What are the types of rolls?

Rolls are rolling machines and are used to roll materials such as sheet, plate or flat bar into a cylindrical shape. They can handle material from the lightest of sheet metal to plates over 50mm thick. Rolls can be horizontal or vertical and can be hand or power driven. The type used will depend on the specialisation of the workshop.

Horizontal rolls

Horizontal rolls are used to form smaller diameter cylinders and curves from plates. They also straighten wrinkled or bent plates. Plate that is rolled in horizontal rolls must be thick enough to be self supporting. If it is large in diameter and not self supporting, it must be supported by a crane or some other means or it will collapse.

Vertical rolls
Vertical rolls are used to form large diameter cylinders and large radius curves plates. The vertical position means that being rolled is self supporting and so a is not required. in plate crane

H and roll s
Hand rolls are used for formi ng sheetmetal and plate up to 3 mm thick.

Roller configuration
The two most common types of roller configuration on rolling machines are:

pyramid rolls initial pinch rolls - single or double.

Pyramid rolls
The name pyramid rolls refers to the arrangement of the top and bottom rollers. Pyramid rolls are made in widths of 1500mm to 6000mm for cold rolling of plate from 4mm to 50mm thick. These machines are rigid and easy to maintain and operate. The two bottom rolls drive the material through the rolls and the top roll is adjusted mechanically or hydraulically to apply pressure to bend the material.

The ends need to be preset with a pyramid roll otherwise they will remain flat with no curve.

When preset correctly the ends will appear as in the figure on the far right.

Initial pinch rolls

Initial pinch rolls come in both single and double pinch arrangements. They are used frequently in fabrication workshops and are able to preset the curve at the ends. Presetting however requires considerable skill.

When rolling large cylinders the material needs to be supported so that it does not collapse on itself.

A single roll has B and C at machine are and drive adjusted to thickness of These rolls through the rollers.

initial pinch three rolls. Rolls the front of the called the pinch rolls and can be suit the the material. drive the metal

Roll A at the rear is called the forming roll and can be adjusted up or down to give the desired curve. Normally the material needs to be passed through the rolls several times.

A double initial pinch roll also has three rolls but both B and C rolls can be adjusted independently or at the same time. Roll A stays fixed.
Advantages and limitations of pyramid and initial pinch rolls

Should the lines and marking face up or down?

Lines and markings are drawn onto material to guide the forming process. But what side should they be on? Should they be:

face up - with the markings visible as the material passes through the press or rollers, or face down - with the markings not visible but on the underside as the material passes through the press or rollers?

The answer depends on the method of forming you are using because cylinders and conical shapes can be made by:

rolling in rolls, or bending in a press brake.

Let's see how these methods affect the way you mark out the material.

Rolling in rolls
When making a cylinder, the shape required (eg a truncation) is drawn onto the material and then centre punched for permanent identification. The material is fed into the rolls so the markings are facing down. These markings will then be visible on the outside when rolling is completed. The shape can then be cut.

Bending in a brake press

When using a brake press for forming or presetting the ends of a cylinder, mark the cutting lines on the side that is face down (the outside) and the bend lines on the side that is face up (the inside). With the final cutting plane on the outside it will easier to cut the final shape.

Can shapes be cut before rolling or bending?

This causes distortion. Truncations and branch pieces should never be cut prior to rolling or bending.

With a truncated shape, the ends are of a smaller dimension (shorter) than the middle. This puts uneven pressure on the material during the rolling process meaning the shorter area will roll up a lot easier than the longer centre section which applies greater resistance. Therefore the curvature of the final product will be uneven. The same principle applies with the bending process as the ends would bend up more than the longer centre section and the curvature will be uneven.

Methods for avoiding distortion

1. 2. Cut the shape after rolling or bending. Use the part cut/part burn method.

As stated previously with uneven distribution of pressure onto the formed component, rolling and bending should always be completed on a rectangular plate to avoid uneven curvature. The part cut/part burn method involves cutting small intervals of the truncation before the rolling process. This allows for even distribution of pressure during forming. Cutting is then completed after the product is formed.

The diagram above shows the truncation cut at small intervals to help distribute the pressure during forming.

How do you adjust the rolls to ensure they are parallel?

All rolls can be adjusted to run parallel but as with any mechanical device, they can move out of alignment and so need regular maintenance. If the rolls are out of alignment you will get uneven rolling from one end to the other.

Pyramid rolls
Pyramid rolls which do not have initial pinch have the two bottom rolls fixed so these cannot be adjusted. However, the top roll is adjustable independently from each end. Most have a graduated ruler at each end, so adjusting the top roller is easy, provided you remember to do it at the beginning of the rolling sequence. Later models have a digital readout for each end of the top roll.

Initial and double pinch rolls

Initial and double pinch rolls also have allowable adj ustment on either end of the rolls. Most later models now have a digital read out which gives the distance the rolls are apart from each end. These types of rolls are hydraulically operated.

How do you align the plate square to the rolls?

The plate has to be square to the rolls so that the cylinder will not be twisted when it is rolled. There are a couple of ways to ensure that the plate is square to the top roll. You can use an engineering plate square to:

align through the centre if you have a centre line drawn on the plate, or align the plate on the side edge at 90.

Depending on the size of the cylinder, use a hammer or sledge hammer to correct the alignment. Add a little more pressure and start to roll.

shown to recheck that the top roll. When rolling a wider sheet, run middle of the plate and use a 90 degrees to the top roller.

Use the plate square as material is square to the a centre line down the plate square to align this at

How much adjustment should be placed on the adjustable roll?

When rolling there are a lot of variables to consider, such as:

the type or grade of material thickness the size or diameter of the cylinder.

It is best to start rolling lightly. Begin by applying enough pressure to grip the plate. The pinching effect will depend on the type of roll being used. Rolls work by pinching the flat material between the rolls and bending it as it moves through. A cylinder has to be rolled in several stages called a rolling sequence. This involves rolling the plate backwards and forwards with an even pressure to the preset ends.

Gradually increase the pressure after each roll so that the curvature increases to the curve required. Write down the settings with each pass through the rolls so that you have a record of the rolling tension sequence. This helps if you have to make more than one cylinder. The figure below shows the sequence of rolling a cylinder using pyramid rolls by gradually increasing the pinch effect.

What is the correct rolling sequence?

A rolling sequence involves rolling material backwards and forwards to achieve a desired shape.

Steps

Note: The pressure is increased in the top roll.

1.

Preset the ends to the desired radius. This can be done by pressing, shaping, crimping or using initial pinch rolls.

2.

Apply slight pressure so that the rollers grip the plate. Align the plate square to the rolls at 90 degrees using a plate square.

3. 4.

Apply slightly more pressure by adjusting the rolls. Roll the plate through to the preset end.

5. 6.

Increase tension as you complete each roll. Continually check that: the rolls remain parallel the plate is (and remains) square in the rolls the curvature and circularity are constant. Repeat sequence until desired curvature is reached. Using a standard pyramid roll

7.

Using an initial pinch roll Note: The pressure is increased in the bottom rollers.

8.

Over-roll slightly by about 15mm to allow for springback. Record the final pressure applied to the plate. Release the pressure off the cylinder entirely and check that the required curve or diameter has been achieved.

9.

10. If it has not been reached, you will need to apply slightly more pressure and re-roll the cylinder from one end to the other.

11. Release the pressure again and recheck the curve/diameter. Repeat step 10 if needed.

Powered roll machines are very dangerous. Avoid loose clothing which could be caught during the rolling sequence.

What is meant by springback?

Springback, also known as elastic recovery, is the result of metal tending to return to its original shape after undergoing compression and tension (stretching). All metals have what is called an elastic limit. All metals are like elastic bands, in that you can bend or roll them to a certain point and they will return to their original shape. In rolling a work piece, the inside radius is squeezed together or forced into compression and the outside bend radius is forced into tension or stretched. When the pinch roll tension is released the work piece relaxes and opens up slightly. This is springback.

How do you allow for springback?

The solution is to over-roll the cylinder by approximately 15mm so that when springback occurs the material opens to the desired curve. Springback must always be taken into consideration when rolling a cylindrical shape. View the demonstration below.

