Noun

Noun is a word which names a person, a place or a thing. For example chair, table, book, New York, computer, cup, boy, John, hospital, Newton, garden, room, man, Paris, doctor, and pen are nouns because each of these words is a name of a person, a place or a thing. Examples. Chair, table, book, cup, computer, picture, (names of things) New York, Paris, Canada, Toronto, school, hospital, cinema, garden, (names of places) John, Newton, R.H Stephen, Einstein, man, boy, doctor (names of persons)

Types of Noun
There are two main types of noun.

Common Noun Proper Noun

Common Noun. Name of a common or a non-specific thing, place, or person is called common noun. Common noun refers to a non-specific or non-particular thing, place or person. For example book, pen, room, garden man, girl, road, camera, month, day, chair, school, boy, car, are common nouns because each of these nouns refers to a common thing, place or person. Proper Noun. Name of a particular or a specific thing, place or person is called proper Noun. For example BMW Car, April, Monday, Oxford University, New York, America, John, Newton, Einstein, R.H Stephen, are proper nouns because each of these nouns refers to a particular thing, place or person. If a common noun is specified it becomes a proper noun. For example day is a common noun but if it is specified like Monday or Friday, it becomes proper noun. Similarly car is a common noun but if it is specified like BMW Car, it becomes proper noun.

Use of CAPITAL LETTER for proper noun.

The first letter of proper noun is always written in capital letter. Examples. He lives in Paris. She studies in Oxford University. Author of this book is John Stephen. Laws of motion were presented by Newton The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.

Use of THE for proper noun.

The article the is used before some proper nouns. Here are some rules for the use of article the before proper nouns.

Article the is not used before the name of countries, cities, for example New York, America, Mexico, Canada, Toronto, London, Paris, America. But if the name of country or city or place expresses group of places or lands

or states, then article the will be used before it. For example, the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United States Article the is not used before the name of universities, for example Oxford University, Yale University, or Columbia University. But if the name of university is written in a order that it includes the word of then article the will be used before it, for example, the University of British Colombia, the university of Oxford, the University of Toronto. Article the is used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun, for example the New York city, the Dominion of Canada, the River Nile The is used before the names of laws, principles, theories or devices, for example, the Pythagorean Theorem, the Fahrenheit Scale, the Law of Newton, the Allais effect. But if the proper noun is used in possessive form, no article will be used, for example Newtons Laws of Motion, Hookes Law of Elasticity, Daltons Law of Partial Pressures. The is used before the names of buildings, hotels, libraries having particular names, for example the Brunel Hotel, the Lahore Museum, the Library of Congress, The is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example the Middle East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole The is usually used before the names of organizations for example, the Association of Chartered Accountants, the World Health Organization,

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns. A noun which can be counted is called countable noun. For example, "book" is countable noun because we can count it and can say one book, two books, three books and so on. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns. A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article a or an is used before singular noun but not before plural noun. If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then a is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen. If a singular noun starts with............................ (NOUN continued to NEXT PAGE)

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns.
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun. Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens or more pens. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns. Singular and Plural noun (Countable Noun) A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article a or an is used before singular noun but not before plural noun. If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then a is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen. If a singular noun starts with a vowel letter or with consonant which sounds like vowel in that word, an is used before it i.e. an apple, an umbrella, an onion, an hour. Plural noun (Countable Noun) Plural noun means more than one person, place or thing. Word chair is a singular noun but word chairs is plural noun.

Plurals are usually formed by adding s or es to singular noun for example bookbooks, catcats, box boxes, taxtaxes. If a word ends with y, the y is changed to I then es is added to make it plural, for example, babybabies, ladyladies. There may be some exceptions. Some plural are formed in different ways for example, manmen, childchildren, leafleaves, wifewives, footfeet, tootteeth, datumdata, basisbases. Such plurals are called irregular plural forms. Some nouns have same plural and singular form, for example, sheepsheep, deerdeer, swineswine.

