The Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable lipid bilayer found in all cells that control water

and certain substances in and out of the cell. Function of Plasma Membrane 1. Protects the cell. 2. Separates the intracellular components from extracellular environment. 3. Controls what enters and exits the cell. Necessities for the Movement of Substances across the Plasma Membrane 1. 2. 3. 4. To transport nutrients into the cell For gases exchange. To excrete metabolic waste. To maintain the pH value and ionic concentration of the cell.

Structure of plasma membrane

The permeability of the phospholipids bilayer is determined by: 1. The size 2. The charge 3. The polarity of substances pass through it

What is passive transport? Passive transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell. During passive transport, substances move down their concentration gradient, hence no energy is required. Passive transports can happen through different channels, namely: 1. Lipid bilayer 2. Pore protein 3. Carrier protein What is diffusion? Diffusion is the movement of particles from a high density region to a low density region. No energy is needed and no membrane involves in diffusion. Dynamic equilibrium Diffusion will continue until the concentration in all region is the same. When this happen, we say ithas reached the dynamic equilibrium. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Particles that moves through the plasma membrane through diffusion 1. Substances soluble in fat: fatty acid, glycerol, vitamin (A, D ,E ,K) 2. Neutral particles : water, oxygen, carbon dioxide

Example of Diffusion Changes of gases between alveoli and blood capillaries in the lung What is facilitated diffusion? Facilitated diffusion is the passive transport of substances across the plasma membrane with the help of transport proteins such as pore protein and carrier protein Substances pass through the plasma membrane through facilitated diffusion Particles undergo facilitated diffusion are the particles that cannot diffuse through the phospholipids bilayer such as 1. Large particles such as glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids 2. Some ions such as the sodium ions and chloride ions Facilitated diffusion occurs through 2 types of transport protein, namely
1. Channel Protein 2. Carrier Protein

Concentration Gradient Facilitated diffusion happens down a concentration gradient. Similarities between Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion 1. Down the concentration gradient (From high concentration to low concentration) 2. No energy is required

Differences between Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion

What is Osmosis? Osmosis is the diffusion of a water through a semi-permeable membrane, from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration. It is a physical process in which a solvent moves, without input of energy, across a semipermeable membrane separating two solutions of different concentrations. Important Points:

It is the diffusion of water (normally) through a semi-permeable membrane. It is from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution.

What is Active Transport? Active transport is the movement of substances across the plasma membrane of cells against the concentration gradient (From lower concentration to higher concentration). Since it is against the concentration gradient, energy is needed in the process. Video below shows how particles are transported through the carrier protein in active transport. Take notes that the process only happens when the carrier protein receives energy from an ATP. Basic Requirements in Active Transport

1. Presence of the carrier protein 2. Presence of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Function of the ATP ATP is the source of energy in active transport. It supplies energy to the carrier protein to carry out the process. It is converted into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) after the reaction. Examples of Active Transport Intake of mineral ions by the root hairs of a plant

What is Hypotonic Solution? Hypotonic solution is the solution that has higher water potential than the other solution. Water Concentration and Solute Concentration of a Cell in a Hypotonic Solution Water concentration: Water concentration inside the cell is lower than outside the cell. Solute Concentration: Solute concentration inside the cell is higher than outside the cell. Effect of Hypotonic Solution on Animal Cell

If an animal cell such as red blood cell is placed into a hypotonic solution, water molecules is transported into the red blood cells by osmosis (as shown in the diagram above). The red blood cells will inflate and finally burst because the thin membrane cannot withstand the high pressure inside the cell. The red blood cells are said to undergo haemolysis.

Effect of Hypotonic Solution on Plant Cell

When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water molecules is transported into the cell by osmosis. The water is then stored in vacuole causing it to expand and exerts pressure on the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure. The turgor pressure caused the plant cell to become firm orturgid.The rigid cell wall prevents cell from bursting.

What is Isotonic Solution? In isotonic solutions, both solutions have equal water potential. Water Concentration and Solute Concentration of a Cell in a Isotonic Solution Water concentration and solute concentration are equal in both solutions.

