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Faculty Engineering Report Title Optical fiber Module Code ECE 532 Module Title Optoelectronics Instructor Name

DR.Waleed TAs Name Eng.Mohamed Said Student ID 094815 Student Name Yasmeen Maher

What is optical fiber cable : An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of Optical fibers .Optical fiber are widely used in fiber optic communication , which permits transmission over longer distance and at higher bandwidth (data rates) because light has high frequency than any other form of radio signal than other forms of communication .Light is Kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. this causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fiber are used instead of metal wires because signal travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference ,which is caused by thunderstorm .Fiber are also used for illumination ,and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images ,thus allowing viewing in tight spaces .Specially designed fiber are used for a variety of other applications including sensors and fiber lasers. Fiber: Fiber is the medium to guide the light from the transmitter to the receiver.It is classified into two types depending on the way the light is transmitted: 1)-multimode fiber 2)-signal mode fiber.
The two distinct types of fiber-optic strands are the single- (single path) and multimode (multiple paths). The practical differences between these two cable types depend on the light source used to send light down the fiber core

Multimode Fiber 62.5+ m in core diameter Generally uses cheap light-emitting diode light source Multiple paths used by light Short distances, <5 miles Power distributed in 100% of the fiber core and into the cladding

Single-Mode Fiber 8.3 m in core diameter Utilizes expensive laser light Light travels in a single path down the core Long distances, >5 miles Power in the center of the fiber core only

COMPONENTSFIBER OPTIC CABLE


In most applications, optical fiber must be protected from the environment using a variety of different cabling types based on the type of environment in which the fiber will be used. Cabling provides the fiber with protection from the elements, added tensile strength for pulling, rigidity for bending, and durability. In general, fiber optic cable can be separated into two types: indoor and outdoor. Indoor Cables: Simplex cablecontains a single fiber for one-way communication Duplex cablecontains two fibers for two-way communication Multifiber cablecontains more than two fibers. Fibers are usually in pairs for duplex operation. A ten-fiber cable permits five duplex circuits. Breakout cabletypically has several individual simplex cables inside an outer jacket. The outer jacket includes a zipcord to allow easy access Heavy-, light-, and plenum-duty and riser cable Heavy-duty cables have thicker jackets than light-duty cable, for rougher handling. Plenum cables are jacketed with low-smoke and fire-retardant materials. Riser cables run vertically between floors and must be engineered to prevent fires from spreading between floors. Outdoor Cables: Outdoor cables must withstand harsher environmental conditions than indoor cables. Outdoor cables are used in applications such as: Overheadcables strung from telephone lines Direct burialcables placed directly in trenches Indirect burialcables placed in conduits Submarineunderwater cables, including transoceanic applications Sketches of indoor and outdoor cables are shown in Figure

FIBER OPTIC SOURCES


Two basic light sources are used for fiber optics: laser diodes (LD) and light-emitting diodes (LED). Each device has its own advantages and disadvantages as listed in Table

Table LED Versus Laser

Fiber optic sources must operate in the low-loss transmission windows of glass fiber. LEDs are typically used at the 850-nm and 1310-nm transmission wavelengths, whereas lasers are primarily used at 1310 nm and 1550 nm. LEDs are typically used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of their
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inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. They are used in applications in which data rates are in the hundreds of megahertz as opposed to GHz data rates associated with lasers. Two basic structures for LEDs are used in fiber optic systems: surface-emitting and edgeemitting as shown in Figure

In surface-emitting LEDs the radiation emanates from the surface. An example of this is the Burris diode as shown in Figure. LEDs typically have large numerical apertures, which
Source:

makes light coupling into single-mode fiber difficult due to the fibers small N.A. and core diameter. For this reason LEDs are most often used with multimode fiber. LEDs are used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of their inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. The output spectrum of a typical LED is about 40 nm, which limits its performance because of severe chromatic dispersion. LEDs operate in a more
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linear fashion than do laser diodes. This makes them more suitable for analog modulation. Figure 8-22 shows a graph of typical output power versus drive current for LEDs and laser diodes. Notice that the LED has a more linear output power, which makes it more suitable for analog modulation. Often these devices are pigtailed, having a fiber attached during the manufacturing process. Some LEDs are available with connector-ready housings that allow a connectorized fiber to be directly attached. They are also relatively inexpensive. Typical applications are local area networks, closed-circuit TV, and transmitting information in areas where EMI may be a problem.

