability to conduct electricity because the concentration of charged ions in the water is extremely small.

Acetic acid is another example of a weak electrolyte. Electrical conductivity depends on the ability of positive ions to move freely towards the negative electrode while the negative ions move freely towards the positive electrode. Thus the greater concentration of ions in a solution the greater is its ability to conduct a current. For this reason strong electrolytes always produce a more conducting solution than weak electrolytes of the same concentration. Non-electrolytes always produce non-conducting solutions. Precipitation reactions A precipitation reaction occurs if the ions in a solution combine to form a new compound that is insoluble in water. This insoluble compound formed is called a precipitate. It is necessary to identify the ions present in the reactant solutions. In a lead nitrate solution there are lead ions (Pb+) and nitrate ions (NO3-) and in a potassium iodide solution there are K+ ions and I- ions. In both solutions, all ions move around independently when one solution is added to the other, the mixture will contain the ions: Pb2+ NO3- K+ IThese ions move around in the solution, and collide with each other. When positively charged lead ions collide with negatively charged iodide ions they attract one another to form insoluble lead iodide. The potassium and nitrate ions will also collide however they will bounce apart again to remain dissolved in the solution. This occurs because KNO3 is soluble in water. New substance formed is lead iodide (solid). Potassium nitrate ions are not involved in the reaction and act as spectator ions. Ionic equation shows the formation of the precipitate. Other ions that remain unchanged are known as spectator ions and are not included in the equation.

Unsaturated solutions: a solution containing less solute than it is able to dissolve. Saturated: a solution containing as much solute as it can normally dissolve. Supersaturated: a solution containing more solute than it can normally dissolve. Soluble: More than 0.10 mol of it can dissolve in 1L of solution. Slightly soluble: Between 0.10 and 0.01 mol of it can dissolve in 1L of solution. Insoluble: less than 0.010 mol of it can dissolve in 1L of solution.

The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solution or solvent is known as a concentration. A concentration can be described as dilute or concentrated.

A dilute solution is one that contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent. A concentrated solution is one in which a large amount of solute is dissolved in a relatively small volume of solvent.

Measuring solution concentrations 1. Percentage composition by mass or volume 2. Grams per litre g L-1 3. Moles per litre mol L-1 1. Percentage composition depends on the mass or volume of a solute dissolved in 100 'masses' of solution. % = 100
( 1 ) =

2. Grams per litre indicates mass in grams of solute in 1 litre of a solution.

3. Concentration of solution (mole/litre) Indicates amount of solute, in mole, dissolved in 1 litre of solution. =