Producing Drawing A component or part drawing is termed as a production drawing, if it facilities its manufacture.

It is an authorized document to produce the component in the shop floor. It furnishes all dimensions, limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, grinding, etc., in addition to the material used. It should also mention the number of parts that are required for making of the assembled unit, of which the part is a member.

Production drawing of a component should also indicate the sub or main assembly where it will be assembled. It is necessary to prepare the production drawing of each component on a separate sheet, since a craftsman will ordinarily make one component at a time. However, in some cases, the drawings of related components may also appear on the same sheet. Figure 1.2 shows the production drawing of a jig bush.

Fig. 1

Need for a production drawing The graphic representation of a product, starts at the transformation stage of ideas into a drawing by a design engineer. A production drawing is a complete working drawing, representing all the details of the product, regarding size, shape, material, process, tools and equipment. The craftsman is completely guided by the production drawing, during the manufacture of the product. Hence, any mistake in a production drawing will result in loss of time, money and decreased productivity. Further, it is a legal document while going for subcontracting of works. Hence, a production drawing should be prepared without any scope for more than one interpretation.

The design engineer uses orthographic or pictorial views to record his ideas, free hand. These are called working sketches. These sketches are used for both the component and assembly drawings.

The working drawings are sent to the shop, in the form of blue prints, ammonia prints or other similar forms of reproduction. Therefore, the drawings must be made as tracings.

Elements of production drawing Following are the basic elements of a production drawing. 1. Format of drawing sheet, 2. Size and shape of the component, 3. Projection method, 4. Material specification and shape such as castings, forgings, plates, rounds, etc., 5. Indication of surface treatments, if any, roughness and other heat

6. Limits, fits and tolerances of size, form, and position, 7. Production method, 8. Process sheet, 9. Specification of standard components, 10. Conventions used to represent certain machine components, and 11. Inspection and testing methods.

Drawing Sheet Sizes Drawing paper and cloth are available in rolls of various widths and in standard trimmed sizes. Most of the draughting rooms use standard sheets, printed with border and title block. There are five standard sizes for drawing sheets (First choice), specified by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) SP: 46-1988, as given below. The standard sizes help save paper and are also convenient for storing.

Designation A0 A1 A2 A3 A4

Dimension (mm) 841 X 1189 594 X 841 420 X 594 297 X 420 210 X 297

Drawing sheets may be used with their longer sides positioned horizontally or vertically. The original drawing should be made on the smallest sheet, permitting the necessary clarity and resolution.

Drawing sheet layout The layout of a drawing sheet should, by the clarity and neatness of its appearance, facilities the reading of the drawing. It should also facilitate essential references to be located easily. Borders, enclosed by the edges of the trimmed sheet and the frame, limiting the drawing space shall be provided with all the sheet sizes. It is recommended that these borders have a minimum width of 20 mm for the sizes A0 and A1 and a minimum width of 10 mm for other sizes. A file margin for taking perforations may be provided on the edges, far left of the title block. It should have a minimum width of 20 mm.

Four centering marks shall be provided in order to facilitate positioning of the drawing, when reproduced or microfilmed. Two orientation marks may be provided to indicate the orientation of the drawing sheet on the drawing board.

It is recommended to provide on all drawings, a figureless metric reference graduation, with minimum length of 100 mm and divided into 10 equal parts. The metric reference graduation shall preferably be disposed symmetrically about the centring mark, near the frame in the border, with a minimum width of 5 mm.

The provision of the grid reference system (zoning) is recommended for all sizes, in order to permit easy location on the drawing, of details, additions, modifications, etc. The number of divisions should be even and be chosen in relation to the complexity of the drawing. However, the length of any side of the rectangle shall be from 25 to 75 mm. The rectangles of the grid should be referenced by means of capital letters along one edge and numerals along the other. The numbering direction may start at the sheet corner, opposite to the title block and be repeated on the opposite sides. The trimming marks may be provided in the borders, at the four comers of the sheet in order to facilitate trimming. These marks may be in the form of right angled isosceles triangles.

