In selecting the specific speed suitable for a given head, cavitation requirements are usually the controlling consideration,

and this subject will now be taken up. 6. Cavitation. Let us write the Bernoulli formula for the draft tube of the turbine (Fig. 27) between section 2, at the outlet of the runner to section j, the point of final discharge into the tailrace, and take the tail-water surface as datum level. Then, by calling the elevation of section 2 above tail water H. (the static draft head) and expressing all static pressure heads as absolute pressures, Hpt denoting the absolute pressure head at 2 and H" the pressure head of the atmosphere, Hpi

+ H. + 2i -

VII

HL = H"

+ 0 + 2i

V,I

in which HL is the loss of head in eddies and friction within the draft tube and V, the final discharge velocity in the tailrace. The total loss of energy is the internal loss plus the final residual velocity head rejected into the tailrace, V,I/2g. If the effective head on the turbine varies, and if the rotational speed of the runner is always adjusted to suit the head so that <p remains constant, VI will remain at constant angle of obliquity at to the plane of section 2 and its axial component will remain in fixed ratio to Vt; and from the principle of continuity of flow, the velocity at any point in the tube and that at section j will likewise remain in fixed ratio to V I. From the principles of similarity, the eddy losses within the tube and the final outflow loss V,1/2g will then always be directly proportional to VII/2g; if we make the reasonable assumption that the flow is completely turbulent, we can also take the frictional losses proportional to the velocity head at any point or to V1I/2g. The total loss can then be put equal to K(VII/2g), K being a constant coefficient for a given turbine. Then the Bernoulli formula gives

~~=~-&-2i+'fu+2i=~-&-2i+K2i
H. - H. - (1 - K) VII 2i

VII

V,I

VII

VII

Now the head representing the total kinetic energy of the flow entering the draft tube is Vss/2g; it is the purpose of the draft tube, by gradually decelerating the velocity, to reconvert as much as possible of this kinetic energy into effective pressure head in order to reduce the back pressure Hp2 against which the runner discharges. The efficiency of the draft tube can therefore be expressed as
ell -

_ Vss/2g - K(Vss/2g) Vss/2g

_ 1_ K -

so that the equation for Hps becomes, simply,

Hps = Ha - H. -

ed

2ij

Vss

H pS represents the average pressure head at the runner discharge. But on the runner vanes (blades) there will be a higher pressure on the vane faces and a lower pressure on the back surfaces; it is this pressure difference that drives the runner around and develops mechanical power on the shaft. Pressures at local points in section 2 will therefore alternately exceed and fall below the average pressure Hps; at some local point on the back of a runner vane the pressure will fall below Hps; and at the local point of minimum pressure we shall call the absolute pressure head The pressure difference Hps - H , the local pressure drop, is due to the flow through the turbine and under dynamically similar conditions is proportional to the effective head producing the flow, i.e., the effective head on the turbine, H. Hence we can write Hps - H . KcH, where Kc is a constant coefficient for a given turbine, its value depending on the particular shape of the vanes. The absolute pressure head at the point of minimum pressure in the turbine is then

H...

Hps - KcH

Hti - H. -

ed

2ij - K.H

Vss

If we consider that when hydraulic similarity is preserved, by keeping the runner speed in proper relation to the head, Vss/2g is proportional to H, we can combine the last two terms and put

in which tT is a constant coefficient for a given turbine (or for any geometrically similar turbine) operating at a given 4>. Then we have

Now suppose 4lJ1at both headwater and tail water are progressively lowered by equal amounts. The effective head H will remain constant, but H. will increase so that H will be progressively lowered. There is, however, a limit to the possible reduction of H... When H reaches the vapor pressure of the water, the point at which the water boils, the pressure can go no lower as long as water is present as a liquid. Beyond this amount of reduction, the water cannot exist as a liquid. When H is reduced to this limiting value H ., the vapor pressure head, the water begins to p boil and the passages become partly occupied by vapor cavities within the flowing stream. The formation of these vapor-filled cavities in the stream is called cavitation. When the pressure at some point in the turbine reaches the vapor pressure, critical conditions ensue and the turbine becomes subject to the undesirable consequences of cavitation, namely, erosion (known as pitting) and noise and vibration of the machine and surrounding structures. When the extent of the cavitation increases, an impair-