Laser diodes (LD) are used in applications in which longer distances and higher data rates are required. Because an LD has a much higher output power than an LED, it is capable of transmitting information over longer distances. Consequently, and given the fact that the LD has a much narrower spectral width, it can provide high-bandwidth communication over long distances. The LDs smaller N.A. also allows it to be more effectively coupled with single-mode fiber. The difficulty with LDs is that they are inherently nonlinear, which makes analog transmission more difficult. They are also very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and drive current, which causes their output wavelength to drift. In applications such as wavelengthdivision multiplexing in which several wavelengths are being transmitted down the same fiber, the stability of the source becomes critical. This usually requires complex circuitry and high-speed transmission using LDs typically outweigh the drawbacks and added expense. Laser diodes can be divided into two generic types depending on the method of confinement of the lasing mode in the lateral direction. Gain-guided laser diodes work by controlling the width of the drive-current distribution; this limits the area in which lasing action can occur. Because of different confinement mechanisms in the lateral and vertical directions, the emitted wavefront from these

devices has a different curvature in the two perpendicular directions. This astigmatism in the output beam is one of the unique properties of laser-diode sources. Gain-guided injection laser diodes usually emit multiple longitudinal modes and sometimes multiple transverse modes. The optical spectrum of these devices ranges up to about 2 nm in width, thereby limiting their coherence length. Index-guided laser diodes use refractive index steps to confine the lasing mode in both the transverse and vertical directions. Index guiding also generally leads to both single transverse-mode and single longitudinal-mode behavior. Typical linewidths are on the order of 0.01 nm. Index-guided lasers tend to have less difference between the two perpendicular divergence angles than do gain-guided lasers. Single-frequency laser diodes are another interesting member of the laser diode family. These devices are now available to meet the requirements for high-bandwidth communication. Other advantages of these structures are lower threshold currents and lower power requirements. One variety of this type of structure is the distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diode (Figure 823). With introduction of a corrugated structure into the cavity of the laser, only light of a very specific wavelength is diffracted and allowed to oscillate. This yields output wavelengths that are extremely narrowa characteristic required for DWDM systems in which many closely spaced wavelengths are transmitted through the same fiber. Distributed-feedback lasers have been developed to emit light at fiber optic communication wavelengths between 1300 nm and 1550 nm

FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS


The purpose of a fiber optic detector is to convert light emanating from the optical fiber back into an electrical signal. The choice of a fiber optic detector depends on several factors including wavelength, responsivity, and speed or rise time. Figure 8-30 depicts the various types of detectors and their spectral responses

that produces the light. Light striking the detector generates a small electrical current that is amplified by an external circuit. Absorbed photons excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, resulting in the creation of an electron-hole pair. Under the influence of a bias voltage these carriers move through the material and induce a current in the external circuit. For each electron-hole pair created, the result is an electron flowing in the circuit. Typical current levels are small and require some amplification as shown in Figure

The most commonly used photodetectors are the PIN and avalanche photodiodes (APD). The material composition of the device determines the wavelength sensitivity. In general, silicon devices are used for detection in the visible portion of the spectrum; InGaAs crystal are used in the near-infrared portion of the spectrum between 1000 nm and 1700 nm, and germanium PIN and APDs are used between 800 nm and 1500 nm. Table 8-5 gives some typical photodetector characteristics:

Responsivitythe ratio of the electrical power to the detectors output optical power Quantum efficiencythe ratio of the number of electrons generated by the detector to the number of photons incident on the detector Quantum efficiency = (Number of electrons)/Photon Dark currentthe amount of current generated by the detector with no light applied. Dark current increases about 10% for each temperature increase of 1C and is much more prominent in Ge and InGaAs at longer wavelengths than in silicon at shorter wavelengths. Noise floorminimum detectable power that a detector can handle. The noise floor is related to the dark current since the dark current will set the lower limit. Noise floor = Noise (A)/Responsivity (A/W) Response timethe time required for the detector to respond to an optical input. The response time is related to the bandwidth of the detector by BW = 0.35/tr where tr is the rise time of the device. The rise time is the time required for the detector to rise to a value equal to 63.2% of its final steady-state reading. Noise equivalent power (NEP)at a given modulation frequency, wavelength, and noise bandwidth, the incident radiant power that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of one at the output of the detector (Source: Electronic Industry AssociationEIA)

