1

1. COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction
The intention of this chapter is to lay the groundwork for the study of electric power
systems. This is done by developing some basic tools involving concepts, definitions, and some
procedures fundamental to electric power systems. The chapter can be considered as a simple
review of topics that will be utilized throughout this work. We start by introducing the principal
electrical quantities that we will deal with in subsequent chapters.
1.2 Power Concepts
1.2.1 Single-Phase Systems
The electric power systems specialist is in many instances more concerned with electric
power in the circuit rather than the currents. To study steady-state behavior of circuits, some
further definitions are necessary. Consider a sinusoidal voltage, v(t) in given by
( ) ( ) t V t v
m
cos (1.1)
( ) ( ) t I t i
m
cos (1.2)
Note that in this case, the current lags the voltage by an angle . The instantaneous power is
defined as
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

t I t V t p
t i t v t p
m m
cos cos
(1.3)

P
V
I
V I cos
t

Figure 1.1. Current, Voltage, and Power Plotted Versus Time.
The angle in these equations is positive for current lagging the voltage and negative for current
leading the voltage. Using the trigonometric identity
2
( ) ( ) [ ] + + cos cos cos cos
2
1
,
the instantaneous power can be written as:
( ) ( ) [ ] + t
I V
t p
m m
2 cos cos
2
(1.4)
A more useful quantity is the average power that is being delivered. This can be obtained by
averaging the instantaneous power over a specified time-period, typically for one cycle. Since
the average of ( ) t 2 cos is zero, through one complete cycle, the average power, P,
becomes
cos
2
m m
I V
P (1.5)
It is more convenient to use the effective (rms) values of voltage and current than the maximum
values. Substituting
rms m
V V 2 and
rms m
I I 2 , we get
cos
rms rms
I V P (1.6)
where, cos() is called the power factor (PF).
Lagging power factor means the current lags the voltage by an angle , see Figure 1.2.
Leading power factor means the current leads the voltage by an angle , see Figure 1.3.
I
I sin

V
I cos
I
I sin

V
I cos

Figure 1.2. Phasor Diagram for Figure 1.3. Phasor Diagram for
Lagging Power Factor. Leading Power Factor.
COMPLEX POWER
If the phasor expressions for voltage and current are known, the calculation of real and
reactive power is accomplished conveniently in complex form. For a certain load or part of a
circuit, the rms values of the voltage drop and the current flow are expressed as:
I I V V and 0
It is common convention in the electric power industry to set the voltage angle as the angular
reference. The complex power or the apparent power S is defined as the product of voltage
times the conjugate of current, or

sin cos
*
I V j I V S
I V I V S
+

(1.7)
where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. Equation (1.7) can be written as:
( ) VA Q j P S + (1.8)
where
3
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) VAr I V Q
W I V P

sin
cos


(1.9)
The power factor is therefore:
S
P
Q P
P
P
Q

1
]
1

,
_

2 2
arctan cos cos (1.10)
POWER TRIANGLE
Equation 1.8 suggests a graphical method of obtaining the overall P, Q, and phase angle,
, for several loads in parallel. A power triangle can be drawn for an inductive load as shown in
Figure 1.4. The signs of P and Q are important in knowing the direction of the power flow, that
is, whether power is being generated or absorbed when a voltage and current are specified.
S = V I
*
Q = V I sin

P = V I cos

Figure 1.4. Power Triangle for an Inductive Load.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.5 with the following parameters:
R = 0.5 L = 2.122 mH
C = 1600 F V = 1000 V
R
L
C
+
-
+
-
V I
2
I
1
I
S

Figure 1.5. Circuit of Example 1.1.
Find the following: (a) the source current, (b) the active, reactive, and apparent power
into the circuit, (c) the power factor of the circuit.
a) source current
( )( )
( ) ( )( )( )
A 8 . 27 5 . 63 A 90 3 . 60 A 0 . 58 0 . 106
A 90 3 . 60 F 10 6 . 1 s / r 377 V 100
A 0 . 58 0 . 106
H 10 122 . 2 s / r 377 5 . 0
V 0 100
2 1
3
2
3 1
+ +