Uncountable Nouns.
Uncountable noun refers to substances which cannot be counted. For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one water or two water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are called uncountable noun. Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty, courage, weather, music, preparation, warmth, wheat are examples of uncountable nouns.

Use of Uncountable Nouns.

Uncountable nouns are usually treated as singular noun for auxiliary verbs in sentence but articles a or an are usually not used before uncountable nouns. Examples. Water maintains its level. Necessity is the mother of invention His preparation was not good. The Weather is very pleasant today. This information is very helpful in solving the problem. The warmth of sun causes evaporation of water. Uncountable nouns may be used as countable noun when it refers to an individual thing. For example life is uncountable noun but it be used as countable noun if refers to individual, lives. Example. It was feared that two lives had been lost. We can also use word like some, any, no, little, more etc before uncountable nouns if needed in sentence. Examples. They have no information about the accused. There is little milk in the glass.

Changing Uncountable nouns into countable nouns.

We can change uncountable noun into countable noun if we specify a unit or measuring standard for it. For example water is an uncountable noun but we can make it countable by saying one glass of water or two glass of water etc. In this example we selected a unit that is glass. We can also say one litre of water or one cup of water etc. By selecting such units or measuring standards we can change uncountable noun in to countable which can be counted in terms of numbers. Examples. Uncountable countable Bread a piece of bread. Wheat a grain of wheat. Milk a glass of milk Information a piece of information

Verb
Verb is a word which shows action or state of something. Examples. Write, run, eat, drink, catch, clean, speak, laugh, weep, are some verbs He is writing a letter. In the above example, the verb write tells us about the action (writing) of the subject (he). A verb has its subject in sentence and verb tells us what its subject does, did or will do. Verbs describe action or state. Most verbs describe action, such verbs are called dynamic verb, for example write, eat, run, speak. Some verbs describe state of something, such verbs are called stative verb and are not usually used in continuous tense for example be, impress, please, surprise, belong to, consist of, resemble, seem Examples. He works in a factory(action) I boughta computer. (action) John seems happy. (state) He resembles his brother (state) Some verbs can be used as dynamic verb as well as stative verb. Example. She looks very beautiful. (look as stative verb) She looked at black board. (look as dynamic verb)

Forms of verb according to tense or time of action.

Verb has three forms according to tense.

Base form 2. Past Simple 4. Past participle

For example, gowentgone. Go is base form, went is past simple form, and gone is past participle form. These three form may also be named as 1st form, 2nd form and 3rd form of verb, which are denoted by V1, V2 and V3 respectively. ing is added to base form verb to make present participle which can be used with auxiliary verb to be in continuous tense, for example, gogoing, eateating, laughlaughing.

Formation of past simple and past participle

On the basis formation of past simple and past participle, verb is divided into

Regular verbs Irregular verbs

Regular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and past participle form by adding -ed to their base form, such verbs are called regular verbs, for example laughlaughedlaughed, looklookedlooked. Some examples Verb Base form or V1 Past simple or V2 Past participle or Present participle

V3 To advise To allow To enjoy To rain To smile advise allow enjoy rain smile advised allowed enjoyed rained smiled advised allowed enjoyed rained smiled Advising Allowing Enjoying Raining Smiling

Irregular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and participle in different ways for example, buyboughtbought, eatate eaten, such verbs are called irregular verbs. Some examples Past participle or V3 known gone drunk held written

Verb To know To go To drink To hold To write

Base form or V1 know go drink hold wriite

Past simple or V2 knew went drank held wrote

Present participle Knowing Going Drinking Holding Writing

Some verbs remain same in past simple and past participle. Some example Past participle or Present participle V3 cut shut spread put read Cutting Shutting Spreading Putting reading

Verb To cut To shut To spread To put To read

Base form or V1 cut shut spread put read

Past simple or V2 cut shut spread put read

Main Verbs and Auxiliary or Helping verbs

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb). Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e. write, buy, eat etc.

Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence, according a specific tense, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc. (VERB continued to NEXT PAGE)

Main Verbs and Helping verbs (Axilliary)

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb). Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e. write, buy, eat etc. Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence (according to a specific tense) and give us information about the time of action expressed by main verb, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc. Main verb has real meaning and tells more about action while helping verb has no (or little) meaning if it is alone but it adds time information about action if used with main verb to specify the tense or time of the main verb. The examples below will help in better understanding. She is eating an apple. (eat is main verb while is is helping verb) She was eating an apple. (eat is main verb while was is helping verb) The main verbs in these sentences eat convey the information about the action which is done on an apple, while the helping verbs in these sentences "is, and was" tells us the about the time of action by referring to specific tense. In first sentence with helping verb "is" action (eating an apple) is being done right now in the present time while in the second sentence with hepling verb "was" action (eating an apple) was being done in past. It means the MAIN VERB CONVEYS the meaning of action with a little information about its time, but the HELPING VERB (also called auxilliary Verb) tell us more about the time of action. Helping verbs and main verbs together make a structure of sentence of a specific tense (action and its time) Use of helping verbs. There are three primary helping verbs, be, do, and have, which are majorly used in tenses.

Be (am, is, are). Forms of be are used for continuous tenses.

Example. She is laughing. (Present Continuous tense)

Have (have, has, had). Forms of have are used in perfect tense.

Example. He has completed his work. (Present prefect tense) He had bought a car. (Past perfect tense)

Do(do, does, did). Forms of do are used in indefinite(simple) tenses i.e. present simple tense or past simple tense.

Example. They do not play chess. (Present simple tense) I did not see him. (Past simple)

Modal Verbs (Modal auxiliaries)

Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as ability, possibility, intention or necessity. Examples.

Can, could (ability) May might (possibility) Will, shall, would (intention) Should (necessity) Must (necessity) Ought to

Modal verbs can be used before main verb as helping verbs. Examples I can play violin. It may rain today. You must learn the test-taking strategies. I will call you.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Transitive Verbs.
A verb which needs to have object in sentence is called transitive verb. Transitive verbs should have an object in sentence because without subject it does not covey complete meaning. Example. He bought ______. There should be some object in this sentence for verb buy. Without an object the verb bought does not give complete meaning. To make it more meaningful we use some object for verb bought i.e book or computer or car. He bought a book. or He bought a computer. or He bought a computer. More examples. John is eating a mango. He has completedhis work. I caught a bird in bushes. She wrote a story.

Intransitive sentence.
A verb which does not need to have object in sentence is called intransitive. Intransitive verb can give complete meaning with an object in sentence for it. Example. He slept. She is laughing. It has rained. He is running. They arrived.

Adjective
Adjective is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a noun or pronoun. For example, tall man, old house, red car. The words tall, old, red are adjectives which give more information about nouns man, house, and car in these examples. More than one adjective can also be used for a single noun in sentence. Examples. The beautiful girl entered into the room. The tall, beautiful girl entered into the room. The tall, thin, beautiful girl entered into the room. The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room. An adjective gives information about the colour, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or personal traits of a noun or pronoun. Some examples.

White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives because they mention the colour of noun or pronoun. Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe physical characteristic of a noun or pronoun. Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and they describe the personal traits of a noun or pronoun.

Use of adjective in sentence.

Adjective is used in sentence at two places depending upon the structure of sentence.