The pre-printed drawing sheets when used, should include the following features:

1. Title block, 2. Frame for limiting the drawing space, 3. Centring marks, and 4. Optional features:

i) metric reference graduation, ii) grid reference system, and iii) trimming marks.

Fig. 2 represents a typical layout of a drawing sheet.

Fig. 2

Title block The drawing sheet layout must also provide a title block, which should be located at the bottom right hand corner of the sheet; both for sheets positioned horizontally or vertically, with a maximum length of 170 mm. This should provide the following basic information:

1. Title of the drawing, 2. Sheet number, 3. Scale (s), 4. Symbol, denoting the method of projection, 5. Name of the firm, and 6. Initials of the staff designed, drawn, checked and approved. The direction of viewing general, with that of the block is shown in Fig. 3. block may be arranged overall size specified. the title block should correspond in drawing. A typical layout of the title However, the heading inside the title as per the convenience, within the

A production drawing may include the following additional information, located either in the drawing sheet or in the title block: 1. Job order number, 2. Surface treatment, roughness, etc., 3. Key to machining and other symbols, 4. A general note on tolerance on dimensions, not individually toleranced, 5. Reference to tools, gauges, jigs and fixtures, 6. Parts list, and 7. Alternations and revisions.

Fig. 3

Information on a drawing Every drawing should be numbered. Some companies use serial numbers such as 70524 or a number with prefix or suffix, K2-70524 or 70524-K2. Many different numbering systems are in use, in which various digits of the drawing numbers indicate different things, such as model number of the machine and the general nature or use of the part. If all the drawings are made to the same scale, the scale should be indicated in or near the title block. Otherwise, the individual scales should be indicated below the respective drawings.

General notes can be given on the working drawings to specify the tolerances of dimensions. According to the BIS SP:46-1988, Engineering drawing practice for schools and colleges; first angle projection method only, is required to be followed. Specifications regarding general notes, material, heat treatment, finish, general tolerances and number required are located on or near the title block.

 Notes should always be lettered horizontally in capital letters and begin above the leader line and may end below also. Further, notes should be brief and clear and the wording should be standard in form as shown in Fig. 3.42. The meaning of the notes in each case is given below:

 Standard abbreviations Standard abbreviations in draughting are recommended as notes to provide a brief and clear instructions. Table 3.1 provides the draughting abbreviations for general terms, Table 3.2 represents material abbreviations, whereas Table 3.3, abbreviations for rolled sections of steel.

Principles of Dimensioning Introduction A detail drawing is expected to provide not only the complete shape description of the part, but also furnish size description. This is provided in the form of distance between the surfaces, location of holes, kind of finish, type of material, etc. These features are illustrated on a drawing by the use of lines, symbols, figures, and notes, called dimensioning. Proper dimensioning requires engineering judgment and thorough knowledge of the practices and requirement of the production department. Dimensions are classified into the following types:

1. Functional dimension (F) A dimension that is essential to the function of the part. 2. Non functional dimension (NF) A dimension that is not essential to the function of the part. 3. Auxiliary dimension (AUX) A dimension given for information purpose only. It does not govern the production or inspection operations and is derived from other values shown on the drawing. An auxiliary dimension is enclosed in parenthesis and no tolerance applies to it.

Figure 1 indicates the classification of dimensions

Fig. 1 Classification of dimensions

Principles of Dimensioning The following are the basic principles of dimensioning: 1. All dimensional information necessary to define a part clearly and completely shall be shown directly on a drawing, unless this information is specified in associated documentations. 2. Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a drawing. 3. Dimensions shall be placed on the view or section that shows clearly, the corresponding features (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Placement of dimensions where the shape is best shown

4. As far as possible, on a drawing, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only, preferably in millimeters, without showing the unit symbol (mm). Unit on the drawing, however, may be shown in a note (Fig. 9). 5. No more dimensions than are necessary to define a part shall be shown on the drawing. No feature of a part shall be defined by more than one dimension in any one direction (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Placement of only necessary dimensions

6. As far as possible, dimensions should be placed outside the view (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Placement of dimensions outside the view

7. Dimensions should be represented from the visible outlines, rather than from hidden lines (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Marking of dimensions from the visible outlines

8. Dimensions should be given from a base line, a centre line of a hole, or a finished surface. Dimensioning to a centre line should be avoided, except when it passes through the center of a hole (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Avoiding dimensioning to the centre line

9. Interesting projection and dimension lines should be avoided. Were unavoidable, however, neither line should be shown with a break (Fig. 7a). Dimension line should not be used as an extension line (Fig. 7b).