Rolling sequence showing springback and how to compensate for this text alternative.
1. Roll the plate to one preset end applying even pressure at each end on the top rolls.

2. Roll the plate through to the other end.

3. Increase the pressure on the top roll at both ends.

4. Repeat rolling back and forth, gradually increasing pressure on the top roll. Keep note of the increments. This is the rolling sequence which you will need if you are making more than one cylinder of the same size.

5. Keep checking that the rolls remain parallel and the plate is square in the rolls.

6. The ends will eventually butt up. But if the top roller is released at this stage the cylinder shape will open up. This is springback.

7. To compensate for springback, continue rolling to create an overlap of approximately 15mm.

8. When the top roll is released and springback occurs, the ends will now meet flush. Always allow for springback when rolling a cylindrical shape.

Factors effecting springback

Mechanical properties of the metal being rolled - certain alloyed steels have more springback than mild steel eg stainless steel. Metal thickness - the thicker the metal the less the springback. Grain direction - always roll against the grain. Size of inside radius - the larger the inside radius the more springback, as more surface area is compressed and stretched.

Length of the cylinder - the longer the cylinder, the more springback.

How do you remove the cylinder from the rolls?

Removal of cylinder from pyramid rolls
Raise top roll to clear

Screw the counterbalance down to support the top roll. Some machines have an indicator light that shows when the counterbalance is sufficient to support the top roll. Remove the end housing. Slide the cylinder off the rolls. Reposition the end housing and lock it in place. Loosen off the top roll counterbalance. Re-adjust rolls so that they are parallel.

material thickness.

Removing a cylinder can be done by two operators as shown in the photograph on the right: one sets the counterbalance and waits for the light to come on; the other opens the end housing which pivots sideways. Once the cylinder is removed the end housing is swung back into place and locked into position. The counterbalance is then loosened off.

Removal of a cylinder from a hydraulic roll

Lower the bottom roll to clear material thickness. The initial pinch roll does have a counterbalance so when the end housing is swung away, the top roll support itself and remain position. Remove the end housing. Slide the cylinder off the rolls. Reposition the end housing using the hydraulic control panel.

not will in

There are different types of openings to remove the cylinder. The one shown is hydraulically operated.

How do you check cylinder size and shape?

The circularity of a cylinder can be checked a number of ways:

matching it against a template measuring the diameter at a number of positions around the cylinder placing the cylinder over a layout tracing around the completed cylinder and then rotating the cylinder 90

How do you repair under-rolled, over-rolled or twisted cylinders?

Problems will occur if you do not follow the rolling sequence properly.

Common errors
1.

The cylinder has been under-rolled for the required curvature or some sections are under-rolled. Repair options Re-roll the cylinder. Ensure that you follow the correct rolling sequence. Hammer on the inside of the cylinder over a vee block. This will only work on smaller sized cylinders and where the material is thin eg 3-8mm. If the under-roll is slight, the cylinder can be pulled in using clamps.

2.

The cylinder has been over-rolled ie there is too much curvature of the cylinder or some of its sections. Repair options Press or hammer the cylinder over a flat block. This will stretch the outside surface causing it to open up. Use an hydraulic jack across the narrow diameter then hammer at 90 to the jack. Use an internal support.

Square anvil or rail

Using a jack

Using an internal support for the section to be opened up

There should always be space under the cylinder, in line with the hammer blow, to give the metal room to move. 3. The cylinder is twisted so that the plate edges are out of alignment. This is caused by the plate not being at 90 to the rolls. Repair options Small amounts of twist can be corrected by dogs and Wedge and tack welding the seam.

Large amounts of twist are corrected by re-rolling the cylinder using the correct rolling sequence.

Use a sash clamp to align the edges of the cylinder from end to end.

4.

Joint/seam misalignment - where the plate edges of the seam are not parallel. This is caused by the top and bottom rolls not being parallel.

Repair options Adjust rolls so that they are parallel and re-roll cylinder.

How do you form a conical shape?

Conical shapes are formed by:

skid rolling in pyramid rolls

 Skid rolling

pressing using knife and vee block dies.

Skid rolling is a technique in which the pattern pivots around the equipment during rolling on a pyramid roll with preset ends or an allowance for green. Frustums of right cones are formed in pyramid rolls using a skid-rolling technique. This method involves:

an adjustable roller/pin located centrally under the top roll guide rollers located on the end housing, or a short piece of angle bar positioned on the bottom roll and hard up against the top roll.

The pattern pivots around the equipment during rolling. To prevent twisting of the frustum during rolling, the radial generator lines on the pattern must align with the top roll.

The inner edge of the development frustum hits against the bar which causes the skidding.

Pressing using knife and vee block dies

When forming a right conical frustum with pyramid rolls, you will have to preset the ends. The presetting method is the same as for cylinders, a press with knife and vee blocks or male and female forming dies. Knife and vee block

Check the ends with templates after presetting with a press brake. Male/female forming dies

Using forming dies to set the ends.

Forming the cone

Once the press has been accurately adjusted, you can start forming the cone. Be careful to press on radial generator lines to avoid twist. These lines should be clearly marked so they are seen easily and can't be rubbed out. After every second or third bend, check the curve with templates to ensure the curve is accurate.

What are radial guidelines?

Radial guidelines are the development lines used to construct the shape. They enable the operator to guide the work piece through the rolls. The radial guide lines must always be aligned parallel to the top roll to avoid the work piece twisting. During cone rolling, the plate pivots so that rolling takes place along the radial guide lines. The divisions are equally spaced from the apex point at the top and bottom of the cone.

How do we mark out the radial guidelines?

The radial guidelines can be transferred to the work piece by prick punching through a template. The best way is to prick punch top and bottom for each individual radial line. Engineering chalk can be used to mark the radial guide lines from top to bottom but has a tendency to smear over time. If done and rolled straight away it should be okay.

What is the rolling sequence for a conical shape?

1. 2. Cut the pattern of the right cone to size. Preset the ends of the pattern to the desired radius.

3.

Place pattern in rolls against the angle bar.

When rolling truncated right cones, the line of truncation is part-cut before forming (and completed afterwards) or cut only after forming. The pattern can then be rolled as a frustum of a right cone and the small circumference will be guided by the angle bar.

Note Truncated lines should be on the bottom surface. The cutting line will then be outside the cone after forming 4. Adjust the top roll parallel to the bottom rolls and apply even, progressive pressure.

5.

Operate to move the pattern through the rolls. Check that the radial generator lines align with the top roll as the pattern moves through.

6.

Change the angle bar to other side, adjust pressure on the top roll and check the rolls remain parallel. Roll the pattern through to the other end and check the radial generator lines match the centreline of the top roll as they pass.

7.

Repeat steps 4 to 7 until the cone is formed.

Safety
Before using a pyramid roll, you must be able to operate it safely.

Before you start identify the position of any emergency stop switches or any other method of stopping it quickly. When rolling cones, the rolls must be stopped before the plate edge loses contact with both bottom rollers. Keep clear of rising plates. Keep your hands clear of the rollers. Do not wear gloves while working near the rollers. Make sure no one is near the machine when you engage the controls. Support large cones during rolling.

What factors must be considered in rolling conical shapes?

The following factors are vital in rolling conical shapes.

Keep radial lines parallel to the rollers. Allow for springback. Follow the rolling sequence for a conical shape as already described.

Why must the radial lines be kept parallel to the rollers?

Radial lines must be parallel to the rolls so as to prevent twisting of the final conical shape.

Why allow for springback?

Factors effecting springback

Springback is the result of the metal wanting to return to its original shape after undergoing compression and tension (stretching). When a work piece is rolled, the inside radius is squeezed together or forced into compression and the outside bend radius is pulled into tension or stretched. When the roll tension is released the work piece relaxes and returns slightly to its original shape.

Mechanical properties of the metal being rolled - certain alloyed steels have more springback than mild steel eg stainless steel. Metal thickness - the thicker the metal the less the springback. Grain direction - always roll against the grain. Size of inside radius - the larger the inside radius the more springback, as more surface area is compressed and stretched. Length of the cone - the longer the cone, the more springback.