Fiber Optic Testing: After the cables are installed and terminated, it's time for testing. For every fiber optic cable plant, you will need to test for continuity, end-to-end loss and then troubleshoot the problems. If it's a long outside plant cable with intermediate splices, you will probably want to verify the individual splices with an OTDR also, since that's the only way to make sure that each one is good. If you are the network user, you will also be interested in testing power, as power is the measurement that tells you whether the system is operating properly. You'll need a few special tools and instruments to test fiber optics. See Jargon in the
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beginning of Lennie's Guide to see a description of each instrument.

Getting Started Even if you're an experienced installer, make sure you remember these things. 1. Have the right tools and test equipment for the job. You will need: 1. Source and power meter, optical loss test set or test kit with proper equipment adapters for the cable plant you are testing. 2. Reference test cables that match the cables to be tested and mating adapters, including hybrids if needed. 3. Fiber Tracer or Visual Fault Locator. 4. Cleaning materials - lint free cleaning wipes and pure alcohol. 5. OTDR and launch cable for outside plant jobs.

2. Know how to use your test equipment Before you start, get together all your tools and make sure they are all working properly and you and your installers know how to use them. It's hard to get the job done when you have to call the manufacturer from the job site on your cell phone to ask for help. Try all your equipment in the office before you take it into the field. Use it to test every one of your reference test jumper cables in both directions using the single-ended loss test to make sure they are all good. If your power meter has internal memory to record data be sure you know how to use this also. You can often customize these reports to your specific needs - figure all this out before you go it the field - it could save you time and on installations, time is money!

3. Know the network you're testing... This is an important part of the documentation process we discussed earlier. Make sure you have cable layouts for every fiber you have to test. Prepare a spreadsheet of all the cables and fibers before you go in the field and print a copy for recording your test data. You may record all your test data either by hand or if your meter has a memory feature, it will keep test results in on-board memory that can be printed or transferred to a computer when you return to the office.

A Note On Using A Fiber Optic Source Eye Safety...


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Fiber optic sources, including test equipment, are generally too low in power to cause any eye damage, but it's still a good idea to check connectors with a power meter before looking into it. Some telco DWDM and CATV systems have very high power and they could be harmful, so better safe than sorry. Fiber optic testing includes three basic tests that we will cover separately: Visual inspection for continuity or connector checking, Loss testing, and Network Testing.

Visual Inspection Visual Tracing Continuity checking makes certain the fibers are not broken and to trace a path of a fiber from one end to another through many connections. Use a visible light "fiber optic tracer" or "pocket visual fault locator". It looks like a flashlight or a pen-like instrument with a lightbulb or LED soure that mates to a fiber optic connector. Attach a cable to test to the visual tracer and look at the other end to see the light transmitted through the core of the fiber. If there is no light at the end, go back to intermediate connections to find the bad section of the cable. A good example of how it can save time and money is testing fiber on a reel before you pull it to make sure it hasn't been damaged during shipment. Look for visible signs of damage (like cracked or broken reels, kinks in the cable, etc.) . For testing, visual tracers help also identify the next fiber to be tested for loss with the test kit. When connecting cables at patch panels, use the visual tracer to make sure each connection is the right two fibers! And to make certain the proper fibers are connected to the transmitter and receiver, use the visual tracer in place of the transmitter and your eye instead of the receiver (remember that fiber optic links work in the infrared so you can't see anything anyway.) Visual Fault Location A higher power version of the tracer uses a laser that can also find faults. The red laser light is powerful enough to show breaks in fibers or high loss connectors. You can actually see the loss of the bright red light even through many yellow or orange simplex cable jackets except black or gray jackets. You can also use this gadget to optimize mechanical splices or prepolished-splice type fiber optic connectors. In fact- don't even think of doing one of those connectors without one no other method will assure you of high yield with them.
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Visual Connector Inspection Fiber optic microscopes are used to inspect connectors to check the quality of the termination procedure and diagnose problems. A well made connector will have a smooth , polished, scratch free finish and the fiber will not show any signs of cracks, chips or areas where the fiber is either protruding from the end of the ferrule or pulling back into it. The magnification for viewing connectors can be 30 to 400 power but it is best to use a medium magnification. The best microscopes allow you to inspect the connector from several angles, either by tilting the connector or having angle illumination to get the best picture of what's going on. Check to make sure the microscope has an easy-to-use adapter to attach the connectors of interest to the microscope. And remember to check that no power is present in the cable before you look at it in a microscope protect your eyes!