+

I I I
j C j V I
j L j R
V
I
S

4
b) power flows
( )( )
Var 2962
W 5617
VA 2962 5617
VA 8 . 27 6350 A 8 . 27 5 . 63 V 0 100
*

+

Q
P
j S
I V S

c) power factor
( ) ( ) lagging 88 . 0 8 . 27 cos cos
8 . 27

PF

1.2.2 Three-Phase Systems
The major assumption of all the electric power presently used is generated, transmitted,
and distributed using balanced three-phase voltage systems. Three-phase operation is preferable
to single-phase because a three-phase system is more efficient than a single-phase system, and
the flow of power is constant.
A balanced three-phase voltage system is composed of three-single phase voltage sources
having the same magnitude and frequency but time-displaced from one another by 120 of a
cycle as shown in the phasor diagrams of Figure 1.6.
120
120
120
V
A
V
B
V
C
I
A
I
B
I
C
120
120
120

Figure 1.6. Phasor Diagrams of a Balanced Three-Phase System.
There are two possible connections of loads and sources in three-phase systems: wye-
connection and delta-connection. Figure 1.7 shows the two types of connections for three-
identical impedances.
Because of the connections, new voltages and current quantities can be defined. Starting
with the voltage, the line voltage or line-to-line voltage is that quantity between two supply lines
or load terminals. For voltage variables, line-to-line quantities have subscripts with two phases
(i.e., ab, bc, or ca). The line-to-neutral or line-to-ground voltage is that quantity between a
supply line and the neutral or ground node of the circuit. The voltage variables for these have
subscripts of only one phase or one phase and n for neutral or g for ground. For currents, a
similar convention is used. A current flowing through an impedance or source between two lines
is given a double subscript notation denoting the two phases. A current flowing though an
impedance or source between a line and the neutral point may be either a single subscript or one
followed by an n. A line current flowing from a source to a load may be a single or a double
5
subscript notation denoting the particular phase or the symbols representing the nodes at each
end of the line (i.e., a or Aa).
Z Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
n
I
a
I
c
I
b
I
a
I
c
I
ab
I
ca
I
bc
I
b
V
ca
V
ca
V
an
c
b
c b
a a

Figure 1.7. (a) Wye-Connected Load (b) Delta-Connected Load
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RELATIONS IN THE WYE CONNECTION
The voltage appearing between any two of the line terminals a, b, and c have different
relationships in magnitude and phase to the voltages appearing between any one terminal and the
neutral point n. The set of voltages V
ab
, V
bc
, and V
ca
are called the line voltages, and the set of
voltages V
an
, V
bn
, and V
cn
are referred to as the phase voltages. Analysis of a phasor diagram
provides the required relationships.
30
V
an
= V
p
0
V
bn
= V
p
-120
V
cn
= V
p
120 V
ab
= 3 V
p
30
V
ca
= 3 V
p
150
V
bc
= 3 V
p
-90

Figure 1.8. Phasor Diagram of the Phase and Line Voltages of a Wye-Connection.
The effective values of the phase voltage are shown in Figure 1.8 as V
an
, V
bn
, and V
cn
.
Each has the same magnitude, and each is displaced 120 from the other two phasors. The
relation between the line voltage and the phase voltage at the terminal a and b can be written as:
6



30 3
120 0
p
p p
bn an ab
V
V V
V V V
(1.11)
Similarly,


150 3
90 3
p ca
p bc
V V
V V

Thus the relation between line-to-line voltage, V
L
and phase voltage V
p
for a balanced wye-
connected, three-phase voltage system is
+ 30 3
p L
V V (1.12)
The current flowing out of a line terminal is the same current that is flowing through the
phase terminal. Thus the relation between the line current I
L
and phase current I
p
for a wye-
connected, three-phase system is
p L
I I (1.13)
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE RELATIONS IN THE DELTA CONNECTION
Consider now the case when three single-phase sources are rearranged to form a three-
phase delta connection as shown in Figure 1.9. It is clear from the circuit shown that the line and
phase voltages are the same. Thus:
p L
V V (1.14)
I
a
I
b
I
ab
I
ca
I
bc
I
c
c b
a
V
ab

Figure 1.9. Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Source.