Compensating for springback

Over rolling must occur to compensate for spring back. Generally, allow approximately 15mm over roll.

How do you remove the cone from the rolls?

7.

Re-adjust rolls parallel

1. material thickness 2. counterbalance down 3. housing 4. rolls 5. housing 6. counterbalance

Raise top roll to clear Screw the to support the top roll Remove the end Remove cylinder from Reposition the end Loosen off the top roll

Removing the formed cone from rolls

The method of removing cones from rolls is similar to that used for cylinders.

Different types of rolling machines will have variations on the end coupling. Most will drop down on one end only as shown in this hydraulically operated roll, but some may pivot sideways.

The bearing coupling (end housing) will drop down to allow for the removal of the formed shape.

How do you check cone size and shape?

Checking of each section for accuracy is done with a template, straight edge or over a layout. Before assembly of the rolled component the following must be checked:

circularity on each end straightness along edges (seams) parallel alignment of edges - no gaps or twisting.

Check the ends for circularity using a template

Check along the sides for straightness using a straight edge

Larger cones are better checked over a layout on a level plate. The concentricity of the cone can be checked by a plumb bob to find if the inside diameter of the small end is concentric with the large end.

Flat, level assembly plate

Safety

Remember when using hydraulic rolls and mechanical rolls, you must know how to operate them safely. Find out before you start where the emergency switches are and how they operate, or any other means of stopping the rolls quickly.

How do you repair under-rolled, over-rolled or twisted cylinders?

Problems will occur if the forming sequence is not properly followed.

Common errors

1. Under-roll - there is not enough curvature in the frustum of the cone or some of its sections. To repair

Re-roll the frustum of the cone making sure to follow the correct rolling sequence. Use a curving hammer over a vee block on the inside of the frustum of the cone.

2. Over-roll - too much curvature of the frustum of the cone or some of its sections. To repair

Press or use a flat hammer (flattener) over a flat block. Jack across the narrow diameter then hammer at 90 to the jack. There should always be a space between the plate and block, in line with the hammer blow, to give the metal room to move.

3. Twist - this is where the plate edges are out of alignment. It is caused by the radial forming lines not being parallel to the top roll during forming. To repair

Small amounts of twist are corrected by dogs and wedges and tack welding the seam. Large amounts of twist are corrected by re-rolling the frustum of the cone using the correct rolling sequence.

How do you assemble a conical shape?

Assembly can be done:

over a layout, or in a jig.

The method you choose will depend on:

size of assembly number to be assembled amount of tolerance, and welding process.

No matter what your choice is you will find it is helpful to use assembly aids to assist in the assembly of a structure. These could include stringlines, levels, plumb bobs, tapes/rules, clamps, bevel gauges, templates, squares, straight-edges, dogs and wedges.

Progressively check the fabrication during assembly including:

circularity of segments size of segments irregularity of cut surfaces growth in assembly lining up of centrelines (avoiding twist) staggering of seams concentricity of diameters.

What type of press do we use to press a conical shape?

The press brake is the most common press used for forming a conical shape due to its versatility. It forms straight line bends in sheetmetal and plate.

These press brakes have an adjustable blade/knife so that the depth of the stroke for a bending operation can be varied throughout operation. Some machines have CNC (computer numerical control). CNC is a computer software program which allows the depth of stroke and pressure to be programmed for any given length, thickness and diameter of material and for any bending process and shape. A wide variety of dies and knives are available.

A die is used to mould the shape. A knife is the blade that forces the metal into the die.

Examples are shown below.

What safety precautions should be observed?

No person should operate a press brake unless properly trained. Lack of training is a common cause of injury. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) must always be followed. Most press brake injuries result in fingers being severed or badly crushed. Hands can be trapped between the descending blade and the press block, or between the press bed and the sheet of metal being shaped. By law, all press brakes must have an infrared safety system. This identifies when the operator is near the machine and will slow down the blade stroke. In most cases of injury the machine is unguarded or the system installed to protect the operator is not active. Setting the press block or blade in position is particularly hazardous.

Safety checklist

Before you start check that: the mode of control is set correctly for the work to be done. the tonnage is adjusted according to the work to be done - never overpass the tooling capacity. a minimum clearance is set between the blade and the vee block when the blade is in the UP position so that the material can slide through but fingers can't. the upper and lower tools are clean.

the knife and the vee block are correctly secured. the floor around the machine is clean. all safety devices are working properly. During operation

How do we decide on distance between bend lines?

A pattern is needed to form a conical shape and this can be a full pattern or a half pattern. A conical shape is generally pressed in two halves which are assembled together at the end.

Keep your hands clear of dies. Keep your body away from moving material during forming. In particular, keep your fingers clear of the blade. Support heavy plates with the appropriate lifting equipment. Move your hands away when the plate makes contact with the blade. Your hands can be crushed if they come between the plate and the machine. Keep your body clear of the UPWARDS movement of the plate during bending. The material is likely to be forced upward and hit the top of the machine. Therefore protect your hands against being crushed and support the material from behind as shown in the photograph above. Support heavy plates with the appropriate lifting equipment.

Each half section will have six generator lines. These are called radial guidelines. If you bend on the radial guidelines only, the curve will not be smooth but a series of long flat surfaces.

If you want a smoother curve divide the distance between the radial guidelines into three divisions. Pressing along these as well will produce a smoother curve.

How do we determine vee block size?

A vee block, also known as a female die, is used in combination with a top blade or knife, to bend metal plate.

The figure below shows a multiple vee block.

Vee blocks come in various lengths. The most common is a full length that matches the length of the press brake bed. When pressing a conical shape you must select the vee block size and length to suit the material thickness and length of the object you are forming.

Selecting a suitable vee block opening

The vee block opening (W) is determined using this formula: W = 8 x thickness of plate Example 1 Using 5mm plate W = 8 x thickness =8x5 = 40mm You can use a narrower vee opening for pressing a conical shape but more tonnage per linear metre is required. Example 2 Bending to 90 degrees.

Using mild steel and a vee opening of 40mm you would need 47.8 tonnage whereas with a vee opening of 25mm you would need a tonnage of 68.4. Therefore when pressing a conical shape, the size of the vee block opening will depend on the capability of the press brake you are using. Note The recommended vee opening for materials such as stainless steel, aluminium and bisalloy is 12 x the material thickness.

How do we adjust the stroke using scrap material?

Before you begin forming a conical shape you must preset the machine's stroke and tonnage to the correct inside radius. Note: Early model press brakes may not have variable tonnage.

Setting up a press

Make sure the press blade is parallel to the vee block. Test this by putting a small strip of plate at each end of the vee block and forming a bend. If the angle of bend in each strip is the same, then the press blade is parallel with the vee block. Test strips being bent on each end of the press.

Test strips are bent on the same angle providing that the blade is parallel to the vee block.

Adjusting the stroke

To adjust the press stroke, use a piece of scrap material of the same thickness andlength, and marked with the same bend line spacing as the pattern. Press two or three spacings and then check the curve of the small and large diameters (the top and bottom diameters) with templates, matching the inside radius. Adjust if necessary and retest until the correct curve is reached. When you've finished, write down the adjustment reading for future use. Once the press has been accurately adjusted, you can start forming the cone.

Note

Adjustment stroke control is different for most press brake machines. Generally it is controlled by:

Safety

adjustable micro-trip switches, and a pressure control for adjusting the amount of force required to bend less or more.

You must have appropriate training before setting a press brake.

What is the pressing sequence?

There are two methods of pressing a conical shape:

using a half pattern and joining with two seams

using the full pattern and joining with one seam.

The half pattern method

This is most commonly used. Once the press has been correctly set, the operator simply feeds the material in and bends from one side to the other, checking every third or fourth bend to ensure that the inside radius is correct. Two halves are required.

The full pattern method

The pressing sequence for the full pattern involves:

Steps

and mid-section last.

pressing the end sections first,

1.

Start from the outside edge and form 1/3, ensuring that each bend is aligned with the radial generator line.

2.

Reverse the plate around and form the other edge 1/3 of the way in.

3.

The mid-section is formed next, with the final press on the pattern's centreline.