Optical Power - Power Or Loss? ("Absolute" Vs. "Relative") Practically every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power. The power output of a transmitter or the input to receiver are "absolute" optical power measurements, that is, you measure the actual value of the power. Loss is a "relative" power measurement, the difference between the power coupled into a component like a cable or a connector and the power that is transmitted through it. This difference is what we call optical loss and defines the performance of a cable, connector, splice, etc.

Measuring Power Power in a fiber optic system is like voltage in an electrical circuit - it's what makes things happen! It's important to have enough power, but not too much. Too little power and the receiver may not be able to distinguish the signal from noise; too much power overloads the receiver and causes errors too. Measuring power requires only a power meter (most come with a screw-on adapter that matches the connector being tested) and a little help from the network electronics to turn on the transmitter. Remember when you measure power, the meter must be set to the proper range (usually dBm,
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sometimes microwatts, but never "dB" that's a relative power range used only for testing loss!) and the proper wavelengths matching the source being used. Refer to the instructions that come with the test equipment for setup and measurement instructions (and don't wait until you get to the job site to try the equipment)! To measure power, attach the meter to the cable that has the output you want to measure. That can be at the receiver to measure receiver power, or to a reference test cable (tested and known to be good) that is attached to the transmitter, acting as the "source", to measure transmitter power. Turn on the transmitter/source and note the power the meter measures. Compare it to the specified power for the system and make sure it's enough power but not too much.

Testing Loss Loss testing is the difference between the power coupled into the cable at the transmitter end and what comes out at the receiver end. Testing for loss requires measuring the optical power lost in a cable (including connectors ,splices, etc.) with a fiber optic source and power meter by mating the cable being tested to known good reference cable. In addition to our power meter, we will need a test source. The test source should match the type of source (LED or laser) and wavelength (850, 1300, 1550 nm). Again, read the instructions that come with the unit carefully. We also need one or two reference cables, depending on the test we wish to perform. The accuracy of the measurement we make will depend on the quality of your reference cables. Always test your reference cables by the single ended method shown below to make sure they're good before you start testing other cables! Next we need to set our reference power for loss our "0 dB" value. Correct setting of the launch power is critical to making good loss measurements!

Clean Your Connectors And Set Up Your Equipment Like This: Turn on the source and select the wavelength you want for the loss test. Turn on the meter, select the "dBm" or "dB"
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range and select the wavelength you want for the loss test. Measure the power at the meter. This is your reference power level for all loss measurements. If your meter has a "zero" function, set this as your "0" reference. Some reference books and manuals show setting the reference power for loss using both a launch and receive cable mated with a mating adapter. This method is acceptable for some tests, but will reduce the loss you measure by the amount of loss between your reference cables when you set your "0dB loss" reference. Also, if either the launch or receive cable is bad, setting the reference with both cables hides the fact. Then you could begin testing with bad launch cables making all your loss measurements wrong. EIA/TIA 568 calls for a single cable reference, while OFSTP-14 allows either method.

Testing Loss There are two methods that are used to measure loss, which we call "single-ended loss" and "double-ended loss". Single-ended loss uses only the launch cable, while doubleended loss uses a receive cable attached to the meter also. Single-ended loss is measured by mating the cable you want to test to the reference launch cable and measuring the power out the far end with the meter. When you do this you measure 1. the loss of the connector mated to the launch cable and 2. the loss of any fiber, splices or other connectors in the cable you are testing. This method is described in FOTP-171 and is shown in the drawing. Reverse the cable to test the connector on the other end. In a double-ended loss test, you attach the cable to test between two reference cables, one attached to the source and one to the meter. This way, you measure two connectors' loses, one on each end, plus the loss of all the cable or cables in between. This is the method specified in OFSTP-14, the test for loss in an installed cable plant.