A centre line or the outline of a part should not be used as a dimension line, but may be used in place of a projection line (Fig. 7c); where centre line is used as a projection line, it may be continued as a centre line.

Fig 7

10. If the space of dimensioning is insufficient, the arrow heads may be reversed and the adjacent arrow heads may be replaced by a dot (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 Dimensioning in narrow spaces

Execution of Dimensions

The elements of dimensioning include the projection line, dimension line, leader line, dimension line origin indication, its termination, notes, the dimension, etc. The various elements of dimensioning are shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Elements of dimensioning

Projection and dimension lines should be drawn as thin continuous lines. Projection lines should extend slightly beyond the respective dimension line. It should be perpendicular to the feature being dimensioned. Where necessary, however, they may be drawn obliquely, but parallel to each other in special cases, such as on tapered features (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10 Dimensioning a tapered feature

A leader line is a line referring to a feature (dimension, object, outline, etc.). Leader lines should terminate (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11 Termination of leader lines

i. with a dot, it they end within the outline of an object,

ii. with an arrow head, if they end on the outline of an object,

iii. without dot or arrow head, if they end on a dimension line. Leader lines should be included to the horizontal at an angle greater than 30.

Fig. 12 Dimensioning several arcs

Fig. 13 Unbroken dimension line

When several arcs are dimensioned, it is preferable that separate leaders be used rather than extending the leaders (Fig. 12). A dimension line should be shown unbroken, even where the feature to which it refers is shown broken (Fig. 13). Dimension lines should show distinct termination, in the form of an arrow heads or oblique strokes or where applicable, an origin indication (Fig. 14). The size of the termination should be proportionate to the size of the drawing on which it is used. One style of termination only should be used on a single drawing. However, where space is too small for an arrow head, the oblique stroke or a dot may be substituted.

Fig. 15 Dimensioning of radii

Only one arrow head termination, with its point on the arc end of the dimension line, is to be used where a radius is dimensioned (Fig.15).The arrow head termination may be either on the inside or on the outside of the feature outline, depending upon the size of the feature. Dimensions should be written on a drawing, according to one of the following two methods. Only one method should be used on any one drawing. Aligned system Dimensions should be placed parallel to the dimension lines and preferably near the middle, above and clear off the dimension line (Fig. 16a). An exception may be made where superimposed running dimensions are used (Fig. 16b).

Fig. 16 Aligned dimensioning

Dimensions should be written, so that they may be read from the bottom or from the right side of the drawing. Dimensions on oblique dimension lines should be oriented as shown in Fig. 17. Angular dimensions may be oriented as shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 17 Oblique dimensioning

Fig. 18 Angular dimensioning

Uni-directional system

Dimensions should be written so that they may be read from the bottom of the drawing. Non-horizontal dimension lines are interrupted, preferably near the middle, for the insertion of the dimension (Fig. 19). Angular dimensions may be oriented as shown in Fig. 20.

Fig. 19 Unidirectional dimensioning Fig. 20 Angular dimensioning

The placing of dimensions frequently needs adopting to varying situations. For example, dimensions may be, i. closer to a termination, to avoid having to follow a long dimension line, where only part of the dimension line needs to be shown (Fig. 21). ii. above the extension of the dimension line, beyond one of the terminations, at the end of a leader line which terminates on a dimension line; above a horizontal extension of dimension line where space does not allow placement (Fig. 8).