A disadvantage of the full pattern method

The conical shape cannot be completely formed as the top of the brake press that holds the knife gets in the way. This prevents complete closure of the conical shape so it has to be removed and pulled together. The result is that it is slightly out-of-round and has to be corrected by hammering or using hydraulic jacks after it has been tack welded.

How do we check the conical radii?

The conical radii are checked with templates.

Checking a full conical shape

Check the curve with a template

Check the diameter with an appropriate measuring tool

Measure the diameter in several places

Checking a half conical shape

Check before assembly for:

circularity on each end straightness along edges (seams) parallel alignment of edges diameter - use an appropriate measuring tool.

Figure (a) Check the ends for circularity

Figure (b) Check along the sides for straightness

Figure (c) Check for any misalignment and twisting

Figure (d) Check larger cones over a layout on a level plate. The concentricity of the cone can be checked by a plumb bob to find if the inside diameter of the small end is concentric with the large end.

What type of press do we use?

A press brake is used to form straight line bends in sheet-metal and plate. Press brakes have an adjustable blade/knife so that the depth of the stroke can be varied throughout operation. Some machines are capable of CNC - computer numerical control. CNC is a computer software program which allows the depth of stroke and pressure to be programmed for any given length, thickness and diameter of material and for any given bending process and shape. A wide variety of dies and knives are available.

What safety precautions should be observed?

No person should operate a brake press unless properly trained. Lack of training is a common cause of injury. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) must always be followed. Most brake press injuries result in fingers being severed or badly crushed. Hands can be trapped between the descending blade and the press block, or between the press bed and the sheet of metal being shaped. By law, all press brakes must have an infrared safety system. This identifies when the operator is near the machine and will slow down the blade stroke. In most cases of injury the machine is unguarded or the system installed to protect the operator is not active. Setting the press block or blade in position is particularly hazardous.

Safety checklist

Before you start check that: the mode of control is set correctly for the work to be done the tonnage is adjusted according to the work to be done - never overpass the tooling capacity a minimum clearance is set between the blade and the vee block when the blade is in the UP position so that the material can slide through but fingers can't the upper and lower tools are clean the knife and the vee block are correctly secured the floor around the machine is clean. all safety devices are working properly. During operation

Keep your hands clear of dies. Keep your body away from moving material during forming. In particular, keep your fingers clear of the blade. Support heavy plates with the appropriate lifting equipment. Move your hands away when the plate makes contact with the blade. Your hands can be crushed if they come between the plate and the machine. Keep your body clear of the UPWARDS movement of the plate during bending. The material is likely to be forced upward and hit the top of the machine. Therefore protect your hands against being crushed and support the material from behind as shown in the photograph on the left. Support heavy plates with the appropriate lifting equipment.

How do we determine vee block size?

Vee blocks
A vee block - also known as a female die - is used in combination with a top blade or knife, to bend metal plate.

The figure below shows a multiple vee block.

Vee blocks come in various lengths. The most common is a full length that matches the length of the press brake bed. When pressing a conical shape you must select the vee block size and length to suit the material thickness and length of the object you are forming.

Selecting a suitable vee block opening

Two measurements are needed for a pressing operation the vee block opening or width, and the bend radius - the minimum radius (measured to the inside curve) that you can bend the metal without damaging it.

The vee block width and bend radius can be calculated but are usually found by referring to a chart on the machine or a data sheet provided by the manufacturer.

Calculating the vee block width

If no pressing guide is available, the minimum width (W) of the vee block opening for pressing mild steel is found using this formula: W = 8 x thickness of plate Other types of metals will require a wider vee opening.

Example 1
Using 5mm plate W = 8 x thickness

=8x5 = 40mm You can use a narrower vee opening for pressing a conical shape but more tonnage per linear metre is required. This could cause the material to fracture along the outside of the bend. A larger die opening will create a larger bend radius.

Example 2
Bending to 90 degrees Using mild steel and a vee opening of 40mm you would need 47.8 tonnage whereas with a vee opening of 25mm you would need a tonnage of 68.4. Therefore when pressing a conical shape, the size of the vee block opening will depend on the capability of the press brake you are using.

Note

Recommended vee opening for stainless steel, aluminium and bisalloy is 12 x the material thickness.

Calculating the bend radius

The minimum bend radius is calculated by: Inside radius = 1.5 x thickness of plate

Example: for 5mm plate

Bend radius = 1.5 x thickness = 1.5 x 5mm = 7.5mm

Pressing charts

Data sheets from machine manufacturers give pressing information relating to:

material thickness minimum bend radius size of die opening required pressure (tonnes/lineal metre) minimum edge distance. The following chart relates to a 80 tonne hydraulic press brake. V = vee block opening IR = inside radius B = minimum flange length F = force required to bend t = material thickness

How do we adjust the stroke using scrap material?

Before you begin forming a conical shape you must preset the machine's stroke and tonnage to the

correct inside radius.

Note
Early model press brake may not have variable tonnage.

Setting up a press

Make sure the press blade is parallel to the vee block. Test this by putting a small strip of plate at each end of the vee block and forming a bend. If the angle of bend in each strip is the same, then the press blade is parallel with the vee block.

Adjusting the stroke

To adjust the press stroke, use a piece of scrap material of the same thickness, length and marked with the same bend line spacing as the pattern. Press two or three spacings and then check the curve of the small and large diameters (the top and bottom diameters) with templates, matching the inside radius. Adjust if necessary and retest until the correct curve is reached. When you've finished, write down the adjustment reading for future use. Once the press has been accurately adjusted, you can start forming the cone.

Note
Adjustment stroke control is different for most press brake machines. Generally it is controlled by:

Safety

adjustable micro-trip switches, and a pressure control for adjusting the amount of force required to bend less or more.

You must have appropriate training before setting a press brake.

What is the pressing sequence?

Once the press is accurately adjusted, you can start forming the transition. However it is important to use the correct pressing sequence. Study the diagrams below and note:

the pressing lines the numbers on these lines indicating the pressing sequence.

The diagram above shows the developed pattern. These lines should be clearly marked so they are seen easily and can't be rubbed out. Note the extra material on the curved edges. This is called the green and it is added to allow the plate to be supported by the vee block. It is not part of the job and will be removed in the final stages. The green added should be a minimum of half the vee block width.

We must increase the number of forming lines to ensure a smooth curve as shown below.

If we didn't do this we would have a series of long flat surfaces as shown below.

The pressing sequence

When forming transitions from thick material (5mm up) leave on extra material to allow for the plate not being supported on the corner of the round end of the pattern.

Press from the outside to the centre of the pattern as shown. Be careful to press on the true length development lines which are now called the forming lines to avoid twist.

The diagram below shows pressing the middle section.

Then the material is turned and pressed from the other end

After every second or third bend, check the curve with templates so that the correct curve is obtained.

How do we check the finished transitional piece?

The finished transitional shape can be checked with templates and by laying it over an identical layout on a flat surface to ensure that:

the corners are square (90 degrees) there is no twisting the round end is the correct diameter and curvature.

In the pictures above the operator is checking for twisting and out of squareness of two halves. Note the test piece on the right of the workbench which was used to set the stroke and pressure of the press brake. The diagram below shows the work piece placed over an identical layout on a flat surface.

How do we repair a twisted, out-of-square or out-of-round shape?

The following faults will occur if the forming sequence is not properly followed:

Under press - not enough curvature of the round end of the transition piece.
To fix this problem

1.

Press again, adjust stroke to give a little more so as to increase stroke, which in turn will increase the curve. If only slight, use a hammer on the inside over a vee block.

2.

Over press - too much pressing of the transition has occurred, incorrect setting of the press brake.
To fix the problem 1. Press or hammer over a flat block or anvil. There should always be a space between the plate and the block, in line with the hammer blow, to

give the metal room to move. Not very successful on thicker materials.

2.

Use a hydraulic jack or ram and place across the narrow diameter then hammer at 90 degrees to the jack.

Twist - the plate edges are out of alignment.

Twisting is caused by the pressing technique. If the material is not pressed accurately on the forming lines it will twist. To fix the problem 1. Small amounts of twist can be correct by clamping the half form to a solid metal base and tack welding to the base. Do the same to the other half, tack weld both halves together then release the tack welds to the base.