What Loss Should You Get When Testing Cables?

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While it is difficult to generalize, here are some guidelines: - For each connector, figure 0.5 dB loss (0.7 max) - For each splice, figure 0.2 dB - For multimode fiber, the loss is about 3 dB per km for 850 nm sources, 1 dB per km for 1300 nm. This roughly translates into a loss of 0.1 dB per 100 feet for 850 nm, 0.1 dB per 300 feet for 1300 nm. - For singlemode fiber, the loss is about 0.5 dB per km for 1300 nm sources, 0.4 dB per km for 1550 nm. This roughly translates into a loss of 0.1 dB per 600 feet for 1300 nm, 0.1 dB per 750 feet for 1300 nm. So for the loss of a cable plant, calculate the approximate loss as: (0.5 dB X # connectors) + (0.2 dB x # splices) + fiber loss on the total length of cable

Troubleshooting Hints: If you have high loss in a cable, make sure to reverse it and test in the opposite direction using the single-ended method. Since the single ended test only tests the connector on one end, you can isolate a bad connector - it's the one at the launch cable end (mated to the launch cable) on the test when you measure high loss. High loss in the double ended test should be isolated by retesting single-ended and reversing the direction of test to see if the end connector is bad. If the loss is the same, you need to either test each segment separately to isolate the bad segment or, if it is long enough, use an OTDR. If you see no light through the cable (very high loss - only darkness when tested with your visual tracer), it's probably one of the connectors, and you have few options. The best one is to isolate the problem cable, cut the connector of one end (flip a coin to choose) and hope it was the bad one (well, you have a 50-50 chance!)

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OTDR Testing As we mentioned earlier, OTDRs are always used on OSP cables to verify the loss of each splice. But they are also used as troubleshooting tools. Let's look at how an OTDR works and see how it can help testing and troubleshooting.

How OTDRs Work Unlike sources and power meters which measure the loss of the fiber optic cable plant directly, the OTDR works indirectly. The source and meter duplicate the transmitter and receiver of the fiber optic transmission link, so the measurement correlates well with actual system loss. The OTDR, however, uses backscattered light of the fiber to imply loss. The OTDR works like RADAR, sending a high power laser light pulse down the fiber and looking for return signals from backscattered light in the fiber itself or reflected light from connector or splice interfaces. At any point in time, the light the OTDR sees is the light scattered from the pulse passing through a region of the fiber. Only a small amount of light is scattered back toward the OTDR, but with sensitive receivers and signal averaging, it is possible to make measurements over relatively long distances. Since it is possible to calibrate the speed of the pulse as it passes down the fiber, the OTDR can measure time, calculate the pulse position in the fiber and correlate what it sees in backscattered light with an actual location in the fiber. Thus it can create a display of the amount of backscattered light at any point in the fiber. Since the pulse is attenuated in the fiber as it passes along the fiber and suffers loss in connectors and splices, the amount of power in the test pulse decreases as it passes along the fiber in the cable plant under test. Thus the portion of the light being backscattered will be reduced accordingly, producing a picture of the actual loss occurring in the fiber. Some calculations are necessary to convert this information into a display, since the process occurs twice, once going out from the OTDR and once on the return path from the scattering at the test pulse.

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There is a lot of information in an OTDR display. The slope of the fiber trace shows the attenuation coefficient of the fiber and is calibrated in dB/km by the OTDR. In order to measure fiber attenuation, you need a fairly long length of fiber with no distortions on either end from the OTDR resolution or overloading due to large reflections. If the fiber looks nonlinear at either end, especially near a reflective event like a connector, avoid that section when measuring loss. Connectors and splices are called "events" in OTDR jargon. Both should show a loss, but connectors and mechanical splices will also show a reflective peak so you can distinguish them from fusion splices. Also, the height of that peak will indicate the amount of reflection at the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTDR receiver. Then peak will have a flat top and tail on the far end, indicating the receiver was overloaded. The width of the peak shows the distance resolution of the OTDR, or how close it can detect events.

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OTDRs can also detect problems in the cable caused during installation. If a fiber is broken, it will show up as the end of the fiber much shorter than the cable or a high loss splice at the wrong place. If excessive stress is placed on the cable due to kinking or too tight a bend radius, it will look like a splice at the wrong location.