Dimensions out-of-scale (except where break lines are used) should be underlined with a straight thick line (Fig. 22), where feature size modification does not warrant an extensive drawing revision, to correct the feature scale.

Fig. 21 Dimensioning closer to termination Fig. 22 Indication of out-of-scale dimension

Arrangement of dimensions The arrangement of dimensions on a drawing must indicate clearly the design purpose. Generally, it is the result of a combination of various design requirements. Chain dimensioning This consists of chains of simple dimensions being used where the possible accumulation of tolerances does not endanger (Fig. 23) the functional requirement of the part.

Fig. 23 Chain dimensioning

Parallel dimensioning This consists of placement of a number of single dimension lines, parallel to one another and spaced to write the dimension easily (Fig. 24). Superimposed running dimensioning may be used (Fig. 16b) where there are space limitations.

Fig. 24 Parallel dimensioning

Dimensioning from a common feature may be executed as parallel dimensioning or as superimposed running dimensioning. Combined dimensioning Single dimensions, chain dimensioning and dimensioning from a common feature may be combined on a drawing (Fig. 25).

Fig. 25 Combined dimensioning

The dimension figures should be placed approximately at the centre of the dimension line, but the dimension figures in parallel dimensioning should be staggered (Fig. 26).

Fig. 26 Staggering dimensions

Where an over-all dimension is shown, the intermediate dimension is redundant and need not be shown (Fig. 27).

Fig. 27 Redundant dimensions

The first row of dimensions should be placed atleast 10 mm from the view and the successive rows should be atleast 6 mm from the first row (Fig. 28). Dimension figures should not be placed over the lines of sectioned areas unless necessary; in which case, clear space should be provided for the dimension figures (Fig. 29).

Fig. 28 Spacing of dimensions Fig. 29 Dimensioning sectioned areas

Angles are dimensioned with arcs and extension lines, and the dimension should not be placed inside the angle cut (Fig. 30).

Fig. 30 Dimensioning an angle

Dimensions of lengths and relevant diameters should be given in the same view in the drawing as far as possible (Fig. 31).

Fig. 31 Dimensioning lengths and related diameters

Dimensions which go together, for example, the diameter and depth of a hole, the width and length of a groove, should be entered in the same view as far as practicable (Fig. 32). Dimensioning by co-ordinates The sizes of the holes and their co-ordinate dimensions may be indicated directly on the drawing or they may be conveniently presented in a tabular form as shown in Fig. 33.

Fig. 32 Dimensioning a hole

Fig. 33 Co-ordinate dimensioning

Special Indications In addition to the features being dimensioned; the nature of the feature may also be reflected while dimensioning, for enhanced clarity of the detail.

Fig. 34 Shape identification symbols

Shape identification symbols Symbols are used with dimensions to indicate shape identification, thus improving drawing interpretation. The applicable indication (symbol) should precede the dimension (Fig. 34). Diameters Dimensions of diameters should be placed on the most appropriate view to ensure clarity and should be preceded by the symbol in order to distinguish the diameter from a length. Figure 35 indicates the method of dimensioning diameters.

Fig. 35 Dimensioning diameters

When centre lines cross each other in a view, at the intersection point, the longer dashes only should be intersected symmetrically (Fig. 36).

Fig. 36 Centre lines at the crossing points

Chords, arcs, angles and radii Dimensions of chords, arcs and angles should be as shown in Fig. 37.

Fig. 37 Dimensioning of chords, arcs and angles

Where the centre of an arc falls outside the limits of the space available, the dimension line of the radius should be broken or interrupted, according to whether or not it is necessary to locate the centre (Fig. 15). Where the size of the radius can be derived from other dimensions, it shall be indicated with a radius arrow and the symbol R, without an indication of the value. Equidistant features Where equidistant features or uniformly arranged elements are part of the drawing specification, dimensioning may be simplified as follows: 1. Linear spacings may be dimensioned as shown in Fig. 38 (one space may be dimensioned to avoid possibility of confusion).