2.

Large amounts of twist are corrected by re-pressing on the correct forming lines

Why do we need to preset?

Presetting involves bending the ends of material before it is formed into a cylindrical or conical shape. Presetting is important because it ensures the product will be uniform in shape and will have a smooth transition at the seams. When a cylinder is made using pyramid rolls, the ends remain flat. This is because when the material passes through the rollers, it doesn't start to bend until after it gets to the last roller on the machine. After presetting the plate is then placed in the pyramid rolls.

What methods are used for presetting?

Presetting prior to using a pyramid roll
There are three common methods for presetting plate ends when using a pyramid roll:

Pressing

pressing shaping, and crimping

Pressing using male and female die blocks is used for mass production of cylinders of the same diameter. Pressing can also be done with a knife and vee block which is adaptable to any diameter and thickness of plate.

Shaping
Shaping is done over a curved block by applying gentle blows with a hammer until the required preset (or shape) is achieved. This can only be done on thin sheet metal.

Crimping
Crimping uses heavy set plate in pyramid rollers as

a kind of mould (see the dark shape in the diagram) to bend thin metal plate. It is used for small production runs.

Presetting with initial pinch rolling machines

Single or double initial pinch rolling machines can preset the ends of a cylindrical work piece. To preset the first end, the operator inserts the plate into the machine, which clamps it and pinches it between the top and bottom rolls. A side roll, moving diagonally towards the top roll, sets the bend radius. The operator then removes the plate from the bender, rotates the plate 180 degrees and repeats the sequence for the other end.

What is meant by green and why do we use it?

'Leaving green' is an alternative to presetting when you are using a pyramid roll. It involves leaving extra material (called 'green') to compensate for the initial flat section produced with a pyramid roll. This is later removed. If the ends are not preset, a standard pyramid roll will produce a flat section for a length equal to the distance from the centre of the bottom roll to the centre of the top roll (A). Therefore, to produce a properly formed cylinder, you can add this length or 'green' (A) to the predetermined mean circumference. The plate is rolled into a cylinder, until the flats (green) meet. The plate is taken out of the machine, and the 'green' material is removed by thermal cutting or grinding. The part formed cylinder is then returned to the pyramid roll to continue rolling the cylinder until the new ends meet. This results in a perfectly rolled cylinder.

How do we determine and check the preset shape?

Presetting (pre-bending the ends) is necessary when using parallel rolls because they produce a flat section (see A in the diagram below) at the ends. The length A is equal to half the distance between the centres of the bottom rolls.

Minimum length of preset

Measurements are taken of the distance between the centre of the top roller and the centre of the outside roller (distance A) because the pressure of the top roll will not apply until the material has reached the centre (or crown) of the outside roller. This varies depending on machine type and size.

Checking the preset shape

The preset is very important as it ensures that the ends have the correct curve and there is no flat section when they are joined. Therefore the preset must be checked and a template, or a 'set', is made to do this. Preset template a can be made of light gauge sheet metal or wood and are just under a half circle. The internal template is most commonly used.

Templates should be labelled with:

a radial dimension - the inside radius or the outside radius of the final form can be used, and the job number.

Checking the preset ends

The template is held against the material to gauge whether the curve is correct and if not the ends are adjusted accordingly ie more preset is added or the curve flattened.

In the industrial situation templates can be very large.

Why keep bend lines close when forming cylindrical or conical shapes with a press brake?
Brake press

An apprentice using the brake press If you keep the bend lines close together when you are pressing a cylindrical or conical shape you will get a smooth curve. The more pressing lines, the smoother the curve. If the bend lines are too far apart the finished piece will have a series of long flat surfaces, as shown below.

In most cases the generator lines (or development lines) become the bend lines. You can get a better curve with the press brake by dividing the space between the generator lines into thirds (or more) to generate more bend lines.

What are the methods of cutting metal before forming?

Shapes can be cut using a profile cutter, plasma cutter or guillotine or manually using an oxy acetylene set. The choice of cutting method will depend on the type of material being cut. With any of the thermal cutting processes kerf allowance must be taken into consideration. Kerf is the width of the cut; the thicker the material, the greater the width of the cut. For 5mm to 10mm thick steel, the kerf can be 2mm to 3mm. Some shapes can be cut prior to forming as the shape will not distort during the forming process. Examples include the conical frustum, square to round transition, and a basic cylinder without any truncation. Shapes with shorter and longer lengths of material, such as the truncated cylinder, will distort during pressing or rolling. Have a look at this diagram. The shaded areas of the plate are of shorter lengths which makes them weaker. The weaker areas roll up faster than those of greater resistance. This causes the cylinder to roll out of shape. Shapes that are prone to distortion during the forming process can:

diagram below, or

be partly cut as shown in the

have the cutting line marked on a rectangular plate before forming. Make sure that the cutting line will end up on the outside of the
shape. The final shape is cut after rolling or pressing.

This diagram shows the line is cut at intervals. The shape will not distort during the forming process because of the resistance of the rectangular plate during rolling. Cutting is completed after forming.

What are the methods of cutting metal after forming?

Shapes with shorter and longer lengths of material will distort when pressing or rolling, for example:

truncated cylinders truncated cones branches frustums.

To prevent distortion, the shape is placed on a rectangular plate and partly cut prior to forming. Cutting is completed after the forming process. Seams are usually located on the shortest side to minimise cutting and welding. Once the shape has been pressed or rolled, it can be tack welded and checked for accuracy. Important Make sure the cutting planes are on the outside after rolling or pressing so that it is easier to cut out the final shape. The cutting process will depend on the type of material being cut.

Steel grades are cut with oxy cutting. Stainless steel and aluminium are cut with plasma cutting.

How do we make maximum use of our material?

It is very important to use material efficiently and keep wastage to a minimum. The layout of shapes for cutting out is critical. You will need to arrange the shapes so that you make maximum use of the material. There are software programs that will do this for you. These are called nesting programs. However, it is important that you are able to layout shapes for cutting without the aid of a nesting program.

What is nesting?
The layout of shapes for cutting can be done either manually or with the aid of a nesting software program. Nesting is a term used in industry to describe how shapes are arranged prior to cutting to get the most efficient use of material. Nesting software programs are best used for multiple complex shapes. The software will calculate the best possible fit on the standard plates available.

How can we use off cuts?

Offcuts will come in various shapes and sizes. Smaller offcuts may have to be scrapped. Larger ones may be used for another project so that wastage is kept to a minimum. Offcuts should be labelled with the size and type of material, especially if it is alloyed material, and stored in a rack for future use. Nesting software programs are very useful.

They show the amount of material left over. Details of larger offcuts can be stored so that they can be identified for future projects. The nesting software is then used again to identify and store details about the offcuts from this new cutting process.

The image below shows how a software program can arrange shapes to minimise material waste.

What workshop tools are required for marking layout?

The tools used for marking layouts depend on whether you are applying the marks to:

paper eg creating a paper pattern, or metal eg creating a tin sheet template or marking straight onto the material.

Here is a list of these tools. Click on the link for each one to find out more about the tool and its application.

Tools for marking out on paper

Rule stainless steel 1m Tape measure retractable Dividers Calculator Trammels Pencils Fine point pens Protractor Chord rule Flexi-curve

Tools for marking out onto metal

Flexi-curve Rule stainless steel 1m Chord rule Tape measure retractable Scriber Dividers Calculator Trammels Fine point pens (depending on the type of material) Chalk Centre punch Prick punch Combination square Protractor Ball pein hammer

Commonly used tools

Straight edge Squares - try square, bevel square, combination square, centre square Scriber Centre punch Prick punch Ball pein hammer Mark out blue dye Chalk Chalk string line Dividers Trammels

Mark out lines

Mark out lines on metal must be clearly visible and are made with mark out blue dye or chalk. Mark out blue dye is used to clearly identify straight lines. It is applied like paint to the material and allowed to dry. Chalk is used for marking out lines on ferrous material. Chalk can be easily erased if a mistake is made. However, its big disadvantage is that it can be erased or washed away by water during the rolling process. Circles and arcs are marked out using dividers; trammels are used to mark out larger circles and arcs. Permanent marking of circle centres is done using a centre punch which has a point angle of 90 degrees. The prick punch has a point angle of 60 degrees and is used to permanently mark the outline of the shape, as shown below.