OTDR Limitations The limited distance resolution of the OTDR makes it very hard to use in a LAN or building environment where cables are usually only a few hundred meters long. The OTDR has a great deal of difficulty resolving features in the short cables of a LAN and is likely to show "ghosts" from reflections at connectors, more often than not simply confusing the user.

Using The OTDR When using an OTDR, there are a few cautions that will make testing easier and more understandable. First always use a long launch cable, which allows the OTDR to settle down after the initial pulse and provides a reference cable for testing the first connector on the cable. Always start with the OTDR set for the shortest pulse width for best resolution and a range at least 2 times the length of the cable you are testing. Make an initial trace and see how you need to change the parameters to get better results. Restoration The time may come when you have to troubleshoot and fix the cable plant. If you have a critical application or lots of network cable, you should be ready to do it yourself. Smaller networks can rely on a contractor. If you plan to do it yourself, you need to have equipment ready (extra cables, mechanical splices, quick termination connectors, etc., plus test equipment.) and someone who knows how to use it. We cannot emphasize more strongly the need to have good documentation on the cable plant. If you don't know where the cables go, how long they are or what they tested for loss, you will be spinning you wheels from the get-go. And you need tools to diagnose problems and fix them, and spares including a fusion splicer or some mechanical splices and spare cables. In fact, when you install cable, save the leftovers for restoration! And the first thing you must decide is if the problem is with the cables or the equipment using it. A simple power meter can test sources for output and receivers
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for input and a visual tracer will check for fiber continuity. If the problem is in the cable plant, the OTDR is the next tool needed to locate the fault.

Siemens Company

Description fiber-optic cable is used for transmitting signals with the help of electromagnetic waves in the optical frequency range. Fiber-optic cables are recommended as an alternative to copper cables wherever there is severe electromagnetic interference, the equipotential bonding is to be saved, in open-air systems or where no electromagnetic radiation is wanted. To construct optical network structures, glass fiber optic cables are used for longer paths, while plastic fiber optic cables are used for shorter paths. These plastic cables use light-conducting plastics such as polymer optic fiber (POF) or polymer cladded fiber (PCF). Detail Different versions for different applications Halogen-free version for use in buildings, trailing cable for the special case where forced movement is required. Available pre-assembled FO Standard Cable GP 50/125 (Type C) FO Trailing Cable 50/125 (Type C) FO Training Cable GP 50/125 (Type C) FO Ground Cable 50/125 (Type C) FO FRNC Cable 50/125 (Type B)

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Features Rugged design for industrial applications indoors and outdoors. High immunity to noise thanks to insensitivity to electro-magnetic fields Tap-proof due to lack of radiation from the cable Silicon-free, therefore suitable for use in the automotive industry (e.g. in paintshops) Electrical isolation of PROFINET/Ethernet devices Protection of the transmission route against electromagnetic interference Certified for various applications, e.g for the American and Canadian market (UL listing such as OFN/OFNG for fiber-optic cables or CM/CMG for copper cables) PROFINET-compatible RoHS conformity Free from varnish-moistening substances

Benefits Simple laying with pre-assembled cables, without grounding problems and very light fiber-optic cables. Various approvals

Communication Bandwidth
Many of the new technologies for advanced tieback systems like subsea processing and multiphase pumping, either require or can benefit from improved controls support. Why should many advanced systems be limited to a share of a 1200 baud communication line? Norsk Hydro a.s. have recently completed commissioning on the Troll Pilot subsea separator. The separator control system handles a 1000 fold increase in data transmission. At the same time, it operates in an environment which includes the risk of EMI interference from the high-power supply umbilical to the MWatt re-injection pump that resides on the separator manifold. The Troll Pilot program took the decision at an early stage to use only fiber-optic communication. A dual-redundant fiber-optic backbone runs from the surface control system through the ISU (Integrated Service Umbilical), which includes the high voltage supply lines to the re-injection pump, to the wet-mate fiber-optic connectors on the Umbilical Termination Assembly (UTA). From the UTA, oil-filled jumper assemblies link to ROV installed wetmate, fiber-optic connectors on the individual control systems for the separator and the water injection x-tree (see photo 1).