Before noun After some verbs (After stative verbs like seem, look, be (when used as stative verb), feel etc)

Use of adjective before noun (Examples):

He ate a delicious mango. She bought a red car. A fat man was running in the street. I saw a cute baby. I dont like hot tea. They live in a small home. Poor cant afford expensive clothes. Severe headache and fever are symptoms of malaria. He is facing a difficult problem. Use of adjective after verbs. Adjectives may be used after stative verbs (i.e. seem, look, sound, taste, appear, feel, be). Adjective are used after such verbs which behaves like stative verbs. For example, Iron is hot Hot is adjective in the above sentence which comes after is and is behaves like a stative verb in this

sentence. Hot after verb is but it tells us about the noun (subject) iron Examples. Your problem seems difficult. That book was good. This pizza tastes delicious. The story sounds interesting. He is stupid. The man became angry. She looks attractive.

Degrees of Adjectives and their use.

There are three degrees of adjectives. 1. Positive Adjective 2. Comparative Adjective 3. Superlative Adjective Some Examples: Positive Big Great Short Old Large Happy Lucky Heavy Beautiful Horrible Good Bad Little Many Bigger Greater Shorter Older Larger Happier Luckier Heavier More beautiful More horrible Better Worse Less More Comparative Biggest Greatest Shortest Oldest Largest Happiest Luckiest Heaviest Most beautiful Most horrible Best Worst Least Most Superlative

(ADJECTIVE continued to NEXT PAGE) See Use of Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Use of comparative adjective.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to another thing (one thing). It makes comparison between two things (only two things not more than two). Word than is mostly used after comparative adjective but sometimes other words to may be used after comparative adjective. See the following examples. Examples. She is A cup is He is Chinese is more Paris is more beautiful than New York. taller smaller junior than to than Mary. glass. me. English.

than difficult

Use of Superlative adjective.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to other things (many things). It makes comparison among things more than two. Superlative is the highest degree of a thing in comparison to other things. A superlative adjective means that a object is surpassing all others (things in comparison) in quality or characteristic. For example, John is the most intelligent student in his class. It means John is surpassing all other students in his class and no other student in his class is as intelligent as John. Article the is used before superlative degree. In or of etc is used after the superlative and modifying noun in sentence. Examples. Bills Gate is Brunel is the Mount Everest is She is the Our generation His house is The winter is the coldest time of year. the most the is the richest beautiful highest tallest the biggest person hotel mountain girl most in in in in in the world. England. world. class. modern. street.

Pronoun
Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she, it, they, his, her, him its etc. Example. John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a lot. He is making preparation for examination. He will get high marks examination. In the above paragraph pronoun he is used instead of noun John. If we do not use pronoun in above paragraph we will have to use the noun John again and again in each sentence. So, the purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.

Examples. He, she, it, they, you, I, we, who, him, her, them, me, us, whom, his, its, their, your, mine, our and whose, myself, himself, herself , yourself, which, this, that these, those, are the pronouns which are mostly used. Pronoun can be divided into following groups.

Personal Pronouns: e.g. I, you, He, she, it, they, who, me, him, her, them, whom Possessive Pronouns: e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, Reflexive Pronouns: e.g. myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, ourselves, themselves Reciprocal Pronoun: e.g. each other, one another Relative Pronouns: e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that Demonstrative Pronoun: e.g. this, these, that, those

Types of Pronoun
There five types of pronoun 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Personal Pronoun Possessive Pronoun Reflixive Pronoun Relative Pronoun Demonstrative Pronoun

Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group. Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you), or the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them).

Examples.
(PRONOUN continued to NEXT PAGE)

Types of Pronoun
There five types of pronoun 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Demonstrative Pronoun Personal Possessive Reflixive Relative Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun

Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group. Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you), or the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them).

Example. He helps poor. The pronoun he in above sentence describes a person who helps poor. Use of Personal Pronouns.

Personal Pronoun Namber Person Subject

1st Person Singular 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person Plural 2nd Person 3rd Person I You He, She, It We You They

Object
Me You Him, Her, It Us You Them

Examples. She They He It We The I He Did you go to home?

sent

are love teacher met

is is me

playing our appreciated him

gave

her

intelligent chess. letter. raining. country. them. yesterday. gift.