What are the techniques used in marking layout?

Marking a layout can be done directly onto the material or using a template as an overlay. The most common method involves using a template which should also give information such as:

bend lines or information for rolling if required centre lines and/or cutting planes.

Production instructions
Production instructions are placed on the material because different tradespeople may be completing the various procedures of cutting, forming and assembly.

Note

It is essential that instructions are clearly marked on the work to make sure the object is accurately fabricated. Production instructions should be marked on with a permanent marker so they will not be erased. Make sure production instructions are placed on the outside surface.

Examples of production instructions

Show dimensions on the layout Job number identification CAP (Cut after pressing/rolling) CAR (Cut after rolling) Press down (so construction and cutting lines will be on the outside after forming) Press/roll Centre lines

Paper templates
Paper templates are common, but are not strong enough for continual use. A light gauge sheet metal template is better for this purpose. The layout template is placed over the material and the shape is centre punched onto the material for identification.

Techniques used in marking layouts

Centre punch through the template to locate the bend lines and radial lines required to bend or roll. Cutting planes must also be centre punched. If the template is paper, then centre punch around the shape. Remove the template, then draw in the bend lines and radial generator lines that have been identified by the centre punch points.

Bend lines and radial generator lines must be shown because the engineer uses these to follow the contour of the shape during pressing or bending. (Prick punching around the shape will ensure that the pattern is not lost during the cutting procedure.) Any centre lines required are marked with a prick punch. In some cases, a permanent marker maybe sufficient. Production details are then written on with a permanent marker. If the shape is being marked directly onto the material without a template, a scriber and general engineering hand and marking out tools would be used to construct the shape. If the material is aluminium or stainless steel, a permanent marker should be used to mark the shape and bend lines so they are clearly seen.

Why do we often use only half templates?

When a shape is symmetrical around the centre, there is no need to use a full pattern, especially with transition pieces. When the shape is symmetrical, then a half template will be used to make two pieces. When the two halves are formed, they are joined to make a complete piece. When forming a conical shape or a transition shape using a brake press, it is not possible to press the entire shape because the press blade (or knife) prevents making multiple bends up to 360 degrees. To solve this problem, the shape is made in halves. However, large conical shapes can be rolled, but if the conical shape is too small for the rollers, then a brake press is used.

See how the top blade prevents a full circular shape from being formed.

What are the types of templates?

What is a template?
A template is a pattern or stencil that is used in cutting the metal piece or pieces required to manufacture an object. The template is marked onto the metal which can then be cut to shape and finally formed. Templates are often used for mass production in the engineering industry. They are developed by hand or computer and save time because they can be used again and again. Templates can be made of paper, sheet metal, cardboard or transferred directly onto material from a computer program known as CAM which stands for 'computer aided manufacturing'. Template development is more commonly known as 'layout development'.

What is direct layout?

Direct layout is constructing a pattern directly onto the metal plate to be formed. You will need to allow enough room on the material to develop the pattern. The example below shows the development of a conical shape which could be drawn directly onto the material.

Developing a template on a separate sheet is often preferred to direct layout so that you do not have to reconstruct the pattern if you get the same job again.

What are computer based layout software programs?

Computer software that generates layouts is available with a catalogue of shapes. These programs allow you to select a shape, enter the relevant dimensional details and material thickness and the template will be developed automatically These packages work on most computers, although sizes you can produce are limited. A plotter is also required. In some workshops, the pattern can be downloaded directly onto the material via a computer numerical profile cutter. The advantage of these programs is that they save a lot of time and effort and are very accurate.

Why learn to develop templates manually?

Learning how to develop templates manually teaches you the techniques associated with fabrication. Understanding these will help you with an emergency repair or replacement job, when you have to measure and really know what you are doing. Even when you do have a software program to assist, you have to know what information to enter to get the correct pattern.

A screen shot of a computer software package where the dimensions have been specified.

Screen shot of a full pattern developed by a computer software program.

The software can also produce multiple 3D views of the formed object.

What are the basic shapes used in metal fabrication?

The metal fabrication industry produces endless combinations of pipe work, chutes ducts, hoppers for industries such as mining, wine, oil and gas, ship building, food and beverage and the petro-chemical industry. Many different shapes need to be fabricated to cater for this enormous range of uses. The shapes are categorized in groups:

Prisms Cylindrical pipe Pyramid Conical cylinders Transition shapes (transfers from one shape to another, for example, square to round)

There are sub groups for all shapes.

Frustum

A frustum is that part of a solid shape left after a top portion is cut off with a plane parallel to the base. A frustum does not have an apex point.

Truncated shapes
Truncated shapes are those where the base is not parallel to the top. Truncation is the removal of portions of a solid at planes which are not parallel to the base or the top.

Right-angled cone
When the centre of a cylinder or pipe is not 90 degrees to the base then it is called an oblique cylinder or an oblique cone. When a conical shape has the centre 90 degrees to the base then it is called a right angled cone. See the following drawings.

Oblique cylinder and oblique cone

The centre of an oblique cylinder and an oblique cone is not 90 degrees to the base.

Here are some more examples of different shapes.

Try this quiz

Basic shapes in metal fabrication

Can you name these shapes?

Question 1
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

Truncated cone Oblique frustum Chute Oblique cylinder

Question 2
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

ectangular Oblique Oblique Truncated

to round cylinder frustum cone

Question 3
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

Conical frustum Chute Rectangular to round Truncated cone

Question 4
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

hute Rectangular Oblique Truncated

to round frustum cone

Question 5
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

Truncated cone Rectangular to round Chute runcated cylinder

Question 6
this 3D shape. Select the correct name for

Chute

Oblique frustum Truncated cylinder Conical frustum

Question 7
Select the correct name for this 3D shape

Answers
1. 2. 3. 4.

Oblique frustum Conical frustum Oblique cylinder Rectangular to round

5. 6. 7.

Rectangular to round Truncated cylinder Conical frustum

Oblique cylinder Oblique frustum Truncated cone Chute

What do we mean by true length and true shape?

The true length of a line and the true shape of an object are their actual lengths and shapes. Sometimes the true length and shape are not obvious because of the viewing angle, particularly if you are viewing a 3D object front on or on a drawing. Two views are needed to find the true length of a line or shape to overcome errors that could be caused by the viewing angle. When a shape has to be developed to make a pattern, the object must be drawn as seen in at least two views which are 90 degrees to each other in third angle projection. With most shapes, especially conical and transition shapes, there are surface areas and lines that are inclined to the horizontal and vertical planes. Therefore they are not a true length. Because the surface is inclined (leaning away or towards you) it is actually longer than what you can see. This can be easily seen with the top view, but in the front view it is a little more subtle. For example, look at this conical shape.

The line a - b is a true length The line c - b is a true length The line c - d is a true length The line a - d is a true length All other surface areas are not the true length.

How do we find true length using the appropriate rules?

If you learn these rules then you will find geometric development so much easier. Rule 1. At least two projected views or part views are required for a layout. Rule 2. If a line is parallel to the intersecting line in one view then that line is a true length in the other view. Rule 3. If a line appears as a dot in one view then it is a true length in the other view. Rule 4. To establish the true length of a line which is not a true length in either view it is necessary to lay out the length of the line from one view at right angles to the vertical height of the same line in the other view. The hypotenuse of the right angle triangle so formed is the true length. This geometric construction is referred to as the true length layout. Establishing the true length in this way is called triangulation.

The triangulation method

To find the true length of very basic conical or transition shapes these fundamental rules must be applied.

Generally two views are required. The two most common views are top and front view. Place the top view length view against the vertical height at 90 degrees.

The diagonal distance (the hypotenuse) is the true length.

Radial line method

The radial line method is also used to find the true length.