The phase and line currents, however, are not identical and the relationships between them can
be obtained as:
7



120
120
0
p ca
p bc
p ab
I I
I I
I I

Also, from Figure 1.9, the relation between the line and phase currents can be obtained as:


150 3
0 120
p
p p ab ca a
I
I I I I I

Similarly,


90 3
30 3
p c
p b
I I
I I

The phasor diagram in Figure 1.10 illustrates these relations. Thus the relation between line and
phase currents for a balanced delta-connected system is:
+ 30 3
p L
I I (1.15)
Note that in the equations above, V
L
, V
p
, I
L
, and I
p
are the rms or effective values of
voltages and currents.
I
ab
= I
p
0
I
bc
= I
p
-120
I
ca
= I
p
120 I
b
= 3 I
p
30
I
ba
= - I
ab
I
a
= 3 I
p
150
I
c
= 3 I
p
-90

Figure 1.10. Relation between Phase and Line Currents in a Delta Connection.
POWER RELATIONSHIPS
Assume that a balanced three-phase voltage source is supplying a balanced load. The
three sinusoidal phase voltages can be written as:
( )
( )
( ) +


120 sin 2 ) (
120 sin 2 ) (
sin 2 ) (
t V t V
t V t V
t V t V
p c
p b
p a

with the currents given by
8
( )
( )
( )


+


120 sin 2 ) (
120 sin 2 ) (
sin 2 ) (
t I t I
t I t I
t I t I
p c
p b
p a

where is the phase angle between the current and voltage in each phase or the power factor
angle.
The three-phase power can be defined as:

cos cos cos

3
+ +
c c b b a a
I V I V I V P
Using a trigonometric identity, we get the following:
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { }

+ + + 240 2 cos 240 2 cos 2 cos cos 3

3
t t t I V P
p p

The summation of the last three terms, in the above equation, is zero. Thus the three-phase
power can be obtained as:
( )

cos 3
3 p p
I V P (1.16)
In wye-connected systems,
L p
I I and 3
L p
V V , and in delta-connected systems,
3
L p
I I and
L p
V V . Thus, the power equation, Equation 1.16, reads in terms of line
quantities:
( )

cos 3
3 L L
I V P (1.17)
Note that Equations 1.16 and 1.17 apply for both wye- and delta-connected systems.
COMPLEX POWER
The above analysis can be extended to include the reactive power, Q, or to get the
apparent power, S, for a three-phase system.

L L
p p
I V
I V S
3
3
*
3
(1.18)
If 0
p p
V V and
p p
I I , then

p p
I V S 3
3

or in complex notation:
( )

3 3
3
sin cos 3
jQ P
j I V S
p p
+
+

where

cos 3 cos 3
3 L L p p
I V I V P (1.19)

sin 3 sin 3
3 L L p p
I V I V Q (1.20)
9
EXAMPLE 1.2
A wye-connected, balanced three-phase load consisting of three impedances of 1030
each as shown in Figure 1.11, is supplied with a balanced set of line-to-neutral voltages:



120 220
240 220
0 220
V V
V V
V V
cn
bn
an

a) Calculate the phasor currents in each line, b) calculate the line-to-line phasor voltages and
show the corresponding phasor diagram, and c) calcualte the apparent power, active power, and
reactive power supplied to the load.
Z = 10 30
Z
Z
n
I
a
I
c
I
b
V
an
= 220V 0
c
b
a

Figure 1.11 Load Connection for Example 1.2.
a) The phase currents of the loads are obtained as:

90 22
30 10
120 220
210 22
30 10
240 220
30 22
30 10
0 220
A
V
I
A
V
I
A
V
I
cn
bn
an

b) The line voltages are obtained as



30 3 220
240 220 0 220
V
V V
V V V
b a ab

or
10
( )

+
+
30 3 220
30 0 3 220
30 3
V
V
V V
an an ab


Similarly,
( )

+
+
90 3 220
30 240 3 220
30 3
V
V
V V
bn bn bc


( )

+
+
150 3 220
30 120 3 220
30 3
V
V
V V
cn cn ca


30
V
an
= 220V 0
V
ca V
ab
= 220 3 V 30 V
cn
V
bn
V
bc

Figure 1.13. Relation between Phase and Line Voltages in a Wye-Connection.
c) The powers are given by:
( )( )
VAr Q
W P
VA j
A V
I V I V S
an an p p
0 . 7260
69 . 12574
0 . 7260 69 . 12574
30 0 . 14520 30 22 0 220 3
3 3
3
3
3

11
EXAMPLE 1.3
A delta-connected, balanced three-phase load consisting of three impedances of
1030 each as shown in Figure 1.13, is supplied with a balanced set of line-to-line voltages:
V 150 220 3
V 90 220 3
V 30 220 3



ca
bc
ab
V
V
V

a) Calculate the phasor voltage across each phase load, b) calculate the phase and line currents
and show the corresponding phasor diagram, and c) calculate the apparent power, active power,
and reactive power supplied to the load.
Z Z
Z
I
a
I
c
I
ab
I
ca
I
bc
I
b
V
ca
c
b
a
V
ab
V
ca

Figure 1.13 Load connection for example 1.3.
a) For a delta connected load,
V 150 220 3
V 90 220 3
V 30 220 3

ca
bc
ab
LL phs
V
V
V
V V

b) The phase currents in each of the impedances are:
A 120 22 3
A 240 22 3
A 0 22 3
30 10
V 30 220 3

ca
bc
ab
I
I
I

The line currents can be obtained as:
A 30 66 120 22 3 0 22 3

ca ab a
I I I

12
or
( )

30 66 30 0 3 22 3 30 3
30 3
A A I I
I I
ab a
p L

Similarly,


90 66 30 3
210 66 30 3
A I I
A I I
ca c
bc b

-30
I
ab
= 3 220 A
I
b
I
a
= 66-30 A
I
bc
I
ca
I
c

Figure 1.14 Relation between Phase and Line Currents in a Delta Connection.
c) The apparent, active, and reactive powers are computed.
( )( )
VAR 0 . 21780
W 04 . 37724
VA 0 . 21780 04 . 37724
VA 30 43560 0 22 3 30 220 3 3
3 3
3
3
3

Q
P
j
I V I V S
ab ab p p

g
1.3 Power System Representation
A major portion of the modern power system utilizes three-phase as circuits and devices.
A balanced three-phase system is solved as a single-phase circuit made of one line and the
neutral return. Standard symbols are used to indicate the various components. The simplified
one-line diagram is called the single-line diagram. From the one-line diagram the impedance, or
reactance, diagram can be conveniently developed, as shown in the following section. A further
advantage of the one-line diagram is in the power flow studies. The one-line diagram rather
becomes second nature to power system engineers as they attempt to visualize a widespread
complex network.
13
generator or motor
transformer
transmission line
oil circuit breaker
air circuit breaker
static load
delta connection
ungrounded wye connection
grounded wye connection

Figure 1.15. Symbolic Representation of Elements of a Power System.
Using the symbols in Figure 1.15, a section of a one-line diagram of a power system is
shown in Figure 1.16.
G
1
G
2
M