ment of power and efficiency results. This phenomenon is not limited to turbines but may also occur in pumps and in stationary conduits at points of low pressure and high velocity, as for example in sluiceways through dams. The guarding against its occurrence is a vital consideration in the selection of type and specific speed of a turbine and in fixing the runner elevation in relation to tail water. The cavitation phenomenon can be explained as follows: Consider the flow through a turbine runner where the total draft head is excessive and where there is a failure of the vane (blade) contour to conform to the natural flow lines, because the curvature is too sharp for the pressure and velocity conditions. At such a point in the runner, usually on the back of the vanes near the discharge orifice and near the outer periphery, where the relative velocity is high, the flowing stream parts from the vane surface and leaves a void filled with eddies; and when the absolute pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure, this void or cavity becomes filled with water vapor, air, and other gases. As the flow continues downstream, the static pressure rises again and then exceeds the vapor pressure. Moreover the flow in large conduits at high velocities is never actually steady but is turbulent and subject to continual variations of velocity and pulsations of pressure. Hence, when a particle of the flowing liquid reaches a point where the local pressure just attains the vapor pressure limit, at one instant the particle will be under this pressure and vaporize, forming a cavity filled with vapor; at the next instant, the pressure will rise above the vapor pressure and the vapor will suddenly condense and return to liquid, producing a collapse of the cavity and an explosion or, more strictly, an implosWn. This action is not confined to the larger cavities but extends into the pores of the metal. The water rushing in to fill the collapsed cavity will also enter the vapor-filled pores until instantaneously stopped by the bottom surface of the pore, where water-hammer action takes place. This is capable of producing pressure intensities on the areas of the same order as the tensile strength of the metal, and under the continual repetition of the shocks, the metal fails locally under fatigue and small particles are irregularly broken away, giving the surface a peculiar spongy appearance. The action, called pitting, is thus believed to be primarily mechanical, as just described; it was formerly thought to be mainly chemical, in the nature of rusting, or electrolytic; but it can be produced in wood, concrete, and even in glass, which points to a mechanical origin as outlined in the preceding theory. It should be possible to prevent pitting by avoiding the occurrence anywhere in the turbine of a local pressure head so low as to approach the vapor pressure of the water. This method of avoiaing cavitation and pitting has been found from experience to be effective. In the formula for the minimum local pressure, we find that the critical point at which cavitation occurs is given by putting H= Hvp, the vapor pressure head, so that'

in which <To is the critical sigma, or the value of <T at which the undesirable effects of cavitation beg~n. We can call H. - Hvp = Hb the height of the barometric water column, or the heignt to which water may be drawn up in a water barometer. Then
<T. =

Hb

H.

This is the Thoma formula for the critical value of the dimensionless ratio called the Thoma cavitation coefficient (known also as the Thoma cavitation number, factor, or parameter).

It will be readily perceived that if a turbine in a given plant is installed with excessive draft head H., i.e., too high a setting of the runner in relation to tail water, so that the actual plant sigma is lower then the critical sigma <Te, then portions of the water passages will be occupied by vapor instead of liquid. The stream areas and the lines of flow will be changed, and the principles of similarity will fail to apply, for we have no longer preserved complete geometrical similitude of the flow.

I-

92 90 88 86 84 82

oc --It
:;'

OS

u 0:

'"

j2 -

-*
.d~

~ ,;
>u

!!! u

it

v
p

'"

0.15

'1c --1
"k

'" ~

0: 0.14

J!
~
V
0.13

-- -- -- -f
ifp,

l-

ii

::>

01.50

~ :l u
!!! o
I-

~ ...

.~
o
0.10 0.20 SIGMA, (J" 0.30 0.40
FIG. 28. Typical test curv_'of efficiency, unit power, and unit discharge vs. cavitationcoefficient sigma, showing evidence of cavitation at the critical value of sigma.

This gives us a method of determining the numerical value of <Te for a given turbine. A homologous model may be tested by progressively increasing H. while keeping H, N, and all other factors constant. So long as no cavitation occurs, the conditions of similarity will continue to be satisfied and no significant change in efficiency, power output, or discharge will occur. A drop in any or all of the quantities therefore indicates a departure from conditions of similarity, and the sigma at which the first significant drop in one of the quantities ocr.urs is usually considered the critical sigma for the particular turbine. Figure 28 illustrates the method, utilizing the curves of efficiencye, unit power P,t, and unit discharge Qt, plotted against <T.t To provide for cavitation-free turbine operation, we must be sure that in the actual installation the <T
I

Curvee of this type have sometimes been deecriptively called "aicma break" curvee.