Effect of Isotonic Solution on Animal Cell

If an animal cell such as red blood cell is placed into a isotonic solution, amount of water molecules is transported into the red blood cells by osmosis is equal to the amount of water molecules transported out from the cell (as shown in the diagram above). Therefore the amount of water in the cell remain unchanged. The red blood cells maintain their shape. Effect of Isotonic Solution on Plant Cell

When a plant cell is placed in an isotonic solution, solute concentration in the external solution is equal to the solute concentration i the cell sap. Therefore the rate of diffusion of water into the cell is equal to the rate of diffusion of water out from the cell. As a result, the shape of the cell remain unchanged.

What is Hypertonic Solution? Hypotonic solution is the solution that has lower water potential than the other solution.

Water Concentration and Solute Concentration of a Cell in a Hypertonic Solution Water concentration: Water concentration inside the cell is higher than outside the cell. Solute Concentration: Solute concentration inside the cell is lower than outside the cell.

Effect of Hypertonic Solution on Animal Cell

If an animal cell such as red blood cell is placed into a hypertonic solution, water molecules is transported out from the red blood cells by osmosis (as shown in the diagram above). The red blood cells will shrink due to the lost of water from the cell and probably die. The red blood cells are said to undergo crenation

Effect of Hypertonic Solution on Plant Cell

When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water molecules is transported out from the cell by osmosis. The vacuole and cytoplasm are then shrink due to lost of water. The plasma membrane is pulled away from the cell wall.. The process is called plasmolysed.

Intracellular and extracellular enzymes

Enzymes can be divided into two groups: intracellular and extracellular. Enzymes formed and retained in the cell are known as intracellular enzymes, and occur in the cytoplasm, organelles or the nucleus. Examples of intracellular enzyme are DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase and ATP synthetase. Extracellular enzymes are produced in the cell then packed and secreted from the cell, Extracellular enzymes caralyse their reactions outside the cell. Most digestive enzymes are extracellular enzymes. For example, amylase, cellulase and zymase.

Site of Enzyme Synthesis

Since enzymes are made of proteins, they are synthesised by ribosomes. Intracellular enzymes are synthesised on free ribosomes. Extracellular enzymes are synthesised on ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Formation and secretion of extracellular enzymes: 1. The instruction for making the extracellular enzyme is transcribes from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus. 2. The RNA then leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore and attaches itself to the ribosome located on the endoplasmic reticulum. 3. When the enzyme synthesis has completed, it is extruded into the interior of the endoplasmic reticulum. 4. The enzyme is then encapsulated in a transport vesicle.

5. The transport vesicle fuses with the Golgi apparatus, releasing the enzyme into the Golgi apparatus. 6. In the Golgi apparatus the enzyme is further modified before packing the enzyme in a secretory vesicle. 7. The secretory vesicle transports the enzyme to the plasma membrane. 8. The secretory vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane and the enzyme is release outside the cell.

Mechanism of enzyme action

Each enzyme molecule has a region with very precise shape called the active site. The substrate molecule fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key into a lock. Various types of bonds including hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds hold the substrate(s) in the active site to form a enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme then changes the substrate(s) either by splitting it apart (for example, hydrolysis) or linking them together (for example, condensation) Once formed, the products no longer fit into the active site and escape into the surrounding medium, leaving the active site free to receive further substrate molecules.

enzyme+substrate enzyme-substrate complex>enzyme+product

The explanation of enzyme action is known as the lock and key hypothesis, where the substrate is like a key whose shape is complementary to the enzyme or lock. The lock and key hypothesis is able to explain why enzymes are specific and why any change in enzyme shape alters its effectiveness.

Factors afftecting enzymes 1. pH

Most enzymes are effective in only a narrow pH range. The optimum pH is the particular pH at which the rate of reaction is the highest. Deviations from the optimum pH decrease the rate of reaction because bonds maintaining the tertiary shape of the enzyme are broken. The active site loses its shape and the enzyme-substrate complex can no longer be formed. The enzyme is denatured.