The radial line method only applies to conical shapes The radial line method requires the apex to be a workable height, ie the apex to the base of the object is within a range that can be drawn. A front view is required of the object. The slant height can be calculated. The slant height is from the base to the apex. Draw the slant height as a radius. Calculate the circumference.

The following diagrams show the radial line method. See the true length line. This method divides the base circumference into 12 equal spaces. From there you can make the pattern. This is demonstrated in the Task Construct shapes using radial lines. (See FAQ 'How do we construct a radial line stretch out pattern'.)

What do we mean by parallel line development?

Parallel line development is used to develop patterns of square, rectangular and cylindrical shapes (prisms). The method divides the surface into a series of parallel lines to determine the shape of a pattern. The top and front views are divided into twelve equal spaces. The parallel lines give us the chord lengths which are then transferred to the stretch out, which is the circumference. This is also divided into twelve equal spaces.

An example of parallel development

Truncated cylinder
The diagram below shows parallel line development. On the left is the development method for a truncated cylinder. On the right is the stretch out pattern of the shape which is then transferred onto the metal.

Where do we use parallel line development?

Parallel line development is used for the pattern development of pipe work, prisms, and any cylindrical shape. Pattern development can be marked directly onto flat metal plate. The metal is then formed to shape. Patterns are often turned into templates using paper or thin sheet steel. On formed stock pipe, the pattern becomes a wrap around template, and can be used over and over again. Often with cylindrical pipe work, the sizes are outside the range of available stock pipe. In that case, the cylinder must be formed from flat plate, using the pattern to establish the required shape.

Example

This is a truncated cylinder shown in an isometric view. Note the 12 equal spaces called chord lines.

This is a pattern layout of a truncated cylinder, also known as a stretch out or template.

How do we construct a parallel line stretch out pattern?

To construct a stretch out pattern for a truncated cylinder, we must first identify certain components of the shape. Given the top view (or base) and front view of the truncated cylinder, we can geometrically construct the two dimensional stretch out pattern (of the surface). Essentially we are 'unfolding' the cylindrical shape from three dimensions into two dimensions.

How do we construct a parallel lines stretch-out pattern? - text alternative

Step 1 Mark out reference lines using a set square.

Step 2 Identify the diameter measurement and draw a circle. In this example the diameter is 40mm.

Step 3 Use the radius of the circle to divide the circumference into 12 equal sectors. Watch how this is done.

Step 4 Label the marks 1 - 12 as shown in the diagram. Note the numbers begin on the right hand side and go in a clock-wise direction.

Step 5 Identify and mark the height of the cylinder. Here the height is 60mm.

Step 6 Determine the angle of the top of the cylinder and use a set square to mark this in. Here the angle is 45 degrees.

Step 7 Mark off the radius on both sides of the reference line to construct the sides of the cylinder. Transfer numbers 1 - 12 from the circle to the base of the cylinder. Project these points to the top of the cylinder.

Step 8 Calculate the circumference of the cylinder to determine the stretch out length of the pattern. Use the formular D.

The diameter here is 40mm. Mark out the circumference on the horizontal base line.

Step 9 Divide the length of the circumference into 12. Draw a reference line and mark on it 1/12th of the circumference. Use this to set the dividers. Splitting the circumference into halves and quarters reduces tolerance error.

Step 10 Use the dividers to mark the circumference into 12 equal divisions on the base line. Mark these divisions 1 to 12. The final division is numbered 1. Project these divisions upward at 90.

Step 11 Now develop the stretch out pattern. Transfer the length of the lines on the side view to the corresponding lines on the stretch out. Draw the top line curve of the pattern by free hand, by using material like packing cord bent to the curve or by using a flexible curve as used here.

Step 12 This final shape is the stretch out pattern of the cylindrical shape and can be cut to shape to use as a template.

Extension
The same principle shown in the demonstration can also be applied to creating a stretch out pattern for a cylindrical branch which is a common application in industry.

Cylindrical branch on the centre of another cylinder

Here are the steps required for the development of a cylindrical branch on the centre of another cylinder.

Step 1
The two views required to develop the pattern

Step 2
The branch is divided into 12 equal spaces

Note
Only half the branch shape is shown. This is because it is symmetrical about the centre.

The branch circumference is calculated and divided into 12 equal spaces

Where the 12 equal

divisions, also known as chord lines, intersect with the pipe, they are transferred parallel across onto the stretch out of the branch. This is the final shape of the branch, and the stretch out is completed.

When do you take materials allowance into consideration?

When pressing or rolling shapes you must allow for the thickness of the material. Imagine rolling a cylinder. The inside contracts and the outside stretches. However, the middle remains neutral and is therefore called the neutral axis. Likewise, when you bend or press a piece of material, the outside will stretch and the inside will contract. There will be a difference between the inside and outside measurements. Look at the diagram on the left showing a typical side view of material that has been pressed in a brake press. Note that the inside radius of the material is equal to the plate thickness. Generally, the inside radius is equal to the plate thickness. Therefore when using a brake press to press or bend any material in a vee block, you must take the inside radius into account.

Example

Press a piece of 10mm mild steel plate to 90 degrees taking the material thickness into account. The outside measurements are to be 80mm and 90mm.

Horizontal measurement Vertical measurement

Inside measurement = 80mm (outside measurement) - 10mm (thickness) = 70mm Inside measurement = 90mm (outside measurement) - 10mm (thickness) = 80mm Therefore the overall cutting length = (70 + 80) = 150mm The piece of plate 150mm long is marked either 70 mm from one end or 80 mm from the other. It doesn't matter which measurement is marked in this example because there is only one bend line.

What is meant by mean diameter?

When forming metal into a curved shape, metal fabricators must always allow for the centre measurement of the metal remaining constant. This is called the neutral axis. The outside surface stretches and the inside surface contracts. The neutral axis is better known as the mean diameter (MD).

Calculating the mean diameter

Mean diameter = inside diameter + one plate thickness (of the material used) MD = ID + T or Mean diameter = outside diameter - one plate thickness MD = OD -T

Calculating mean circumference Example

The mean circumference (MC) is also the cutting length. Use the formula: MC = MD x .( = 3.142). What length of 10mm mild steel plate is needed to form a cylinder having an outside diameter (OD) of 650mm? Calculate the mean diameter MD = OD - T = 650 - 10 = 640 Calculate the mean circumference MC = MD x = = 640 x 3.142 = 2010.624mm = 2011mm (rounded off to the nearest mm) The following diagram shows the cutting length (mean circumference) of the material.

Therefore a piece of 10mm mild steel plate, 2011mm long is required to roll up to an outside diameter (OD) of 650mm and inside diameter (ID) of 630mm.

When do we use mean diameter?

The mean diameter, also known as the neutral axis, is used whenever plate is to be rolled or formed into a curved surface, for example in pipes, tanks or cylinders.

Examples of cylindrical shapes

When do we use inside measurements?

The inside measurement is used when press brake forming, to work out the cutting length before bending. All calculations depend on the die opening and bend radius. These calculations can be found on a chart which is usually on the machine, or from a data sheet that should be with the specifications for the press brake machine. For mild steel application such as 3mm, 5mm, 6mm, and 10mm the following formula is a general guide. Die opening = 8 x material thickness (T)

Example - die opening on 5mm thick mild steel

The recommended die opening is equal to 8 x material thickness (T) which will give an inside radius equal to the material thickness. In this case, use the inside measurement to calculate the cutting length when bending material using a press brake. Die opening = 8 x material thickness (T) = 8 x 5mm = 40mm If the die opening is less than 8T, the force required to bend the material will be increased. This may cause the material to fracture along the outside bend. In some instances, a larger inside radius is required. When this occurs, the die openings will be wider. The larger radius must be calculated and included into the cutting length of the material to be pressed. Mean radius = inside radius + the material thickness The formula for working out the material allowance is: MR = MD X X bend angle 360 The die opening for any inside radius can be identified from the press brake chart.

Note

For materials such as stainless steel, aluminium, and bisalloy, the recommended die opening is 12 x the material thickness.

What do we mean by radial line development?

Radial line method
The radial line method of pattern development is used to develop patterns for objects that have a tapering form with lines converging to a common point, called the apex point. The radial line method uses a series of radial generator lines drawn from a common apex point to develop a specified pattern or shape.