ment of power and efficiency results. This phenomenon is not limited to turbines but may also occur in pumps and in stationary conduits at points of low pressure and high velocity, as for example in sluiceways through dams. The guarding against its occurrence is a vital consideration in the selection of type and specific speed of a turbine and in fixing the runner elevation in relation to tail water. The cavitation phenomenon can be explained as follows: Consider the flow through a turbine runner where the total draft head is excessive and where there is a failure of the vane (blade) contour to conform to the natural flow lines, because the curvature is too sharp for the pressure and velocity conditions. At such a point in the runner, usually on the back of the vanes near the discharge orifice and near the outer periphery, where the relative velocity is high, the flowing stream parts from the vane surface and leaves a void filled with eddies; and when the absolute pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure, this void or cavity becomes filled with water vapor, air, and other gases. As the flow continues downstream, the static pressure rises again and then exceeds the vapor pressure. Moreover the flow in large conduits at high velocities is never actually steady but is turbulent and subject to continual variations of velocity and pulsations of pressure. Hence, when a particle of the flowing liquid reaches a point where the local pressure just attains the vapor pressure limit, at one instant the particle will be under this pressure and vaporize, forming a cavity filled with vapor; at the next instant, the pressure will rise above the vapor pressure and the vapor will suddenly condense and return to liquid, producing a collapse of the cavity and an explosion or, more strictly, an implo8ion. This action is not confined to the larger cavities but extends into the pores of the metal. The water rushing in to fill the collapsed cavity will also enter the vapor-filled pores until instantaneously stopped by the bottom surface of the pore, where water-hammer action takes place. This is capable of producing pressure intensities on the areas of the same order as the tensile strength of the metal, and under the continual repetition of the shocks, the metal fails locally under fatigue and small particles are irregularly broken away, giving the surface a peculiar spongy appearance. The action, called pitting, is thus believed to be primarily mechanical, as just described; it was formerly thought to be mainly chemical, in the nature of rusting, or electrolytic; but it can be produced in wood, concrete, and even in glass, which points to a mechanical origin as outlined in the preceding theory. It should be possible to prevent pitting by avoiding the occurrence anywhere in the turbine of a local pressure head so low as to approach the vapor pressure of the water. This method of avoiaing cavitation and pitting has been found from experience to be effective. In the formula for the minimumJpcal pressure, we find that the critical point at which cavitation occurs is given by putting H", = H.p, the vapor pressure head, so that'

in which <T. is the critical sigma, or the value of <T at which the undesirable effects of cavitation begin. We can call H. - H.p = Hb the height of the barometric water column, or the' height to which water may be drawn up in a water barometer. Then
<T.

Hb - H. H

This is the Thoma formula for the critical value of the dimensionless ratio called the Thoma cavitation coefficient (known also as the Thoma cavitation number, factor, or parameter).

for the plant is not less than this Ue but exceeds it, some margin being thus allowed against cavitation. It is possible in making the cavitation tests to vary H instead of H., the turbine speed N being always kept such that." remains constant. We can then plot the values of e, PI, and QI against U as abscissa, as before. The shape of the cavitation test curves in some instances is such that it becomes difficult to establish precisely the points of drop in the quantities without the influence of individual judgment. Several different rules, based on somewhat varied criteria, have been devised for determining the critical sigma from the cavitation test curves, as illustrated in Fig. 28. One of the commonly used criteria establishes the critical sigma as that value of sigma, for decreasing values of sigma, at which the power drop tiP! from the constant value is 1 percent. Another criterion establishes critical sigma as the value of sigma at which the efficiency drop ae is a given amount, arbitrarily chosen by some as 1 percent of the constant value. Others have chosen a somewhat more conservative efficiency drop of 0.5 percent as the criterion, on the premise that the drop in the efficiency curve is often more acute than the drop in power and discharge. A proposed supplement to the International Code for Model Acceptance Tests of Hydraulic Turbines, Publication 193, First Edition, 1965, of the IECI included a basis for determining the cavitation limit by use of a "standard sigma" value u. of the model, established by the intersection of the horizontal line of constant efficiency with the strongly dropping straight line along which the test points for substantially developed cavitation tend to align themselves. The proposed IEC basis provided further for determining the cavitation limit of the full-scale turbine by adding to the u. of the model a margin au based on experience acquired from model tests and their correlation with field cavitation data. It is quite evident that general agreement on a standard method of determining cavitation limits has yet to be reached, though progress toward standardization is being made. The most reliable basis for determining critical sigma and the allowable value of H. for the actual setting of a turbine is obtained by supplementing the cavitation tests on a homologous model with field-experience data from plants where pitting has actually occurred at certain values of sigma during operation. Since the most serious result of cavitation is pitting, we are most concerned with the value of u where pitting begins. Some turbines are known to operate without measurable loss of power or efficiency but to develop distinct pitting; evidence of pitting is therefore a primary index of detrimental cavitation in field installations. The earlier phases of cavitation may usually be detected liy audible indications such as the onset of cavitation noise. 7. Selection of Type and Speed of Turbine. Since the critical sigma and degree of resistance to cavitation of a particular turbine are greatly affected by its design, so that two turbines of the same specific speed may differ considerably in this respect, a cavitation test on a homologous model supplemented, if possible, by actual field experience from a nonpitting homologous installation is needed if a new installation is to be carried out safely without using a considerable margin in the value of the plant sigma, and therefore in the value of H.. _. Such. information is of special importance selecting Kaplan and fixed-blade propeller turbines for which the critical sigma is greatly dependent on the particular design, especially on the proportional blade area of the runner. Ample blade area is necessary to keep sigma within reasonable limits. In the absence of definite information, a fair degree of guidance for estimating the safe sigma may be obtained from curves based on pitting experience and available cavitation tests on representative turbines of various specific speeds. The critical sigma of turbines is greatly dependent on their sp~eific speed; ther~fore,

M-

International Electrotechnlcal CommiHion, Geneva, Switzerland (aJH1;atedwith ISO).