Figure 1.16. A One-Line Diagram of a Portion of a Power System.
1.3.1 Equivalent Circuit and Reactance Diagram
We note from Figure 1.16 that the power system components are: generators,
transformers, transmission lines, and loads. Equivalent circuits of these components may then be
interconnected to obtain a circuit representation for the entire system. In other words, the one-
line diagram may be replaced by an impedance diagram or a reactance diagram (if resistances are
neglected).
Thus, corresponding to Figure 1.16, the impedance and reactance diagrams are shown in
Figures 1.17(a) and 1.17(b), respectively, on a per phase basis. In the equivalent circuit of the
components in Figure 1.17(a) is based on the following assumptions:
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an inductive
reactance. The internal resistance of the generator is negligible compared to the
reactance.
2. The motor load is inductive.
3. The static load has a lagging power factor.
4. A transformer is represented by a series impedance on a per phase basis.
14
5. The transmission line is of medium length and can be represented by a T section.
The reactance diagram, shown in Figure 1.17(b), is drawn by neglecting all the
resistances, static loads, and capacitances of the transmission line. Reactance diagrams are
generally used for short-circuit calculation, whereas the impedance diagram is used for power-
flow studies.
Transmission Line Transformer Transformer Motor &
Static Load
Generators

(a) Impedance Diagram
Transmission Line Transformer Transformer Motor &
Static Load
Generators

(b) Corresponding Reactance Diagram
Figure 1.17. Electrical Diagrams of the System Illustrated in Figure 1.16.
1.4 Per-Unit Representation
The per-unit (pu) system is used extensively in power system calculations. The
representation simplifies the vast scaling of sizes from super-large generation and transmission
networks to the industrial distribution system or a residential load. The definition of the per-unit
value of any quantity is given as:
dimension same the of value base
value actual
value pu (1.21)
In any electrical network, a minimum of four base quantities is required to define completely a
per-unit system: voltage, current, power, and impedance (or admittance).
power base
power actual
power unit per (1.22)
15
voltage base
voltage actual
voltage unit per (1.23)
current base
current actual
current unit per (1.24)
impedance base
impedance actual
impedance unit per (1.25)
If any two of these quantities are chosen arbitrarily, the other two become fixed. For example,
selecting base values for voltage and power fixes the base values for current and impedance.
Therefore, on a per phase basis the following relationships hold:
voltage base
power base
current base (1.26)
current base
voltage base
impedance base (1.27)
EXAMPLE 1.4
Calculate the base impedance and base current for a single-phase system if the base
voltage is 7.2 kV and the base apparent power is 10 MVA.
( ) ( )
A 9 . 1388
V 7200
VA 000 , 000 , 10
184 . 5
VA 000 , 000 , 10
V 7200
2 2

Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base
I
V
S
I
Z
S
V
Z

g
For three-phase systems, we use the total or three-phase power and the line-to-line
voltage as the base. For currents and impedance values, it is common practice to convert the
system to a wye-connected network, and use the phase current and phase impedance as the bases.
Hence, the base impedance and the base current can be computed directly from the three-phase
values of the base apparent power and the line-to-line base voltage. Delta-connections for the
moment are converted to wye-connected equivalents.
Recall for wye-connections,
p LL
V V 3 , and from Equations 1.18 and 1.27 we find:
Base LL
Base
Base LL
Base
Base p
Base
Base
V
S
V
S
V
S
I current base

3 3
3
,
3 3 1
(1.26)
Base
Base LL
Base
Base p
Base
I
V
I
V
Z impedance Base
3
,

(1.27)
16
and
( )
( ) ( )
Base
Base LL
Base
Base LL
Base
Base p
Base
S
V
S
V
S
V
Z