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or ownership or relationship of a thing/person to another thing/person. e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers, Example. This book is mine. The pronoun mine describes the relationship between book and a person (me) who possesses this book or who is the owner of this book.

Namber
Singular

Person
1st Person

Possessive Pronoun
Mine

2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person Plural 2nd Person 3rd Person

Yours Hers, his, its Ours Yours Theirs

Examples. That car Your book is The pen on The smallest The voice The car is I have lost my They received your letter. Did you received theirs.

old. the cup camera. ours

is Mine table is May

is I not

is is

use

hers. new. mine. yours. hers. theirs. yours?

Note: Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive pronouns. Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both possessive adjective and possessive show possession or ownership, but possessive adjective is used (with noun) to modify the noun while Possessive pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun. Examples. This is my book. (Possessive adjective: my modifies the noun This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: mine is used instead of noun to whom the book belongs) (Types of Pronoun Continued to NEXT PAGE) See "Reflixive, Relative and Demonstrative Prounouns

book)

Reflexive Pronoun.
Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subjects action affects the subject itself. e.g himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itself are reflexive pronouns. Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction between the subject and an object.

Namber
Singular

Person
1st Person 2nd Person

Subject
I You

Reflive Pronoun
Myself Yourself

3rd Person 1st Person Plural 2nd Person 3rd Person

He, she, it We You They

Himself, Herself, Itself Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

Examples. I looked at myself in the mirror. You should think about yourself. They prepared themselves for completion. She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize. He bought a car for himself. He locked himself in the room. He who loves only himself is a selfish. Note: Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or object. If a reflexive pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an object, it is called Intensive Pronoun. Usage and function of intensive pronoun are different from that of reflexive pronoun. For example, she herself started to think about herself. In the above sentence the first herself is used as intensive pronoun while the second herself is used as reflexive pronoun. See the following examples of intensive pronouns. Examples. (Intensive Pronouns) I did it myself. OR. I myself did it. She herself washed the clothes. He himself decided to go to New York. She herself told me. Reciprocal Pronouns. Reciprocal Pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects reciprocate to the other. or Reciprocal pronouns are used when two subjects act in same way towards each other, or, more subjects act in same way to one another. For example, A loves B and B love A. we can say that A and B loves each other. There are two reciprocal pronouns

Each other One another.

Examples. John and Marry are talking to each other. The students gave cards to one another. The people helped one another in hospital. Two boys were pushing each other. The car and the bus collided with each other. The students in the class greeted one another.

Relative Pronouns.

Relative Pronoun describes a noun which is mentioned before and more information is to be given about it. Or Relative pronoun is a pronoun which joins relative clauses and relative sentences. For example, It is the person, who helped her. In this sentence the word who is a relative pronoun which refers to the noun (the person) which is already mentioned in beginning of sentence (It is the person) and more information (he helped her) is given after using a relative pronoun (who) for the noun (the person). Similarly, in above sentence the pronoun who joins two clauses which are it is the person and who helped her. Examples. The most commonly used five relative pronouns are, who, whom, whose, which, that. Who is for subject and whom is used for object. who and whom are used for people. Whose is used to show possession and can be used for both people and things. Which is used for things. That is used for people and things. Examples. It is the girl who got first position in class. Adjective is a word that modifies noun. The man whom I met yesterday is a nice person. It is the planning that makes succeed. The boy who is laughing is my friend. It is the boy whose father is doctor. The car which I like is red.

Demonstrative Pronouns.
Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a thing or things. e.g. this, that, these, those, none, neither These pronouns point to thing or things in short distance/time or long distance/time. Short distance or time: This, these. Long distance or time: That, those. Demonstrative pronouns this and that are used for singular thing while these or those are used for plural things. Examples This is black. That is heavy. Can you see these? Do you like this? John brought these. Those look attractive. Have you tried this. See "Personal and Possessive Pronoun"