2. Temperature Initially an increase in temperature leads to an increase in the rate of reaction because the kinetic energy of the enzyme and substrate molecules produce more collisions, and therefore more enzyme-substrate complexes are formed. The rate of reaction will increase up to a maximum, known as the optimum temperature. After the optimum temperature, the rate of reaction falls quickly because the bonds maintaining the structure of the enzyme start to break and the active site loses its shape. The enzyme-substrate complexes can no longer form and the enzyme is denatured.

Substrate Concentration

Initially an increase in substrate concentration increases the chance of enzyme-substrate collisions, and the rate of reaction increases. Eventually all the active sites are filled at any one time and the rate remains constant The reaction has reached its maximum rate, Vmax. Further addition of substrate will not increase the rate of reaction anymore because the constant enzyme concentration becomes the limiting factor.

4. Enzyme Concentration

As the concentration of the enzyme increases there are more chances of enzyme-substrate collisions. The rate of reaction increases linearly as long as no other factors are limiting. As more active sites are available, more substrates can be converted to products.

Uses of enzymes.

Enzymes Protease Papain//Protease Cellulase Protease//Lipase Lipase Amylase

Usage types Leather Industry Digestion Industrial use Daily use Digestion Digestion

Effect Remove hairs from skin Tenderise meat Softening vegetables, removing seed coats Add to washing powder to remove protein stains Convert fat to fatty acids and glycerol Convert starch to maltose

The cell cycle 1. Cell division is just a small part of the cycle of cell growth and asexual reproduction known as the cell cycle. 2. The cell cycle is defined as the period from the formation of a cell by division to the point when that cell divides itself. The length of a cell cycle is very variable, depending on the type of cells.

Interphase

Events

G1 ( Growth phase 1)

G1 is a crucial phase because during this phase, cells will decide whether or not to divide and complete the cell cycle to form new cells. If the external conditions are conducive for growth, the cell enter the S phase During G1, chromosomes are extremely fine

and cannot be seen under the light microscope. At this stage, the chromosomes are known as chromatin

S phase (DNA synthesis)

Synthesis of DNA (genetic material) occurs The DNA undergoes replication A duplicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids Both sister chromatids contain identical copies of the chromosomes DNA molecules

G2 phase (growth phase 2)

The cell continues to grow and remains metabolically active The cell accumulated energy and completes its final preparations for division

Mitosis is the process of nuclear division which results in the formation of two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes and genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell Stage Diagram Explanation

Prophase

Metaphase

-The chromosomes condense and are tightly coiled. The chromosomes become shorter, thicker and can be seen under a light microscope. - Spindle fibres begin to form - Each pair of cntrioles move to opposite poles of the cell. - Nucleolus disappears. - Nuclear membrane disintegrates -The chromosome are lined up at the equator of the cell

Anaphase

-The two sisters chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere and are pulled apart to the opposite poles of the cel

Telophase

-The telophase begins when both sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell -Chromosomes recoil and become chromatin again -Spindle fibres disappear -Nuclear membrane reforms. -Nucleolus reforms

Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells of the body. Mitosis involves the process of nuclear division followed by a cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm which occurs at the end of telophase

Stage Prophase I

Diagram

Explanation -Homologous chromosomes pair up through a process called synapsis -Each chromosome consists of two chromatids -the non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments of DNA in a

Metaphase I

process called crossing over, that results in variation. -The homologous pair of chromosomes line up at the equator

Anaphase I

-The chromosome of each homologous pair move to the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase I

-The chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles of the cell -Spindle fibres disappear -Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reforms -Cytokinesis occurs to produce two haploid daughter cells

Stage Prophas e II

Diagram

Explanation -Nuclear membrane disappears -Spindle fibres reform -The chromoso mes, each made up of sister chromatids , line up at the equator -The centromer es separate -The sister chromatids of each chromoso me separate and move towards the opposite poles of the cell

Metaph ase II

Anaphas e II

Telopha se II

-Nuclear membrane and spindle fibres reforms -Spindle fibres break down -The chromatids become chromoso mes of the daughter cells Cytokinesis occurs. Four haploid daughter cells are formed. Each daughter cellcontain s half the number of chromoso mes as the parent cell