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Photo 1: ROV Installation of Wet-mate Fiber-optic Connector Electrical communication offers data rates up to 9.6 kbit/sec for subsea control systems, while optical communication can easily support 200 Mbit/sec and with existing modem technology, can move this to 2.5 Gbit/sec without modifying or replacing any installed single-mode fiber. Many of the proposals for subsea infrastructure aimed at reducing facilities topsides load or at supporting long distance fluid flows already include, or will need to include, sophisticated control and sensor systems. These control systems will need to operate in real time and will produce data in large volumes. They will only perform to their true potential if supported with a high bandwidth communication system.

Unrepeated Communication Distance for Long Tiebacks


Although adequate for most step-out distances to date, electrical communication begins to struggle over more than a few tens of kms. Many of the goals of future tieback technology are aimed at extending the step-out distance, and so increasing the area of coverage that an existing or future facility can cover. For mature regions, like the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the ability to add marginal fields to existing developments is extending the lifetime of many platforms. As step-out distances continue to increase, unrepeated electrical communication distances are becoming a limiting factor. Extending transmission requires a repeater system at a suitable location in the umbilical. This increases the cost of manufacture and installation and decreases the reliability.

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Single-mode optical communication provides very long distance unrepeated communication. A long haul optical fiber communication system is one proposal for the West Delta Deep Program offshore Egypt. The distance is mainly limited by optical signal dispersion in the fiber and is bit rate dependent. At 200 Mbit/sec, single-mode fiber can support an unrepeated transmission distance in excess of 100 km. Using EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier) technology from the telecommunications industry that provides passive amplification without conversion to an electrical signal, and an appropriate choice of fiber, unrepeated distances of 200-300 km can be achieved. These distances will support one of the long-term goals of the tieback community;- tieback to shore. Erbium Doped Fiber Fiber-optic Weak Input Signal Coupler Fiber-optic Pump Source

Amplified Fiberoptic Signal

EDFA

CAPEX Reduction for Umbilical Manufacture and Installation


As step-out distances increase and installations get ever deeper, the costs associated with ISUs grow in relation to the overall development capital expenditure. The unit length manufacturing cost for an ISU is dependent on the cross-sectional construction and the final diameter of the active elements drives the weight of armoring needed. Therefore, any reduction in the dimension of the umbilical internals can lead to a reduction in weight per unit length, which may lead to further cost reduction for installation. As a case study, the original installation plan for the BP Amoco Kings Peak field in the deep-water GOM called for dual-redundant electrical communication with a 16 mile (25 km) ISU linking the Kings Peak gathering manifold with the production vessel proposed for the King field. The water depth over most of the installation is in excess of 6,000 ft. The original umbilical design included separate twisted shielded pair conductors to each control module. The resultant ISU was too large to manufacture in one piece. This
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meant that the installation vessel specifications had to include a moon pool for launch and recovery of the termination assemblies and the central splice enclosure. At this point, the forecast development costs were becoming uneconomic, largely driven by the cost of manufacture and installation of the ISU. BP Amocos decision to replace the electrical communication lines with optical fibers in a hermetically welded steel tube resulted in a reduction in cross-section and in the amount of armoring needed. This led to a sufficient weight saving so that the ISU could be fabricated in one length. The installation could now be carried out by a less costly vessel as the moon pool was no longer a requirement. Once the decision to use optical fiber communication was taken, an additional benefit was realized. BP Amoco were able to implement a real time interrogation of the PES SCRAMS system directly from the surface, simply by adding additional fibers in the existing fiber tubes and placing additional optical modems in the Subsea Control Modules. This decision did not affect the cross-section of the umbilical and the cost impact was limited to a few cents per foot for each additional fiber.

EMI Noise Immunity To Support High-power Systems


Electrical communication is at risk of data corruption from electromagnetic noise, such as that generated by high-voltage power lines and large electric motors. The growth in interest in subsea single and multiphase pumps for pressure boost and water reinjection, where extended step-outs require either assistance for fluid movement and/or environmentally friendly disposal of produced water from a subsea separator, has led to the development of a number of different pump/motor systems. Many of these motors are electrically driven and at powers in the 2-5 MW range. In order to supply these levels of power, low-loss, high-voltage transmission lines need to be used. In addition, the motor control loop will often use a variable frequency power supply to provide motor speed control. Under these conditions, the power conductors and the motors become sources of high levels of electromagnetic interference. Two options exist for electrical communication: a) Shield the communication conductors from the noise source. This is costly in terms of umbilical construction and is not always successful.