3
2
3
2
1
2
3
3
(1.28)
EXAMPLE 1.5
A three-phase system delivers 18,000 kW to a pure resistive wye-connected load. The
line-to-line voltage at the load terminals is 108 kV. Assuming the three-phase power base is
30,000 kVA and the voltage base is 120 kV, find the following per unit quantities for the load:
a) the per unit voltage,
b) the per unit power,
c) the per unit current, and
d) the per unit impedance.
a) The line-to-line base voltage is:
kV V
Base LL
120

and the phase base voltage is:
kV
kV
V
V
Base LL
Base p
2 . 69
3
120
3

The actual line-to-neutral voltage is:
kV
kV
V
V
LL
p
4 . 62
3
108
3

The per unit voltage is:
pu
kV
kV
kV
kV
V
V
V
V
V
Base LL
LL
Base p
p
pu
900 . 0
120
108
2 . 69
4 . 62




b) The three-phase base power is:
kVA S 000 , 30
3

and the single-phase base power is:
17
kVA
kVA
S S
000 , 10
3
000 , 30
3 3
1
1

The per unit power is:
pu
VA
W
VA
W
S
P
S
P
P
Base Base
pu
600 . 0
000 , 30
000 , 18
000 , 10
6000
3
3
1
1

c) The per unit current is:
pu
pu
pu j
V
S
I
pu
pu
pu
667 . 0
900 . 0
0 . 0 600 . 0

,
_

,
_

The base current is:
( )
A
kV
kVA
V
S
I
Base LL
Base
Base
3 . 144
120 3
000 , 30
3
3

To verify the results, first calculate the actual current, which is:
A pu A
I I I
pu Base p
2 . 96 ) 667 . 0 )( 3 . 144 (


Calculate the load current from actual voltage and power:
A I I
A
kV
kVA
I
p p
p
2 . 96

2 . 96
4 . 62
000 , 6

d) The per unit impedance is:
pu j
pu
pu
I
V
Z
pu
pu
pu
0 . 0 350 . 1
667 . 0
900 . 0
+

The base impedance is:
18
( )
( )

480
30
120
2
3
2
3 1
MVA
kV
S
V
I
V
Z
Base
Base
Base
Base
Base

To verify the results, first calculate the actual impedance, which is:


648 ) 350 . 1 )( 480 ( pu
Z Z Z
pu Base p

Calculate the load resistance from actual voltage and current:


648

648
2 . 96
4 . 62

p p
p
Z Z
A
kV
Z

1.4.2 Changing the Base of Per-Unit Quantities
Often the per-unit impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a base other
than the one selected as base for the part of the system in which the component is located. Since
all impedances in any one part of a system must be expressed on the same impedance base when
making computations, it is necessary to have a means of converting per-unit impedances from
one base to another. From Equations (1.25) and (1.27) the per unit impedance can be given as:
( )( )
( )
2
3
Base LL
Base Actual p
Base
Actual p
pu
V
S Z
Z
Z
Z

(1,29)
Equation (1.29) shows that per-unit impedance is directly proportional to base power and
inversely proportional to the square of the base voltage. Therefore, to change from per-unit
impedance on a given base to per-unit impedance on a new base, the following equation applies:
2
3
3

,
_

,
_

new Base LL
old Base LL
old Base
new Base
pu old pu new
V
V
S
S
Z Z

(1.30)
Equation (1.30) is important in changing the per-unit impedance given on a particular
base to a new base. In some problems, when transformers are involved we must choose more
than one voltage base for each primary and secondary side of the transformers and one power
base for the entire system. The following examples will illustrate the procedure.
EXAMPLE 1.6
A three-phase 13.0 kV transmission line delivers 8 MVA at 13.6 kV to a resistive load.
The per phase impedance of the line is (0.01 + j0.05) p.u. on a 13.0 kV, 8 MVA base. What is
the voltage drop across the line in per unit and in volts?
a) Choose the base voltage to be 13 kV and the base power equal to 8 MVA.
The base current and the load current are:
19

0 956 . 0
3 . 355
0 6 . 339
0 6 . 339
6 . 13 3
0 . 8
3 . 355
0 . 13 3
0 . 8
pu
A
A
I
A
kV
MW
I
A
kV
MVA
I
pu Load
Load
Base

The voltage drop is calculate as:
+ +

7 . 78 0487 . 0 0478 . 0 00956 . 0 ) 05 . 0 01 . 0 )( 0 956 . 0 ( j j
Z I V
line line drop

b) The actual values for the line-to-line voltage drop and the phase voltage drop are:

7 . 78 366
3
) 0 . 13 (
) 7 . 78 0487 . 0 (
7 . 78 633 ) 0 . 13 )( 7 . 78 0487 . 0 (
V
kV
V
V kV V
p drop
LL drop

EXAMPLE 1.7
The per phase reactance of a three-phase, 220 kV, 6.25 kVA transmission line is 8.4 .
Find the reactance value in per unit, based on the rated values of the line. Convert the per unit
reactance value to a 230 kV, 7.5 kVA base.
a)
( )
( )

744 . 7
000 , 250 , 6
000 , 220
2
3
2
VA
V
S
V
Z
Base
Base LL
Base

pu
Z
X
X
Base
pu
085 . 1
744 . 7
4 . 8

b)
pu
kV
kV
kVA
kVA
pu
V
V
S
S
X X
new Base
old Base
old Base
new Base
pu old pu new
19 . 1
230
220
25 . 6
5 . 7
085 . 1
2
2

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

20
EXAMPLE 1.8
Consider the system in Figure 1.18. Find the new per-unit values for each element of the
system above based on a 2.0 MVA system base. Draw the impedance diagrams of the system.
1 MVA
11 kV
j0.1 pu
0.5 MVA
11 kV
j0.15 pu
2 MVA
11/33 kV
j0.15 pu
3 MVA
33/11 kV
j0.1 pu
2 MVA
12 kV
j0.05 pu
10 + j20

Figure 1.18. Small Power System of Example 1.7.
The per-unit values for each element of the three-phase system shown above are as follows:
Machine 1 1.00 MVA, 11 kV, Z = j0.1 pu
Machine 2 0.50 MVA, 11 kV, Z = j0.15 pu
Machine 3 2.00 MVA, 12 kV, Z = j0.05 pu
Transmission Line Z = 10 + j20
Transformer 1 2.00 MVA, 11 / 33 kV, Z = j0.15 pu
Transformer 2 3.00 MVA, 33 / 11 kV, Z = j0.10 pu

a) The power base for the entire system is 2.00 MVA. The base voltages are chosen for the
following areas as:
Zone 1 kV V
B
11
1

Zone 2 kV V
B
33
33 11
11
2

Zone 3 kV V
B
11
11 33
33
3

1 MVA
11 kV
j0.1 pu
0.5 MVA
11 kV
j0.15 pu
2 MVA
11/33 kV
j0.15 pu
3 MVA
33/11 kV
j0.1 pu
2 MVA
12 kV
j0.05 pu
10 + j20
Zone 1
11 kV
Zone 2
33 kV
Zone 3
11 kV

21
Figure 1.19. Three Voltage Zones of Example 1.7.
The per-unit values for each element of the above system can be obtained by using Equation 1.30
as follow:
Machine 1: pu j
kV
kV
MW
MW
j Z
new pu
20 . 0
11
11
0 . 1
0 . 2
10 . 0
2

,
_

Machine 2: pu j
kV
kV
MW
MW
j Z
new pu
60 . 0
11
11
5 . 0
0 . 2
15 . 0
2

,
_

Transformer 1: pu j Z
new pu
15 . 0

Transmission Line:
( )
5 . 544
0 . 2
33
2
MVA
kV
Z
Base

pu j
j
Z
pu
037 . 0
5 . 544
20

Transformer 2: pu j
kV
kV
MW
MW
j Z
new pu
067 . 0
33
33
0 . 3
0 . 2
10 . 0
2

,
_

Machine 3: pu j
kV
kV
MW
MW
j Z
new pu
06 . 0
11
12
0 . 2
0 . 2
05 . 0
2

,
_

b) The reactance diagram is shown in Figure 1.20.
L1 T1
G1
j0.2 j0.6
j0.15
G2
j0.037 j0.067
T2
G3
j0.6

Figure 1.20. Reactance Diagram of Example 1.7.