Fig. 38 Dimensioning equidistant features

2. Angular spacing of holes and other features may be dimensioned as shown in Fig. 39.

Fig. 39 Dimensioning equispaced angular feature

Chamfers and counter-sinks Chamfers may be dimensioned as shown in Fig. 40, and counter-sinks, as shown in Fig. 41.

Fig. 40 Dimensioning champers

Fig. 41 Dimensioning counter-sinks

Tapered features Tapered features are dimensioned, either by specifying the diameters at either end and the length, or the length, one of the diameters and the taper or taper angle (Fig. 42a). A slope or flat taper is defined as the rise pr unit length and is dimensioned by the ratio of the difference between the heights at the ends to its length (Fig. 42b).

Fig. 42 Dimensioning tapered features

Screw threads Screw threads are always specified with proper designation. The nominal diameter is preceded by the letter M. The useful length of the threaded portion should be dimensioned as shown in Fig. 43. While dimensioning the internal threads, the length of the drilled hole should also be dimensioned.

Fig. 43 Dimensioning screw threads

Keyways

Dimensioning of keyways, both external and internal, is followed as shown in Fig. 44. Figure 44a shows the method of dimensioning, as recommended for the keyway on a shaft, located at its end and Fig. 44b, for keyway located at some intermediate position. Figure 44c represents the dimensioning facilitate accurate measurement of the given dimensions.

Fig. 44 Dimensioning keyways

Spherical features Figure 45 represents correct and incorrect method of dimensioning a spherical feature. Here too, the dimensioning requirement is measurement feasibility.

Fig. 45 Dimensioning spherical features

Quality Control In the bygone era, quality control consisted of inspection of goods produced and finally picking the good ones. Later it was realized that during the manufacture, the products (semi-finished or unfinished) could be inspected so that the final quality cost may be reduced.

This leads to what is called total quality control and Kaizen approach to quality maintenance. International organization for standards (ISO), Geneva comprising of representation by over 100 countries, set up a technical committee for quality management and quality assurance. System standards were finalized and released as ISO-9000 series in 1987. These standards aim to document/implement company wide quality assurance programmes that lead to certain level of consistency in product service characteristics. These porgrammes are bottom-up programmes involving every individual, unlike earlier top-down procedures. They are meant not just to control product quality, but to maintain its uniformity and predictability.

An organization, should attempt to fulfil the following while aiming to adopt ISO-9000: a) to improve customer satisfaction, b) to increase competitiveness, c) to reduce the cost of quality. Any organization, production/service oriented, has to setup a short or long term implementation programme by constituting a steering committee chaired by a senior executive. This committee is responsible for coordinating quality improvement process activities through the plant functions.

Definition of ISO-9000 series ISO-9000 is the most comprehensive model for quality assurance covering design/development, production, installation and service. This comprises of four series.

ISO-9001 is a quality system model for quality assurance in design/development, production and installation.

ISO-9002 is a quality system model for quality assurance in production and installation.

ISO-9003 is a quality system model for quality assurance in final inspection test.

ISO-9004 is a quality system model for quality management and quality system elements and guide lines.

Why ISO certification? Company may not be able to export its products without ISO-9000. Streamlining of operations and control of waste, rework, etc. is the byproduct impact (direct cost reduction benefits). ISO 9000 is a powerful marketing weapon. The organization will have an edge over other suppliers in domestic market also.

It is a credibility passport which says that the company meets international standards in designing/developing, producing, installing and service the products it supplies. ISO-9000 facilities mutual recognition of any product legally produced or marketed in one country to be accepted in principle in a another country. ISO-9000 series registration lays the foundations on which wise management must relentlessly improve to become and remain customer sensitive, high quality and low cost company.

IS 14000 The member countries when adopt the ISO-9000 series, different numbers are given to the quality models. When the Bureau of Indian Standards implemented ISO-9000 series in toto, the standards are in family of IS-14000 with IS-4001 to Is-4004. For a quality consciousness, any organization whether production/service oriented, should document the procedures used and get them audited and inspected at regular intervals whether the aim is to get the certification or not.