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b) Run a separate communication cable. Again, this is costly in terms of umbilical installation. The communication and power cables will need to be installed at least 1m apart. Difficulties may arise when trying to keep the communications cable shielded at the subsea termination. Optical fiber is inherently noise immune. The fiber can be run in a stainless steel or copper carrier tube in the same umbilical as the high-power conductors, with no risk of data corruption through EMI. Subsea installations of high-power pumps, including the Troll Pilot water injection pump and the Petrobras SBMS multiphase pump, have used all optical communication with wet-mate fiber-optic connectors and jumpers providing the modular installation necessary for these large systems. Sensors and Sensor Support As tieback technology continues to increase its level of sophistication with the installation of complex subsea systems, ever more sophisticated sensors with real time data access are needed as a fundamental component of any feedback loop control system. No longer are subsea sensors needed to just monitor valve position. Todays suite of sensors provide real time data on single and multiphase flow conditions, temperature and pressure, pipe erosion monitoring, level sensing, water cut, etc. Optical fiber provides the high bandwidth communication backbone necessary for the implementation and best use of many of these sensors. This can allow the sensor control and diagnostic equipment to be located on the platform and have a number of passive sensor heads located in the extreme environment, either downhole or inside pipe-work. In addition, optical fiber is itself capable of sensing many of the measurements covered by the sensors listed above. One sensor system already in place for a downhole pressure and temperature measurement is the FOWM (Fiber-Optic Well Monitoring) gauge system used by Shell on ETAP (Eastern Trough Area Project). The ten high temperature wells on the three fields Skua, Egret and Heron that make up Shell ETAP were not suitable for electronic gauge technology with temperatures in excess of 160 C. The FOWM system uses discrete optical pressure and temperature sensors, interrogated over a single fiber for each well set. A wet-mate, single channel, fiber-optic connector resides between the xtree and tubing hanger, with additional wet-mate fiber-optic connectors and jumpers linking the x-tree to the umbilical termination assembly. The umbilical is fabricated in three sections linking each field and there are multi-circuit, wet-mate, fiber-optic connectors and optical jumpers linking each umbilical section. The sensor interrogation and diagnostics equipment, including the lasers and drive electronics, reside on the platform where easy servicing can be performed. Separate fibers link each well to the platform with spare fibers to each UTA and available through protected spare wet-mate fiber-optic connectors. The furthest well is >25 km from the Marnock platform, so the

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sensor signal traverses a round trip to the sensor in excess of 50 km. All of the optical sensors are read in real time and at the same time. In its simplest form, optical fiber can be used as a distributed temperature sensor capable of measuring 30 km lengths with 1m measurement spacing and a temperature accuracy of 0.1 C. This technology is proving very useful in pipeline monitoring and pipeline heating programs, and even has a successful history of downhole distributed temperature measurement. The addition of a Bragg Grating to the fiber converts that section of the fiber to a point sensor where any external effect which causes a change in length of the fiber grating, i.e. temperature, pressure, strain, etc., can be detected. A Bragg grating is a section of fiber encoded with a modulated transmission profile where the pitch on the modulation is equivalent to the optical signal wavelength passing through it. The grating is transparent to wavelengths that do not match the grating pitch. This allows gratings with different pitches to be added in series to a length of fiber creating a series of point sensors. The sensor operates by having the parameter under test change the length of the grating by a small amount, thereby changing the pitch of the grating and the wavelength of a reflected signal. With a number of sensors in series on a fiber, they can all be read at the same time by illuminating the fiber with a white light source and monitoring (scanning) for the frequencies of the reflected signals.

BG
Return Input

Optical wavelength matches the grating pitch and is reflected

Bragg Grating Fiber

Input

Transmitted

1-BG
Optical wavelength does not match the grating pitch and is transmitted

Bragg Grating There are a number of other discrete sensors that use optical measurement techniques and can be interrogated over an optical fiber. One of the largest potential uses of optical sensors is in high sensitivity passive geo-phones for use on the sea-floor or down-hole in the well for continuous production draw-down monitoring
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