Where do we use radial line development?

Radial line development is used for conical shapes, that is, where a shape converges to an apex point (at a workable distance). Shape configurations can vary a great deal as you can see in the following examples of pipework and objects.

How do we construct a radial line stretch-out pattern?

View this demonstration of making a stretch out pattern of a right cone and frustum of a right cone.

How do we construct a radial lines stretch-out pattern? - text alternative

Step 1 First establish the apex point (H).

Step 2 Draw reference lines using a set square. Mark out the measuements of the: - base (D) - 70mm - apex (H) - 100mm - frustum height (h) - 50mm

Step 3 Draw in the reference lines from the apex (H) to the base (D). Check that the frustum diameter (d) is 35mm.

Step 4 Develop the half circle representing half the bottom view.

Step 5 Set the dividers at 35mm - the radius of the base of the frustum (D). Divide the half circle into 6 equal sectors.

Step 6 Label the marks 1-12 as indicated.

Step 7 Project each of the sectors up to the base line at 90. Project these lines to the apex.

Step 8 Developing the stretch out pattern of the frustum.

Place the compass point on the apex. Set the radius to A and seing an arc as indicated. Repeat with the radius set to B.

Step 9 Draw a line from the apex to the bottom circumference, away from the base of the frustum. The intersection point will be the start for marking out the base circumference into 12 sectors.

Step 10 The frustum circumference is D = 3.14 x 70=220mm to the nearest mm. Mark this into 12 equal sectors. Calculate the length of each sector: = 220 mm 12 = 18.3 mm Draw a reference line a mark out 18.3mm. Set the dividers to this distance. Mark off the 12 divisions along the circumference.

Step 11 Project each of these to the apex to form the radial lines. The radial lines will be used in the forming process. The shape shaded in orange is the radial line stretch out pattern for the right cone frustum.

In the example above, the apex height of the frustum was given. In most instances, the apex height will not be given because the frustum might be drawn joined onto other pipes. To calculate the apex height (H) three dimensions are necessary:

height of the frustum (h) base diameter of the frustum (D) top diameter of the frustum (d)

To calculate the circumference use the formula C= D = 3.142 x 30 = 94.26mm Round up = 94.3mm

To calculate the apex height use the formula Example

The apex point is 0.

What do we mean by triangulation?

Triangulation is a geometric development process used to create patterns of conical and transition shapes. Triangulation allows you to determine the true length of a line or surface on a drawing by creating a right angled triangle. Look at the diagram below.

A right angled triangle is formed by taking the distance between two points (example C7) on the top view, placed against the vertical height (example the centre line of the front view) of the shape. Remember, the vertical height is always perpendicular (90) to the base. The diagonal line joining C7 to the point 1-7 in the true length diagram (the hypotenuse) is the true length. The true length diagram also shows the true length of C4, C5, C6, B1, B2, B3, B4, A1 and D7.

Key rules of triangulation

Rule 1. At least two projected views or part views are required for the layout. Rule 2. If a line appears as a dot in one view then that line is a true length in the other view. Rule 3.To establish the true length of a line which is not a true length in either view, it is necessary to layout the length of the line from one view at right angles to the vertical height of the same line in the other view.

Where do we use triangulation?

Triangulation is used to create patterns of conical and transition shapes such as the ones below.

Triangulation is used on any conical shape where the apex point is too far away to use radial line development, for example, a large water main changing from one diameter to a slightly smaller diameter (called a reducer). Note the transition from round to a rectangular in this example.

What do we mean by transitions?

Transitions are objects that transfer from one shape to another, such as a square shape to a round shape or rectangular shape to round shape. There are many examples of this in industry such as gas chutes, ducting systems or furnaces. Here are some examples of transition shapes.

How do we construct a transitional shape?

There is a set procedure for creating a transitional shape manually. You will need paper, dividers, trammel bar, pencils, 600mm steel ruler, metre ruler and calculator. The demonstration below shows how to construct a transitional shape.

How do we construct a triangulation stretch-out pattern? - text alternative

Step 1 First establish the reference lines.

Step 2 Develop the top view. With a set square, mark out the measurements for half the base, and label each corner (from the top left hand corner, moving clockwise) A to D.

Step 3 From the centre of this half base, draw a semicircle with radius 25mm. Check that the diameter (D) is 50mm.

Step 4 Divide the half circle into six equal spacings by placing the compass point on the three points where the semicircle intersects the reference lines and swinging small arcs (R25mm) to intersect the circle. Number the points 1 to 7 as shown.

Step 5 Using a set square, draw lines from point D on the base of the shape to points 1 through to 4 on the half circle. Next, draw lines from C on the base of the shape to points 4 through to 7. This completes (half) the top view.

Step 6 Draw the side view. First, draw a reference line. Remember, the vertical height is 50mm, and the diameter of the top is 50mm.

Step 7 The base is 70mm square. Draw lines from the base to the top. Label the base points A and B. Label the top points 1 and 7.

Step 8 Now develop the stretch out pattern for the square to round. First establish a reference line (extending to the right from point B on the side view) for the base of the stretch out pattern. Draw the vertical height of the square to round somewhere to the right of the side view, perpendicular to the base line. Now place the compass point on D in the top view. Set the radius to point 2 on the half circle. Place the compass point at the intersection of the base line and the vertical height line and swing an arc to mark the base line. Label this point 2D. Note this is the shortest distance from point D to the top of the half circle, the same length as 3D, 5C, and 6C. Now place the compass at D and set the radius to point 1 on the half circle. Transfer the compass to the intersection of the base line and the vertical height line and swing an arc to mark the base line. Label it 1D. Note this is the longer distance from point D to the top of the half diameter, the same length as 4D, 4C, and 7C. Now draw a line from the top of the vertical height line to point 2D, and then from the top to point 1D. This is called the true length diagram.

Step 9 Mark a point on the base line to the right of point 1D.

Step 10 Set the compass at the distance between D and C on the top view (as this is already true length), then transfer the distance D to C to the base line. Label the points D and C. Reset the compass to the length of the line 4D. Placing one point on D, draw an arc midway between D and C. Shift the compass to C, draw an arc to bisect the previous one. Label this point 4.

Step 11 Mark out a new short reference line for 1/12th of the circumference of the top of the square to round shape. Calculate the circumference of the top of the shape, then divide it by 12. C= D C = 3.14 x 50 = 157mm 1/12th of the circle = 157 12 = 13 mm

Step 12 Measure and mark out 13mm on the reference line. Set the compass at 13mm (1/12th circumference). Place the compass on point 4, and swing arcs to mark to the right, and to the left. Set the compass at the true length of reference line 2D. Place the compass on point D, and swing an arc to intersect the arc on the left. Label this point 3. Place the compass on C, swing an arc to intersect the arc on the right. Label this point 5. Reset the compass at 13mm, using the measure on the reference line. Place the compass on point 5 and swing an arc to the right hand side. Swing an arc to the left of point 3. Reset the compass at the length of the reference line 2D. Place the compass on point D, make a mark intersecting the arc and Label this point 2. Place the compass on C and make a mark intersecting the arc and label this point 6. Repeat the process swinging an arc R13 to the left of 2 and right of 6. This time however, reset the compass to the length of reference line 1D. Place the compass point on D, make a mark intersecting the arc and label this point 1. Place the compass on C and make a mark intersecting the arc. Label this point 7.

Step 13 Develop the half square base from point D to point A. Using the side view diagram, set the compass at the distance between B and 7. Place the compass at point 1 on the stretch out pattern, and draw an arc to the lower left. Repeat the process from point 7 to the lower right. Reset the compass to the distance between B and C on the top view diagram. Place the compass on D and make a mark intersecting the arc. Label this point A. Place the compass on C, make a mark intersecting the arc and label this point B. Using a set square or ruler, draw lines joining 1 and A; A and D; 7 and B; and B and C. Draw lines from D to 1, 2, 3, and 4. Draw lines from C to 4, 5, 6, and 7.

Step 14 Use a flexible ruler, or freehand to join points 1 to 7. This completes the stretch out half pattern for a square to round shape, using the triangulation method.